Raymond Dart and

the Taung Child

Australian-born
anatomist Raymond
Dart is shown here
with the first known
specimen of
Australopithecus
africanus, which was
unearthed at a lime
quarry near Taung,
South Africa, in 1924.
Dart was the first to
examine the skull and
recognize that it
represented an early
stage in human
evolution, although
his findings were not
fully accepted until
the 1940s.
Louis Leakey with
Zinjanthropus

British-Kenyan
paleoanthropologist
Louis Leakey examines
the skull of the early
human species
Australopithecus boisei
(originally known as
Zinjanthropus boisei),
right, next to the skull
of a chimpanzee. British
paleoanthropologist
Mary Leakey, wife of
Louis, discovered the
1.8-million-year-old
skull in the Olduvai
Gorge of northern
Tanzania in July 1959.
It was the first
Australopithecus boisei
skull ever found. The
species earned the
nickname “Nutcracker
Man” because of its
especially massive face,
jaws, and molars.
Lucy

In 1974 American
paleoanthropologist
Donald Johanson
discovered the skeleton
of “Lucy,” a 3.2-million-
year-old female of the
early human species
Australopithecus
afarensis, at Hadar,
Ethiopia. Until the late
1990s, Lucy’s was the
most complete skeleton
of an australopithecine
ever found.
Australopithecines were
primitive humans that
first evolved over 4.4
million years ago. Lucy’s
pelvis and leg bones,
similar to those of
modern humans, indicate
that she regularly walked
upright.
Homo rudolfensis

In 1972 in East Turkana,

Kenya, a research team
led by Kenyan
paleoanthropologist
Richard Leakey
discovered this 1.8-
million-year-old skull.
British-Kenyan zoologist
Meave Leakey (Richard’s
wife) reconstructed the
skull, shown here, from
over 150 fragments of
bone. Because the size
and several anatomical
features of the skull
differed from those of
other early humans
known at the time,
scientists eventually
classified it as belonging
to a new species, Homo
rudolfensis.
Homo erectus
Skull

Homo erectus, or
“upright man,” had
a larger brain,
flatter face, and
taller body than
earlier human
species.
Anthropologists
believe that Homo
erectus probably
evolved in Africa
and then spread to
Asia. It lived from
about 1.8 million
years ago to as
recently as 30,000
years ago.
EARLY
AGRICULTURAL
TOOLS

Humans began farming

about 12,000 years ago.
The ability to control
their food supply freed
people from a nomadic
lifestyle, which allowed
for the beginning of cities
and towns. These early
farming tools date from
about 6000 BC. The
picture portrays an axe
(bottom), used for
clearing; flint sickles
(left), used for harvesting
cereal crops; a flat rock
and rounded stone
(center), used for
grinding flour; and
perforated clay slabs
(upper right), probably
used to ventilate bread
ovens.
CRADLE OF
CIVILIZATION

Known as the “cradle

of civilization,”
Mesopotamia served
as the site for some of
the world’s earliest
settlements. Named
after the Greek word
meaning “between the
rivers,” Mesopotamia
occupied the area
between the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers
that now constitutes
the greater part of
Iraq. The Sumerian
civilization, which
began in the region in
about 3500 BC, built a
canal system and the
world’s first cities.
TIGRIS RIVER,
IRAQ

The Tigris River

as it flows
through Iraq.
Present-day Iraq
occupies the
greater part of
the ancient land
of Mesopotamia,
the plain between
the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers.
KINGDOM OF
SUMER

Sumer was the

birthplace of the first
known civilization in
the world. It formed
around the region
where the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers flow
in relatively parallel
courses toward the
Persian Gulf. It was
later absorbed by the
Babylonian
civilization. The region
is also part of what is
known as the Fertile
Crescent, so named
because the people
who lived in this
crescent-shaped area
developed rich,
irrigated farmlands.
ZIGGURAT AT UR

Built during the

reign of Ur-
Nammu (2113-
2095 BC, this
ziggurat
(mudbrick
religious temple
towers) honored
the Sumerian
moon god Nanna,
the ziggurat dates
from the 2100s
BC and stands 21
m (70 ft) high.
SUMERIAN
MEDICAL TEXT

The culture and

language of ancient
Sumer remained a
secret until the
mid-1850s when
archaeologists
began uncovering
vast caches of clay
tablets, such as this
one, in Iraq. This
tablet is over 4000
years old and
contains the world’s
oldest-known
medical handbook.
RUINS OF
BABYLON

The ancient city of

Babylon, located east
of the Euphrates River
near present-day
Baghdād, developed
in stages and reached
its peak of expansion
during the Neo-
Babylonian dynasty
under
Nebuchadnezzar II.
The city was the
capital of a kingdom
encompassing a large
part of southwest Asia
and was the largest
city in the known
world.
STELE OF
HAMMURABI

The Code of Hammurabi is

engraved on the black
basalt of this stele, which is
2.25 m (7 ft 5 in) high and
was made in the first half
of the 18th century BC. The
top portion, shown here,
depicts Hammurabi with
Shamash, the sun god.
Shamash is presenting to
Hammurabi a staff and
ring, which symbolize the
power to administer the
law. Prior to Hammurabi’s
reign (1792-1750 BC),
Babylon was just one of
several competing
kingdoms in Mesopotamia.
Hammurabi, with the help
of his impressive
Babylonian army,
conquered his rivals and
established a unified
Mesopotamia. He proved to
be as great an
administrator as he was a
general.
ASSYRIA

Assyria flourished in
the region the ancient
Greeks called
Mesopotamia. An
Assyrian king
established what was
probably the first
centrally organized
empire in the Middle
East, between 1813
and 1780 BC. In
defending their
territory from
nomadic invasions,
Assyrians gained a
reputation in the
ancient Middle East
for being relentless
and ruthless warriors.
NEBUCHADNEZZAR
II

During his 43-year

reign (605-562 BC),
Nebuchadnezzar II
expanded the
kingdom of Babylonia
by conquering much
of southwestern Asia.
He also captured
Jerusalem, taking
many of the captive
Jews to Babylon.
Nebuchadnezzar is
best known for his
ambitious building
projects, which made
Babylon into one of
the most magnificent
cities of the ancient
world.
PHOENICIAN
MERCHANT
GALLEY

The Phoenicians
were the most
able shipbuilders
and sailors of the
ancient
Mediterranean
world. Merchant
ships, such as the
one pictured
here, enabled
them to trade
throughout the
Mediterranean
Sea.
MESOPOTAMIA
AND THE PERSIAN
EMPIRE

Mesopotamia and the

Persian Empire
Mesopotamia, located in
a region that included
parts of what is now
eastern Syria,
southeastern Turkey, and
most of Iraq, lay between
two rivers, the Tigris and
the Euphrates. The name
Mesopotamia is a Greek
word meaning “between
the rivers.” Its oldest
known communities date
from 7000 BC. Several
civilizations flourished in
the region. In the 6th
century BC it became part
of the Persian Empire,
the largest empire in the
world up to that time.
CYRUS THE GREAT

In the 6th
century BC
Cyrus the
Great
established
the Persian
Empire as
the most
powerful
state in the
world.
DARIUS I

This stone carving depicts

Darius I, right, also
known as Darius the
Great, and his son and
successor Xerxes I.
Darius I ruled the Persian
Empire from 522 to 486
BC. He secured the outer
borders of the empire
and reformed its internal
organization, built
highways, encouraged
commerce, and organized
a postal system. Darius
allowed freedom of
worship among the many
different ethnic groups
contained within the
empire’s vast borders,
earning their respect and
goodwill.
XERXES I

Persian king Xerxes

I inherited his
throne after the
death of his father
Darius I. His
ambitious plans to
expand the Persian
empire into Europe
never materialized.
The huge naval
fleet he assembled
for the invasion lost
a decisive battle at
the bay of Salamís
in 480 BC, forcing
Xerxes to retreat.
REMNANTS OF
THE PERSIAN
EMPIRE

Persian king Cyrus

the Great founded
the Persian Empire
in 550 BC. Its
capital was
Persepolis, which is
located in the
mountainous region
of southwestern
Iran. The high, dry
climate has
preserved much of
the architecture,
and archaeologists
have uncovered
and restored many
of the ruins.
EGYPTIAN
PYRAMIDS

Located on the west

bank of the Nile River
on the outskirts of
Cairo, the pyramids at
Giza, Egypt, rank as
some of the best-
known monuments in
the world. The ancient
Egyptians constructed
the pyramids to serve
as royal tombs. Built
without the use of
cranes, pulleys, or
lifting tackle, the
massive structures
stand as testaments
to the engineering
skills of their makers.
TEMPLE OF
HATSHEPSUT

The temple of
Hatshepsut is a rock-
cut tomb and
mortuary temple built
in the 15th century BC
at Dayr al Baḩrī near
Thebes. It was
designed by the royal
architect Senemut for
the female pharaoh
Hatshepsut. The
temple consists of
three colonnaded
terraces connected by
ramps. The
surrounding area was
planted with trees and
flowers during
Hatshepsut’s reign
and for many years
after.
EGYPTIAN MUMMY

The ancient Egyptians are

believed to be the first
people to practice
embalming, in which a
dead body is artificially
preserved to retard the
decaying process. The
Egyptians believed that it
was necessary to
preserve a body in order
to allow the soul to
survive. Ancient
embalming methods
included covering the
dead body with carbonate
of soda and injecting
natural substances such
as balsamic herbs into its
cavities before wrapping
the corpse with cloths,
creating a mummy. Today
embalmers use prepared
chemical substances to
preserve a body for
funereal viewing and to
prevent the spread of
infection.
TOMB OF
AMONHERKHEPSEF

In ancient Egypt,
scribes used
hieroglyphs to
record state
documents and
important historical
events. Hieroglyphs
with religious
purposes also were
painted on tomb
walls and wooden
coffins, such as
these hieroglyphs
from the tomb of
Queen
Amonherkhepsef,
located in the
Valley of the
Queens.
INDUS VALLEY
CIVILIZATION

In the Indus valley area

now known as Pakistan,
an advanced Bronze Age
culture rose up about
2500 BC and lasted for
nearly 1000 years.
Scholars do not know
how it began or whether
its people were related to
those who now occupy
Southwest Asia. Nomadic
tribes called Aryans
invaded the Indus River
valley, probably from the
region north of the
Caspian Sea, in 1500 BC.
The Aryan culture
became dominant in the
area, eclipsing that of its
predecessors.
INDUS VALLEY
ART

The Indus Valley

civilization thrived in
the area of present-
day Pakistan and
western India
between about 2500
and 1700 BC. A
farming community,
the civilization created
artwork associated
with agricultural life.
Found at the
archaeological site of
Mohenjo-Daro, this
ceramic figure depicts
two oxen pulling a
woman in a cart.
STONE TABLETS
FROM MOHENJO-
DAR0

These stone tablets

were found at
Mohenjo-Daro, an
archaeological site
in modern Pakistan.
The city of
Mohenjo-Daro
flourished during
the Indus Valley
civilization (2500?-
1700 BC).
Merchants used the
stone tablets, which
show examples of
pictographic
writing, to mark
their goods.
CHINA FLAG

China, officially the Peopl

e’s Republic of China
(Zhonghua Renmin
Gongheguo), country in
East Asia, the world’s
largest country by
population and one of the
largest by area,
measuring about the
same size as the United
States. The Chinese call
their country Zhongguo,
which means “Central
Country” or “Middle
Kingdom.” The name
China was given to it by
foreigners and is
probably based on a
corruption of Qin
(pronounced “chin”), a
Chinese dynasty that
ruled during the 3rd
century BC.
CONFUCIUS

During the age of

Chinese feudalism, when
intrigue and vice were
rampant, Confucius
taught principles that
embraced high ethical
and moral standards. He
urged the feudal leaders
to live by those standards
and serve as examples to
their subjects. An
aristocrat of the 6th
century BC, Confucius
was China’s first great
philosopher. His
teachings about ethics
and the role of
individuals in society
form the 12-volume
Lunyu (The Analects).
Respect for tradition and
for elders underlies much
of Confucius’s instruction.
His work helped define
Chinese culture for more
than 2,000 years.
CIVIL SERVICE
EXAMINATION

This 17th-century
painting shows a Song
dynasty bureaucrat
presiding over a civil
service examination.
During the Song and
throughout later
centuries, China’s
political structure and
the resulting domestic
order depended upon
local elites to serve as
bureaucrats who
managed institutions
and helped fund
public works.
PALACE OF
KNOSSOS

The ancient city of

Knossos was a center
of the Minoan
civilization, an
advanced society on
Crete named after
Minos, a legendary
Cretan king. Skilled in
such fields as
engineering and
architecture, the
Minoans constructed
the palace at Knossos
in 1700 BC. A serious
fire at least three
centuries later caused
the collapse of the
palace and
foreshadowed the
subsequent decline of
the city.
ACROPOLIS,
ATHENS. GREECE

The Acropolis, a massive

limestone hill where a
fortified citadel was built,
dominates Athens. Some
of the world’s most
famous classical
structures are located at
the site. These buildings
include the Parthenon (a
Doric temple built for
Athena, the goddess of
wisdom), the Propylaea,
and the Erechtheum.
They were constructed
during the Golden Age of
Athens (5th century BC)
under the rule of the
famous Athenian
statesman Pericles.
ATHENIAN EMPIRE

Athens dominated
the Greek city-
states in the 5th
century BC, leading
the Delian League
and counting other
city-states as allies.
Rival Sparta led the
smaller Spartan
Confederacy. The
two sides fought in
the Peloponnesian
War (431-404 BC),
and Athens lost,
leaving it
temporarily
weakened.
ROMULUS AND
REMUS

Left to drown at
the edge of the
flooding Tiber
River, Romulus
and Remus were
found and raised
by a wolf. As
men, the brothers
returned to the
spot where they
had been
abandoned.
There, they
founded the city
of Rome.
ROMAN WOMEN

Within the Roman family,

women played an
important role in
childrearing and the
management of the
household. Part of their
duties included control
over slaves who
performed many
domestic tasks. This
scene from a Roman
mural found in the
ancient city of
Herculaneum depicts
several women with their
slave hairdressers.
Roman women were
noted for their strength
and loyalty, but also for
their social
independence.
GAIUS JULIUS
CAESAR

One of the most

influential political
and military leaders
in history, Gaius
Julius Caesar
helped establish the
vast Roman Empire.
Caesar’s triumph in
a civil war in the
40s BC made him
the absolute ruler
of Rome, but
political jealousies
among his
opponents led to
his assassination.
CAESAR’S De bello
Gallico

Roman general
Julius Caesar
wrote accounts of
his military
campaigns in
Gaul, known as
De bello Gallico
(The Gallic Wars).
The accounts are
admired for their
clarity of
expression.
Pictured is a
12th-century
manuscript copy
of this work.
POMPEY THE
GREAT

Pompey the Great, an

accomplished military
leader, formed a
governing alliance with
Roman general Julius
Caesar and Roman
statesman Marcus
Licinius Crassus. Known
as the first triumvirate,
the coalition was formed
in 60 BC in the wake of
civil wars. Caesar’s
ambition to win sole
political control
eventually destroyed the
triumvirate, and Pompey
and his supporters were
defeated.
MARCUS LICINIUS
CRASSUS

Roman politician
Marcus Licinius
Crassus was originally
a follower of Sulla and
made so much money
buying up the
property of people
Sulla had executed
that he became one of
the richest men in
Rome. Crassus
eventually allied
himself with Roman
general Pompey the
Great and Roman
statesman Julius
Caesar to form the
First Triumvirate in 60
BC.
ROMAN GAUL, AD
50

Julius Caesar’s
conquests in the Gallic
Wars helped Rome to
gain control over the
whole territory of
Gaul, a region that
stretched beyond the
borders of modern
France. Gaul became
an important
economic center for
the Romans and also
proved useful in
protecting the
northwestern frontiers
of Roman territory.
This map shows the
extent of Gaul in AD
50, nearly a century
after the death of
Julius Caesar.
DEATH OF JULIUS
CAESAR

The growing power of

Julius Caesar, who
assumed the title of
dictator for life,
threatened the
prestige of many
members of the
Roman Senate. On
March 15 in 44 BC a
group of senators
assassinated Caesar.
The story of the
assassination has
become the subject of
many plays and other
works of art, including
this painting by Italian
Vincenzo Camuccini.