Fundamentals of Electric

Circuits
 An Electrical System

Transmission system

Source Control Load

1) Source – to provide energy for the electrical system

– can be voltage source or current source
2) Transmission system – conducts the energy from source to load

3) Control apparatus – to control the flow of energy

4) Load – to absorb electrical energy supplied by source

Ideal voltage sources
Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1,
2.2

Various representations of an electrical system

Figure 2.2

2-1
 Symbol for ideal current source
Figure 2.3

By convention : +ve current flow out of a voltage

thru +ve terminal

Figure 2.3, 2.4

Symbols for dependent sources

Figure 2.4

2-2
Some Definitions
Electrical network – a collection of elements thru which current flows

Branch – any portion of a circuit with two terminals connected to it. A branch may
consist of one or more circuit elements.

Node – the junction of two or more branches

Definition of a branch
Figure 2.5

Figure 2.5,
2.6

Definitions of node and supernode

Figure 2.6

2-3
 Figure 2.7, 2.8
Definition of a loop
Figure 2.7

Definition of a mesh
Figure 2.8

2-4
Illustration of Kirchhoff’s current law Demonstration of KCL
Figure 2.11 Figure 2.13

Figure 2.11,
2.13

2-5
Electric Charge and Current

- An electric system transmits energy due to movement of electric charge.

- So fundamental electric quantity is charge – smallest amount of charge- electron

- Electrical current – time rate of charge of charge passing a predetermined area

Example 1
Determine current given charge suppose that charge is given by

For current to flow, there must exist a closed circuit.

i = current flowing in closed circuit

Note : Current flowing from source to load is the same as current flowing from load to source
- No current is lost around closed circuit
- This principle is known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
KCL state that the sum of current at a node must equal to zero, or

For node 1

Define : current entering a node as –ve

current leaving a node as +ve

Node 1
KCL :
Exercise
Voltage and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
- change moving in an electric circuit given rise to a current.
- So it must take some work, or energy for the charge to move between two points in a circuit.
- Total work per unit charge associated with the motion of charge between two points is called
VOLTAGE
- Definition :

- The voltage, or potential difference, between two points in a circuit indicates the energy
required to move charge from one point to the other
- The direction or polarity of the voltage related to whether energy is being dissipated or
generated
- as in case of current, energy in the system is not lost or the sum of
voltages associated with sources must equal the sum of the load voltages
The net voltage around a closed circuit is zero
– KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)
- Introduce reference (ground) voltage

- Voltage V2 is the difference between two node voltages Va and

Vb
V2 = Va – Vb

- Select any mode as the reference node, so all node voltages may be referenced to this
reference voltage.

- In figure, select node b as reference (normally assign 0V at reference)

So, Vb = 0V
V1 = 1.5V
V2 = Vab = Va –Vb = Va – 0 = Va
but Va and V1 are the same so V1 = V2
Exercise 1
Determine unknown voltage V2

Vs = 12V
V1 = 6V
V3 = 1V

KVL: -Vs + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
V2 = 5V
V4 = 5V
Exercise 2
Vs = 12V, Vs2 = -4V
1

V2 = 2V , V3 = 6V
V5 = 12V
Find V1 and V4 ?
1

KVL : - V2 + Vs2 – V4 = 0
V4 = -V2 +Vs2

- Vs1 - V1 +V2 +V3 = 0

1
Electrical Power
- Power is defined as work per unit time
- P = work = work x charge
time charge time
= voltage x current

P = VI Watts (W)

- Power is a signal signed quantity – positive power

– negative power
- Positive Power = power dissipated i P = vi (power dissipated)
+
v
−
i
- Negative Power = power generated + P = vi (power generated)
v
−
Exercise

+ +V 1 −
Load 1
VB = 12V
+ V1 = 8V
Load 2
V B V2− V2 = 4V
− I = 0.1A

Compute power dissipated (generated) by each element Pgenerated = Pdissipated?

Resistance and Ohm’s Law
- When current flows thru a wire/other circuit elements, it encounters resistance
- This causes energy to be dissipated (heat)
- According to Ohm’s Law
V = IR
- Voltage is proportional to the current flowing thru it
R ≡ Ohms (Ω) 1Ω=1V
A
- The resistance of a material depends on Resistivity (ρ) ; the inverse called conductivity (σ)
- For a cylindrical resistance element, resistance is proportional to length of sample, l , and
inversely proportional to its cross – sectional area A and conductivity σ

A R=l
l σA
- Convenient to define conductance of circuit element as the inverse of its resistance, used
symbol G
G=I Siemen (S)
R
Thus ohms law can be written as
I = GV (V = IR = I )
G

- For resistors, in addition to resistance in ohm, the max allowable power dissipation (power
rating) is specified. Exceeding this power rating could cause overheating and burn out.

- Power dissipated in R
P = IV = I . IR
= I²R
= V²
R
Example
Determine the minimum resistor size that can be connected to a given battery w/o exceeding the
resistor’s 1/4W power rating

Solution
Power rating = 0.25W
Battery voltage = 1.5V

+
1.5 V R (1/4 W)
−

P = V²
R
0.25 ≥ (1.5)²
R
R ≥ (1.5)² = 9 Ω So min R = 9 Ω
0.25
Exercise
i B

+
VB −

Determine i B and power supplied by battery if:i1 = 0.2 mA

i2 = 0.4 mA
i3 = 1.2 mA
VB = 3 V
Open and Short Circuit
Short circuit :- 1) R 0

2) V = 0 for any i
3) Allow unimpeded current

i
+
V
−

Open Circuit :- 1) R
8

2) I = 0

+ R 8
V
− i = 0 for any V
 Series Resistors
i R1
-
by KVL
+ V1 -
+ 1.5 = V1 + V2
+ V2 R2
1.5 V − = iR1 + iR2
-
= i(R1 + R2)

Series Circuit

Def : Two or more circuit elements are said to be in series if the current flow from one
elements exclusively flows into the next element. In the example, to the battery, the
resistors appear an a single equivalent resistance,
REQ where REQ = R1 + R 2
So, for series resistance
Voltage Divider
- Closely tied to series resistors
- Source voltage divides among the resistors in series according to KVL
i R1
V = i (R1 + R2+R3)
+ V1 -
+ V = i REQ
+ V2 R2
V − i= V
- REQ
- V3 +
R3
- We can write the voltage across each R

V1 = iR1 = R1 V
REQ
V2 = iR2 = R2 V
REQ
V3 = iR3 = R3 V
REQ
- The general form of the voltage divider with N series resistors and a voltage source

Vn = Rn Vs
R1 + R2 +…….Rn +….+RN

- Ex:
i R1 Determine V3
+ V1 - + R1 = 10 ohm
+ R2 V2
Vs − R2 = 6 ohm
- V3 + -
R3= 8 ohm
R3
Vs = 3V
V3 = R3 Vs = 8 x 3 = 1V V3 = iR3 = 1 (8) = 1V
REQ 24 8
-Vs + V1 + V2 + V3 = 0
Vs = i (R1 + R2 + R3)
Vs = i (24)
i =1A
8
Parallel Resistors

Def : Two or more circuit elements are said to be in parallel if the elements share the
same terminals. From KVL , it follows that the elements will have the same
voltage.

Ex:
i1 i2 i3 +
R1 R2 R3 V
is
-

KCL requires that

is = i1 + i2 + i3
ohm’s law
i1 = V , i2 = V, i3 = V
R1 R2 R3
so is = V 1 + 1 + 1 = V 1
R1 R2 R3 REQ
 1= 1+1+1
Where REQ R1 R2 R3

1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ….... + 1
REQ R1 R2 R3 RN

1
1 + 1 + …… + 1
or REQ =
R1 R2 RN

- Note : for parallel combinations, normally indicate R1 // R2 // R3 …….

Current Divider

From circuit , i1 = V, i2 = V, i3 = V
R1 R2 R3

ohm’s law: V = i REQ

1
i1 = i REQ = i 1 + 1 + 1
R1
R1 R2 R3
R1
1
= i
R1
1+1+1
R1 R2 R3
 1
i
i REQ R2
i2 = =
R2 1+1+1
R1 R2 R3

1
i
i REQ R3
i3 = R3 = 1+1+1
R1 R2 R3

1
So : Rn
in = is
1 + 1 +….. + 1
R1 R2 Rn
Ex:
i1 i2 i3 -
R1 R2 R3 V
Is
+

Determine i1 , R1 = 10 Ω
R2 = 2 Ω
R3 = 20 Ω
Is = 4 A

1 1
R1 10 8
Is = (4)
i1 = = A
1+1 +1 1+1 +1 13
R1 R2 R3 10 2 20
Ex: 1 kΩ R1

+ +
+ 1 kΩ V3 1 kΩ + V3 R2//R3
5V − Vs −
- -

Determine V3