RESEARCH DESIGNS & STANDARDS

ORGANISATION (R.D.S.O.)

SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

-MAHENDRA KUMAR RAWAT

1
 Acknowledgement

It is our privilege to express our sincerest regards to our project coordinator, for their
valuable inputs, able guidance , encouragement , whole-hearted cooperation and
constructive criticism throughout the duration of our project. We deeply express our
sincere thanks to all my Respected professionals for encouraging and allowing us to
present the project on the various topic at our department premises for the partial
fulfillment of the requirements leading to the award of Summer training Certificate.

We take this opportunity to thank all our lecturers who have directly or indirectly helped
our project. We pay our respects and love to our parents and all other family members
and friends for their love and encouragement through out our career. Last but not the
least we express our thanks to our friends for their cooperation and support.

-mAHENDRA

2
 PREFACE
At very outset of the prologue it becomes imperative to insist
that summer training is an integral part of the engineering
curriculum. Training allows us to gain an insight into the
practical aspects of the various topics, with which we come
across while pursuing our B.Tech i.e., summer training gives us
practical implementation of various topics we already have
learnt and will learn in near future. Vocational training always
emphasizes on logic and common sense instead of theoretical
aspects of subject. Training has misinterpreted by most of us as
a platform for project performance. Industrial training in true
sense has been included in curriculum to make student well
versed with the technical procedure of various industries, the
basic criteria for management of various resources in a company
or industry.
This report is prepared to provide detailed report on design of
reinforced earth wall ad its importance in railway construction
and various tests on soil
The educational institutions sole aim by industrial training is to
improve the technical knowledge and to have a hand on
experienced to make them realistic in thinking, to understand
the procedure for manufacturing keeping mind the minute detail
which will benefit the customer like no learning is proper
without implementation. On my part, I pursued five weeks
training at RDSO,LUCKNOW. The training involved study if
various departments of the organizations per the time logically
scheduled and well planned given to us.

3
 CONTENTS….
•1. TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST
2. COMPACTION TEST
3. RELATIVE DENSITY TEST
4. LIQUID LIMIT TEST
5. PLASTIC LIMIT TEST
6. PLASTICITY INDEX
7. SHRINKAGE LIMIT
8. FREE SWELL INDEX OF SOIL
9. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
10. NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT
11. ABRASION TEST
12. IMPACT TEST
13. WATER ABSORPTION TEST
14. GRAIN-SIZE TEST

4
 TRIAXIAL SHEAR TEST

A triaxial shear test is a common method to

measure the mechanical properties of many
deformable solids, especially soil (e.g., sand, clay)
and rock, and other granular materials or
powders. There are several variations on the test.
In a triaxial shear test, stress is applied to a sample
of the material being tested in a way which results
in stresses along one axis being different from the
stresses in perpendicular directions

Significance of Triaxial Testing

The first stage simulates in the laboratory the in-situ condition that soil at different depths is
subjected to different effective stresses. Consolidation will occur if the pore water pressure
which develops upon application of confining pressure is allowed to dissipate..
1. During the shearing process, the soil sample experiences axial strain, and either volume
change or development of pore water pressure occurs.
2. The magnitude of shear stress acting on different planes in the soil sample is different.
3. When at some strain the sample fails, this limiting shear stress on the failure plane is called
the shear strength.

ADVANTAGES:-
• The soil samples are subjected to uniform stresses and strains.
• Different combinations of confining and axial stresses can be applied.
• Drained and undrained tests can be carried out.
• Pore water pressures can be measured in undrained tests.
• The complete stress-strain behaviour can be determined.

5
 Aim
To determine shear strength parameters of the given soil sample by conducting unconsolidated
undrained (UU) triaxial shear test.

Theory And Application

Triaxial testing is a test used to measure the shear parameters of a given soil. The test is
performed on a cylindrical soil/rock samples. This test is considered to be the most
conveniently available conditions to suit the field situations.

Apparatus Required
•Triaxial testing machine complete with triaxial cell
•Water pressure unit with hand pump
•Provong ring
•Dial gauge
•Rubber membranes
•Membrane stretcher
•Sample trimming apparatus
•Bins for moisture content determinations
•Balance and box of weights
•Drying oven

PROCEDURE
• Trim the soil specimen:- Using the trimming apparatus if necessary the trimmed specimen
should be 76.2 mm long and 38.1 mm in diameter.
• Diameter and the length:- Diameter and the length are measured at not less than 3 places and
the average values are used for computation.
• Weight of the specimen (W1):-. Note the weight of the specimen (W1). The specimen is then
enclosed in a 38.1 mm diameter and about 100 mm long rubber membrane, using the
membrane stretcher.
• Spreading back the ends of the membrane over the ends of the stretcher and applying suction
between the stretcher and the rubber membranes does by inhalation.
• The membrane and stretcher are then easily slide over the specimen, the suction is released
and membrane is unrolled from the ends of the stretcher.
• Use non-porous stones on either side of the specimen as neither any pressure is to be
measured nor any drainage of air or water is allowed.
• Remove the porous cylinder from its base removing the bottom fly nuts. The pedestal at the
centre of the base of the cylinder on which the specimen is to be placed is cleaned and a 38.1
mm diameter rubber O-ring is rolled over to its bottom.

6
• The cap is placed over the top plate of the specimen and the top of the rubber
membrane is sealed against the cap by carefully rolling over it another O-ring.
• This arrangement of rubber O-ring forms the effective seal between the specimen with the
membrane and the water under pressure.
• The specimen is checked for its verticality and co-axiality with the cylinder chamber. The
chamber along with the loading plunger is carefully placed over its base without disturbing
the soil specimen and taking care to see that the plunger rests on the cap of the specimen
centrally.
• The loading frame is then adjusted so that it just touches the plunger top by naked eye.
The chamber is then rotated if necessary such that the dial gauge, recording compression,
rests centrally over the top of the screw which can be locked at any level and which is
attached to the top of the cylinder chamber carrying the specimen.
• The cylinder is then attached to the base plate tightly by means of tightening the nuts.
• The water storage cylinder is filled with water completely and its top is then closed by
means of a valve.
• Necessary pressure is built up in the cylinder by working the hand pump and the pressure
communicated to the cylinder where the specimen is placed, by opening the connecting
valve.
• If necessary, bring the loading plunger down until it is in contact with the specimen top cap
by means of hand operated loading device.
• This is indicated by a spurt in the reading of the proving ring dial gauge. For this position,
adjust the deformation dial gauge reading to zero.
• Record the initial reading of the proving ring and compression dial gauge.
• The vertical load is applied to the specimen by starting the motor at the loading frame.
• The change in the proving ring dial gauge gives the measure of the applied load. The
deformation dial gauge gives the deformation in the soil specimen, which can be used to
compute strain in the soil.
• Take readings of proving ring dial gauge at 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0% (or any other smaller values)
of strain and for every 1.0% strain thereafter up to failure or 20% strain whichever is earlier.
• Throughout the test, make sure that the chamber, containing pressure is kept constant at
the desirable value as indicated by the pressure gauge on the water cylinder.
• If necessary, the pressure can be made good for any possible losses by working the hand
pump. After specimen has failed or 20% strain is recorded, as the case may be (a) stop
application of load (b) disconnect the chamber from water storage cylinder by closing the
linger valve (c) open the air lock knob a little and (d) open the valve to drain out the water
in the cylinder.
• After a few seconds open the airlock nut completely to facilitate quick draining out of
water, by entry of air at top of the cylinder.
• After the water is completely drained out, take out the cylinder from loading frame
carefully, loosen the nuts and remove the Lucite cylinder from ts base, without disturbing
the sample.
7
 OBSERVATION TABLE

σ3 (Minor Principal

Principal Stress in
Pore pressure

Principal Stress
Stress Reading

Initial Length

Stress in Kg/Cm2)
MANOMETER READING

(in kg/cm2)
Dial Gauge

IN Kg/Cm2)
Load in Kg

σ1 / σ3
% Stress

σ3 (Effective
Initial area

σ1 (Major
(kg/cm2)
deviator
in sq cm

Kg/Cm2)
Effective
stress
in cm

Right

Total
Left
2.1 1.6 3.7 1.0

0 7.323 2.5 2.0 4.5 0.8 0.011 0.989

0.076 1 20 4.40 7.247 10.59 0.415 5.5 5.0 10.5 1.2 0.016 0.984 1.399 1.42

0.152 2 31 6.82 7.171 10.70 0.637 8.3 7.9 16.2 12.5 0.170 0.830 1.467 1.77

0.228 3 39 8.58 7.095 10.82 0.793 10.9 10.5 21.4 17.7 0.240 0.760 1.553 2.04

0.304 4 46 10.12 7.019 10.93 0.926 12.5 12.0 24.5 20.8 0.283 0.717 1.643 2.29

0.380 5 50 11.00 6.943 11.05 0.995 13.5 13.1 26.6 22.9 0.311 0.689 1.684 2.44

0.456 6 58 12.76 6.867 11.18 1.142 14.0 13.6 27.6 23.9 0.325 0.675 1.817 2.69

0.532 7 60 13.20 6.791 11.30 1.168 14.1 13.8 27.9 24.2 0.329 0.671 1.839 2.74

0.608 8 62 13.64 6.715 11.43 1.193 14.1 13.8 27.9 24.2 0.329 0.671 1.865 2.78

0.684 9 65 14.30 6.639 11.56 1.237 13.5 13.0 26.5 22.8 0.310 0.690 1.927 2.79

0.760 10 67 14.74 6.563 11.69 1.260 13.1 12.5 25.6 21.9 0.298 0.702 1.963 2.79

0.836 11 70 15.40 6.487 11.83 1.302 12.2 11.7 23.9 20.2 0.274 0.726 2.027 2.79

0.912 12 74 16.28 6.411 11.97 1.360 12.4 11.9 24.3 20.6 0.280 0.720 2.080 2.89

0.988 13 79 17.38 6.335 12.12 1.435 11.9 11.5 23.4 19.7 0.268 0.732 2.167 2.96

1.064 14 81 17.82 6.259 12.26 1.453 12.1 11.2 23.3 19.6 0.266 0.734 2.187 2.98

1.140 15 82 18.04 6.183 12.41 1.453 10.9 10.6 21.5 17.8 0.242 0.758 2.211 2.92

1.216 16 83 18.26 6.107 12.57 1.453 10.5 10.2 20.7 17.0 0.231 0.769 2.222 2.89

1.292 17 84 18.48 6.031 12.73 1.452 10.0 9.7 19.7 16.0 0.217 0.783 2.235 2.86

1.368 18 85 18.70 5.955 12.89 1.451 9.5 9.2 18.7 15.0 0.204 0.796 2.247 2.82

1.444 19 86 18.92 5.879 13.05 1.449 9.3 9.0 18.3 14.6 0.198 0.802 2.251 2.81

1.520 20 87 19.14 5.803 13.23 1.447 9.0 8.7 17.7 14.0 0.190 0.810 2.257 2.79

8
 CALCULATION
• Axial strain=ΔL/L=change in length/initial length. This is expressed as a % for
convenience.
• The stress intensity applied vertically is obtained by dividing the load, P by the
cross-sectional area of the specimen. At any time when axial strain is e. area =
A0/(1-e) where A0 is the initial cross-sectional area of the sample. The intensity
of stress = P/A. as the sample is enclosed in a rubber membrane and is sealed
at either end, its volume is constant as no air or water can escape. So as the
length decreases due to compression, area should increase which is assumed
to be uniform. Therefore, A=A0/(1-e)

L' = L(1- ΔV/3V) = 7.323

V ' = V - ΔV =76.75
L.C. of Proving Ring =0.22kg/Division

RESULT
A graph is drawn between the deviator stress and strain. The deviator stress
is the difference between the stresses in axial and radial direction i.e. (σ1-σ3)
and is equal to the vertical stress P/A. σ3 is the lateral confining pressure at
any time, which is constant for a test. From the plot, determine the second
result at half the ultimate stress, which can be taken as modulus of elasticity.
The mohr’s circle of stress to define the state of stress at failure is drawn for
each sample. The circle has for its centre point (σ1+σ3)/2 and the radius equal
to (σ1-σ3)/2. An envelope, which approximates to a straight line, is drawn
touching the circle. The intercept made on Y-axis and the slope of the
envelope gives the values of strength parameters of the soil C and φ
respectively

σ1 =2.187Kg/cm2
σ3 =0.734Kg/cm2

9
 COMPACTION TEST
(Compaction of Soil)
AIM:
To determine the Optimum moisture content of given soil sample

Compaction is the process of densification of soil by reducing air voids. The degree of compaction
of a given soil is measured in terms of its dry density. The dry density is maximum at the optimum
water content. A curve is drawn between the water content and the dry density to obtain the
maximum dry density and the optimum water content.

Equipments for Compaction of Soil

• Large mixing pan
• Straight edge
• Dry density of soil:Compaction Test of Soil
• Compaction mould, capacity 1000ml.
• Rammer, mass 2.6 kg
• Detachable base plate
• Collar, 60mm high, IS sieve, 4.75 mm
• Oven
• Desiccator
• Weighing balance, accuracy 1g
• Spatula
• Graduated jar
• Mixing tools, spoons, trowels, etc.

10
Procedure
• Take about 20kg of air-dried soil. Sieve it through 20mm and 4.7mm sieve.
• Calculate the percentage retained on 20mm sieve and 4.75mm sieve, and the
percentage passing 4.75mm sieve.
• If the percentage retained on 4.75mm sieve is greater than 20, use the large
mould of 150mm diameter. If it is less than 20%, the standard mould of 100mm
diameter can be used. The following procedure is for the standard mould.
• Mix the soil retained on 4.75mm sieve and that passing 4.75mm sieve in
proportions determined in step (2) to obtain about 16 to 18 kg of soil specimen
•Clean and dry the mould and the base plate. Grease them lightly.
•Weigh the mould with the base plate to the nearest 1 gram.
•Take about 16 – 18 kg of soil specimen. Add water to it to bring the water content
to about 4% if the soil is sandy and to about 8% if the soil is clayey.
•Keep the soil in an air-tight container for about 18 to 20 hours for maturing. Mix
the soil thoroughly. Divide the processed soil into 6 to 8 parts.
•Attach the collar to the mould. Place the mould on a solid base.
•Take about 2.5kg of the processed soil, and hence place it in the mould in 3 equal
layers. Take about one-third the quantity first, and compact it by giving 25 blows of
the rammer. The blows should be uniformly distributed over the surface of each
layer.
•The top surface of the first layer be scratched with spatula before placing the
second layer. The second layer should also be compacted by 25 blows of rammer.
Likewise, place the third layer and compact it.
•The amount of the soil used should be just sufficient to fill the mould ad leaving
about 5 mm above the top of the mould to be struck off when the collar is
removed.
•Remove the collar and trim off the excess soil projecting above the mould using a
straight edge.
•.Clean the base plate and the mould from outside. Weigh it to the nearest gram.
•Remove the soil from the mould. The soil may also be ejected out.
•Add about 3% of the water to a fresh portion of the processed soil, and repeat the
steps 10 to 14.

11
CALCULATION
Wt. of dry soil =3000gm
Wt. Of empty mould =2135gm
Volume of mould= 1000cc
OBSERVATION TABLE

%age %age Wt.of Wt.of

Wt.of Dry Wt. Wt. of of of mould wet Bulk Dry
wet soil of soil in water in moistur moistur with wet soil in densiy density
in gm gm gm e added e soil (g) gm gm/cc gm/cc

E=Cx100 G=F- H=G/10

A B C=A-B D /B F 2133 00 I

100 91.82 8.18 6.00 8.91 4010 1875 1.875 1.722

100 89.06 10.94 9.00 12.28 4117 1982 1.982 1.765

100 86.65 13.35 12.00 15.41 4185 2050 2.05 1.776

100 85.21 14.79 15.00 17.36 4204 2069 2.069 1.763

100 82.79 17.21 18.00 20.79 4134 1999 1.999 1.655

laguu ijh{k.k xzkQ Compaction Test graph

Result
OMC =9.00% 1.800

MDD =2.016gm/cc
1.780
Dry density in gm/cc

1.760

1.740

1.720
'kq"d ÄuRo xzke@Äulseh

1.700

1.680

1.660

1.640
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00

tyka'k dh izfr’krrk %age of moisture content

12
 RELATIVE DENSITY TEST
OBJECTIVE
To determine the relative density of given coarse grained material.

DEFINITIONS
Relative density or density index is the ratio of the difference between the void
ratios of a cohesionless soil in its loosest state and existing natural state to the
difference between its void ratio in the loosest and densest states.

Where,
emax = void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its loosest state.
emin = void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its densest state.
e =void ratio of coarse grained soil ( cohesionless) in its natural existing state in
the field.
THEORY
Porosity of a soil depends on the shape of grain, uniformity of grain size and
condition of sedimentation. Hence porosity itself does not indicate whether a soil
is in loose or dense state. This information can only be obtained by comparing the
porosity or void ratio of the given soil with that of the same soil in its loosest and
densest possible state and hence the term, relative density is introduced.
13
Relative density is an arbitrary character of sandy deposit. In real sense, relative density
expresses the ratio of actual decrease in volume of voids in a sandy soil to the maximum
possible decrease in the volume of voids i.e how far the sand under investigation can be
capable to the further densification beyond its natural state. Determination of relative
density is helpful in compaction of coarse grained soils and in evaluating safe bearing
capacity in case of sandy soils.

APPARATUS
a) H-3756 Vibratory Table. A steel table with a cushioned steel vibrating deck about 30” x
30”, actuated by an electromagnetic vibrator.
b) Molds. Cylindrical metal unit weight molds of 0.1 and 0.5 cu ft capacity.
c) Guide Sleeves.
d) Surcharge Base Plates.
e) Surcharge Weights.
f) Surcharge Base Plate Handleg
g) Dial Indicator Gage Holder.
h) Dial Indicator.
i) Calibration Bar.

14
PROCEDURE:
(1) Fill the mold with the soil (approximately 0.5 inch to 1 inch above the top of the mold) as
loosely as possible by pouring the soil using a scoop or pouring device (funnel). Spiraling motion
should be just sufficient to minimize particle segregation.
(2) Trim off the excess soil level with the top by carefully trimming the soil surface with a
straightedge.
(3) Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil. Then empty the mold (M1).
(4) Again fill the mold with soil (do not use the same soil used in step 1) and level the surface of
the soil by using a scoop or pouring device (funnel) in order to minimize the soil segregation. The
sides of the mold may be struck a few times using a metal bar or rubber hammer to settle the soil
so that the surcharge base-plate can be easily placed into position and there is no surge of air from
the mold when vibration is initiated.
(5) Place the surcharge base plate on the surface of the soil and twist it slightly several times so
that it is placed firmly and uniformly in contact with the surface of the soil. Remove the surcharge
base-plate handle.
(6) Attach the mold to the vibrating table.
(7) Determine the initial dial reading by inserting the dial indicator gauge holder in each of the
guide brackets with the dial gauge stem in contact with the rim of the mold (at its center) on the
both sides of the guide brackets. Obtain six sets of dial indicator readings, three on each side of
each guide bracket. The average of these twelve readings is the initial dial gage reading, Ri. Record
Ri to the nearest 0.001 in. (0.025 mm)
(8) Firmly attach the guide sleeve to the mold and lower the appropriate surcharge weight onto
the surcharge base-plate.
(9) Vibrate the mold assembly and soil specimen for 8 min.
(10) Determine and record the dial indicator gage readings as in step (7). The average of these
readings is the final dial gage reading, Rf.
(11) Remove the surcharge base-plate from the mold and detach the mold from the vibrating
table.
(12) Determine and record the mass of the mold and soil (M2)
(13) Empty the mold and determine the weight of the mold.
(14) Determine and record the dimensions of the mold (i.e., diameter and height) in order to
calculate the calibrated volume of the mold, Vc. Also, determine the thickness of the surcharge
base-plate, Tp.

PREPARATION OF THE SAMPLE:

1. Dry the soil sample in a thermostatically controlled electric oven.
2. Cool in the sample in a desicator.
3. Segregate soil lumps with out breaking individual particles
4. Sieve it through the required sieve size.

15
CALCULATION

Volume of mould =3000cc

Wt. of empty mould = 10700gm
Sectional area of mould = 176.47sq cm
Height of mould,h=17cm
Least count of dial gauge=0.001cm
Length of the ring =2cm
Vibration = 8min
dia of mould =15cm
wt of surcharge= 24kg

OBSERVATION TABLE

Height Height Volume

Initial dial gauge Final dial gauge reduce after aftter
reading reading d in cm vibratio vibration
n
A B C D E F G H I
Left Right (A+B) Left Right (D+E) C- ht of areaof
/4 /4 (L.C.xF mould - mouldx H
) G
4845 4872 892 1301
4858. 1159.
4861 4852 936 1356 3.699 13.301 2347.20
33 17
4898 4822 1020 1450
4825 4880 1635 835
4848. 1260.
4836 4871 1752 725 3.589 13.412 2366.73
67 2
4870 4810 1920 694

16
 Test Wt. of Wt. of minimum Volume Wt. of Wt. of soil gama
no. mould+ soil in in gm/cc after mould after test maximum
soil gm vibration +soil in gm/cc
before after
test in test
gm
J K L M N O P Q
K- L/3000 (I) O-10900 P/N
10900

1 15480 4780 1.593 2347.2 15480 4780 2.036

2 15480 4780 1.593 2366.7 15480 4780 2.020

RESULT
Average of gama min.=1.593gm/cc
Average of gama max.=2.028gm/cc

17
TEST METHOD FOR
LIQUID LIMIT,
PLASTIC LIMIT, AND
PLASTICITY INDEX

18
 INTRODUCTION
The following moisture conditions - liquid limit, plastic limit, along with shrinkage limit are
referred to as the "Atterberg Limits", after the originator of the test procedures

19
 LIQUID LIMIT TEST PROCEDURE
SCOPE
• This section describes the laboratory procedure for determining the liquid limit of soils
using the device, securing the results of at least three trials, and the plotting of a flow
curve. Provision is also made for a one point method requiring the calculation of the
liquid limit value from data obtained from a single trial.

AIM
This index property helps in classification of soil.

The liquid limit of a soil is the moisture content,

expressed as a percentage of the weight of the
oven-dried soil, at the boundary between the
liquid and plastic states of consistency.

APPARATUS
• Porcelain evaporating dishes or similar mixing dishes approximately 4½ in. (114 mm) in
diameter.
• Pulverizing apparatus - mortar and rubber-covered pestle.
• U.S. No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve.
• Spatula, about 3 in. (75 mm) long and approximately ¾ in. (19 mm) wide.
• Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
• Watering bottle, with distilled, demineralized or tap water.
• Drying tares with covers, such as metal cans with lids, which will prevent moisture loss.
The tares and covers should be marked and weighed as matched pairs.
• Mechanical Liquid Limit Device(s)
--- Manually operated - consisting of a brass cup and carriage, constructed according to the plan
and dimensions .
--- Electrically operated - a motorized device equipped to produce the rise and rate of drops of
the brass cup . The cup and the critical dimensions of the device shall conform to those.
The device shall be calibrated to give the same liquid limit value as obtained with the
manually operated device.
• Oven - a thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining temperatures of
230±9° F (105±5° C).
• Desiccator - a container, usually of glass, fitted with an airtight cover, and containing at the
bottom a desiccating agent such as calcium chloride. The device prevents the sample from
absorbing moisture from the air while being cooled for weighing.

20
 MECHANICAL METHOD
PREPARATION OF TEST SAMPLE
• It is preferable that soils used for liquid limit determination be in their natural or
moist state, because drying may alter the natural characteristics of some soils.
Organic soils in particular undergo changes as a result of oven-drying or even
extended air-drying. Other soils containing clay may agglomerate, lose absorbed
water which is not completely regained on rewetting, or be subject to some
chemical change.
• If it is determined that the soil is organic or fine-grained, containing no plus No. 40
(0.425 mm) material, the liquid limit shall be run on the sample in its natural state
(see 6.1 Procedure).
• If the soil contains sand or larger size particles, provision must be made to separate
the minus No. 40 (0.425 mm) material for testing despite the possibility that drying
may alter the characteristics of some soils. The fine fraction of granular soil is
normally free of organic matter or contains a minimal amount which does not affect
the liquid and plastic limit results.
• The soil shall be thoroughly dried in an oven at a temperature not exceeding
(105±5° C).
• The pulverizing apparatus and the No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve shall then be utilized for
separation of the minus No. 40 (0.425 mm) fraction. Care should be EB 15-025
exercised to insure that the pulverizing apparatus does not reduce the natural size
of the individual grains.
• The material passing the No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve obtained from the grinding and
sieving operations described above shall be thoroughly mixed together and set
aside for use in performing the physical tests. Approximately 0.3 lb. (150 g) would
generally suffice for the liquid limit test.
• The plus No. 40 (0.425 mm) component shall be reground as before. When
repeated grinding produces only a minimal quantity of minus No. 40 (0.425 mm)
soil, the material retained on the No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve shall be discarded and
further pulverization of this fraction should be suspended.

PROCEDURE
• If the soil is organic or fine-grained containing no plus No. 40 (0.425 mm) material,
and is in its natural state, proceed without adding water. Chopping, stirring and
kneading may be necessary to attain a uniform consistency. Then proceed as
described in Sections 6.3 through 6.9 below.
• The soil sample prepared under 4.3 shall be placed in an evaporating dish, covered,
and cured, and then thoroughly mixed with the addition of distilled, demineralized
or tap water by alternately and repeatedly stirring, cutting and kneading with a
spatula. If needed, further additions of water shall be made in increments of 1 to 3
mL; each increment of water shall be thoroughly mixed with the soil. The cup of EB
15-025 the liquid limit device should not be used for mixing soil and water.
• Add sufficient water to produce a consistency that will require 25 to 35 drops of the
cup to cause closure

21
• A sufficient quantity of the soil mixture obtained under 6.1 or 6.2 shall be placed in
the cup above the spot where the cup rests on the base and shall then be squeezed
and spread into the position , with as few strokes of the spatula as possible. Care
should be taken to prevent the entrapment of air bubbles within the mass. With
the spatula, level the soil and at the same time trim it to a depth of 0.3937 in. (10
mm) at the point of maximum thickness. Return the excess soil to the evaporating
dish.
• The soil in the cup shall be divided equally by a firm stroke of the grooving tool
along the diameter through the centerline of the cam follower so that a clean,
sharp groove of the proper dimensions will be formed. To avoid tearing of the sides
of the groove or slipping of the soil cake on the cup, up to six strokes, from front to
back, or from back to front counting as one stroke, shall be permitted. The depth of
the groove should be increased with each stroke and only the last stroke should
scrape the bottom of the cup.
• 6.4 Lift and drop the cup by turning the crank, F, at the rate of 2 rps, until the two
halves of the sample flow together and come in contact at the bottom of the
groove along a distance of ½ in. (12.7 mm). Record the number of drops (blows)
required to close the groove this distance. A valid test is one in which 15 to 35
blows are required to close the groove.
• The soil remaining in the cup shall be transferred to the mixing dish. The cup
and grooving tool shall then be washed and dried in preparation for the next
trial.
• The foregoing operations shall be repeated for at least two different
determinations on the soil sample to which sufficient water has been added
(see 6.8 for wet natural soil) to change the soil to a fluid state, and then a
more fluid state. The object of this procedure is to obtain samples of such
consistency that at least one determination will be made in each of the
following range of drops: 25-35, 20-30, 15-25, so the range in the three
determinations is at least 10 drops. The number of drops required to close the
groove should be above and below 25.
• The test shall proceed from the drier to the wetter condition of the soil.
However, when the soil in its natural state (see 6.1) is of such consistency that
closure occurs at less than 25 drops (sample wet), the process must be
reversed so as to obtain determinations in each of the aforementioned range
of drops (see 6.7). Drying of the soil shall be accomplished by a combination
of air-drying and manipulation by kneading. In no case shall dried soil be
added to the natural soil being tested.
• Oven-dry all the soil samples in the tared, uncovered containers to constant
weight at (105±5° C), place samples in a desiccator (1) and allow to cool.
22
 PLASTIC LIMIT TEST PROCEDURE
AIM :
This index property helps in classification of soil.

SCOPE
• This section describes the laboratory procedure for determining the plastic limit of soils.
The results of two trials must be obtained for averaging. This method is based upon
AASHTO Designation T90 which has been modified for New York State Department of
Transportation use.

DEFINITION
• The plastic limit of a soil is the moisture content, expressed as a percentage of the weight
of the oven-dry soil, at the boundary between the plastic and semisolid states of
consistency. It is the moisture content at which a soil will just begin to crumble when rolled
into a thread ⅛ in. (3 mm) in diameter using a ground glass plate or other acceptable
surface.

APPARATUS
•Evaporating dishes - porcelain or similar mixing dishes approximately 4½ in. (114 mm) in
diameter.
•Pulverizing apparatus - mortar and rubber covered pestle.
•U.S. No. 40 (0.425 mm) sieve.
•Spatula, about 3 in. (75 mm) long and approximately ¾ in. (19 mm) wide.
•Balance sensitive to 0.01 g.
•Watering bottle, with distilled water demineralized or tap water.
•Drying tares with covers, such as metal cans with lids, which will prevent moisture loss. The
tares and covers should be marked and weighed as matched pairs.
•Surface for rolling - a ground glass plate or piece of glazed or unglazed paper on which to roll
the soil sample. (Unglazed refers to paper similar to that used for mimeographing). Paper
toweling is not satisfactory.
•Oven - a thermostatically controlled drying oven capable of maintaining temperatures of
(105±5° C) for drying moisture samples.
•A ⅛ in. (3 mm) diameter rod may be used as a guide to help the operator estimate the thread
size.
•Desiccator.
23
PREPARATION OF TEST SAMPLE
• The test may be performed using material left over from the thoroughly
mixed portion of the soil prepared for the liquid limit test, which normally is
at a moisture content higher than the plastic limit. Set the sample aside and
allow to air dry until the liquid limit test has been completed. However, if the
sample is too dry to permit rolling to a ⅛ in. (3 mm) thread, add water,
thoroughly remix and season in air prior to doing the test.
• Where no leftover soil is available from the liquid limit test and the soil is
granular and/or contains sand sizes, it shall be prepared as outlined above
under Liquid Limit (4.3 and 4.4).
• Where no leftover soil is available from the liquid limit test and it is
determined that the soil is organic or fine-grained, containing no plus No. 40
(0.425 mm) material, the plastic limits shall be run on the natural soil, brought
to the approximate moisture content for plastic limit determinations .

PROCEDURE
• Squeeze and roll a 0.3 oz. (8 g) test sample into an ellipsoidal shaped mass. Roll this mass
between the fingers or palm of hand and the ground glass plate or satisfactory paper on a
smooth horizontal surface with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform
diameter throughout its length. The rate of rolling should be between 80 and 90 strokes/min.,
counting a stroke as one complete motion of the hand forward and back to the starting position
again.
•When the diameter of the thread becomes ⅛ in. (3 mm), break the thread into six or eight
pieces. Squeeze the pieces together between the thumbs and fingers into a uniform mass
roughly ellipsoidal in shape, and reroll.
•Continue this alternate rolling to a thread ⅛ in. (3 mm) in diameter, gathering together,
kneading and rerolling, until the thread crumbles under the pressure required for rolling and the
soil can no longer be rolled into a thread.
•Crumbling may occur when the thread has a diameter greater than ⅛ in. (3 mm). This shall be
considered a satisfactory end point, provided the soil has been previously rolled into a thread ⅛
in. (3 mm) in diameter.
•At no time shall the operator attempt to produce failure at exactly ⅛ in. (3 mm) diameter by
allowing the thread to reach ⅛ in. (3 mm), then reducing the rate of rolling or the hand pressure
or both, and continuing the rolling without further deformation until the thread falls apart.
Maintain the same rate of rolling and the same hand pressure during the entire test.
•When the plastic limit has been reached, a sample of the soil is immediately taken to
determine its moisture content. Place the crumbled portions of the soil together in a suitable
tared container. Weigh the container and wet soil and record on Form SM 309 (Appendices B &
C). Weigh to the nearest 0.01 g.
•5.8 Repeat 5.1 to 5.7 to obtain another plastic limit sample. Weigh and record on Form SM 309

24
 PLASTICITY INDEX

DEFINITION
The plasticity index of a soil is the numerical difference between its liquid limit and its plastic
limit, and is a dimensionless number. Both the liquid and plastic limits are moisture contents.

CALCULATIONS
Plasticity Index = Liquid Limit - Plastic Limit
PI = LL-PL

OBSERVATION TABLE

From Chart liquid limit= 60.85%

Plasticity Index Ip = L.L. – P.L.
= 60.85 – 24.08
= 36.77

RESULT
The liquid Limit of the given specimen was found to be 60.85%
The plastic limit of the same specimen was found to be 24.08%
Plasticity index of the given specimen is found to be 36.77%

25
GRAPHICAL ANALYSIS

26
 SHRINKAGE LIMIT
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result
in any more volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit is ASTM International
D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid and plastic limits.

Objective
For determination of the shrinkage limit of soil.

Equipment & Apparatus

• Oven
• Balance
• Sieve
• Mercury
• Desiccator

Preparation sample
The soil passing 425 micron sieve is used in this test.

Procedure
•100 gm. of soil sample from a thoroughly mixed portion of the material passing through 425
micron IS sieve is taken.
•About 30 gm. of above soil sample is placed in the evaporating dish and thoroughly mixed
with distilled water to make a paste.
•The weight of the clean empty shrinkage dish is determined and recorded.
•The dish is filled in three layers by placing approximately 1/3rd of the amount of wet soil with
the help of spatula.
•Then the dish with wet soil is weighed and recorded immediately.
•The wet soil cake is air dried until the colour of the pat turns from dark to light. Then it is oven
dried at a temperature of 1050 C to 1100 C for 12 to 16 hours.
•The shrinkage dish is placed in the evaporating dish and the dish is filled with mercury, till it
overflows slightly. Then it is be pressed with plain glass plate firmly on its top to remove excess
mercury. The mercury from the shrinkage dish is poured into a measuring jar and the volume
of the shrinkage dish is calculated. This volume is recorded as the volume of the wet soil pat
(V).
•A glass cup is placed in a suitable large container and the glass cup removed by covering the
cup with glass plate with prongs and pressing it. The outside of the glass cup is wiped to
remove the adhering mercury. Then it is placed in the evaporating dish which is clean and
empty.
•Then the oven dried soil pat is placed on the surface of the mercury in the cup and pressed by
means of the glass plate with prongs, the displaced mercury being collected in the evaporating
dish.
•The mercury so displaced by the dry soil pat is weighed and its volume (Vo) is calculated by
dividing this weight by unit weight of mercury. 27
 OBSERVATION TABLE
Determination Number
Ekk=d I II III
Container Number Unit
66 6 5
Weight of Container=W1 gm 7.66 7.339 7.983
Wt. of container + Wet soil pat = W2 gm 28.47 28.64 29.708
Wt. of container + dry soil pat (W3) gm 21.59 21.62 22.55
Wet wt. of soil (W2 - W1) gm 20.81 21.30 21.73
Wt. of oven dry soil pat ( (W 3 - W 1) gm 13.94 14.28 14.56
Wt. of water (W2 - W3) gm 6.87 7.02 7.16
Moisture content (W) of soil=(W2 - W3) x 100/(W3 -
W1) % 49.33 49.16 49.18

Weight of Mercury,filled in Container in gm (W0) gm 168.80 171.61 176.972

Volume of wet soil pat (V1)
ml 12.41 12.62 13.01
Wt of mercury displaced by dry soil pat (w’)
gm 94.31 96.52 99.463
Density of mercury = 13.6 gm/cc gm/cc 13.6 13.6 13.6
Volume of dry soil pat (V2) = w’/13.6
ml 6.93 7.10 7.31
Difference in volumes = (V1- V2) ml 5.48 5.52 5.70
Shrinkage Ratio (R) = (W3 - W1)/V2 - 1.897 1.967 1.879
Shrinkage limit
Ws = W-[(V1-V2)γwx100/(W3 - W1)] or [1/R-1/G) - 10.02 10.50 10.04

CALCULATION
The shrinkage limit is to be calculated by using the following formula
Where W = Moisture content of wet soil pat

RESULT
Average Determination number of I,II & III
Shrinkage limit (Ws) = 10%
SAFETY & PRECAUTIONS
• Clean the sieves with the help of a brush, after sieving
• While weighing put the sieve with soil sample on the balance in a concentric position.
• Check the electric connection of the sieve shaker before conducting the test.

28
 FREE SWELL INDEX OF SOILS

AIM
DETERMINATION OF FREE SWELL INDEX OF SOILS
DEFINITION
Free Swell Index is the increase in volume of a soil, without any external constraints, on
submergence in water.
APPARATUS
•425 micron IS sieve.
• Graduated glass cylinders 100 ml capacity 2Nos (IS: 878 -1956).
• Glass rod for stirring.
• Balance of capacity 500grams and sensitivity 0.01 gram.
PROCEDURE
• Take two representative oven dried soil samples each of 10 grams passing through
425 micron sieve.
• Pour each soil sample in to each of the two glass graduated cylinders of 100ml
Capacity.
• Fill one cylinder with kerosene and the other with the distilled water up to
The100ml mark.
• Remove the entrapped air in the cylinder by gentle shaking and stirring with a glass
• Rod.
• Sample
• Allow the samples to settle in both the cylinders
• Sufficient time, not less than 24 hours shall be allowed for soil sample to attain equilibrium
state of volume without any further change in the volume of the soils.
• Record the final volume of the soils in each of the cylinders.

CALCULATIONS
Free Swell Index, (%) = Vd - Vk
x 100
Vk
Vd = Volume of the soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing
distilled water.
Vk = Volume of the soil specimen read from the graduated cylinder containing
kerosene.

PRECAUTION
In the case of highly expansive soils such as Sodium Betonites. the saple size may be 5 grams or
alternatively a cylinder of 250ml capacity for 10 grams of sample may be used.

29
 Observation table

Observation Unit

Wt. of soil taken for test (W)

10 gm

Volume of solution (V)

100
ml
Final volume of soil in water after
settlement (VF) 13
ml
Final volume of soil in kerosene oil, VK
10 ml

CALCULATION

Volume of differential free swell (VF – VK)

3 ml

Differential free swelling Index (VF - 30.00 %

VK)x100/(VK)

RESULT
Differential free Swelling Index = 30%
30
 CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO TEST
The california bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of subgrade
strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these tests are used with the
empirical curves to determine the thickness of pavement and its component layers.

OBJECTIVE
To determine the California bearing ratio by conducting a load penetration
test in the laboratory.
NEED AND SCOPE
The california bearing ratio test is penetration test meant for the evaluation of
subgrade strength of roads and pavements. The results obtained by these
tests are used with the empirical curves to determine the thickness of
pavement and its component layers. This is the most widely used method for
the design of flexible pavement.
This instruction sheet covers the laboratory method for the determination of
C.B.R. of undisturbed and remoulded /compacted soil specimens, both in
soaked as well as unsoaked state.
EQUIPMENTS AND TOOL REQUIRED.
1. Cylindrical mould with inside dia 150 mm and height 175 mm, provided with a detachable
extension collar 50 mm height and a detachable perforated base plate 10 mm thick.
2. Spacer disc 148 mm in dia and 47.7 mm in height along with handle.
3. Metal rammers. Weight 2.6 kg with a drop of 310 mm (or) weight 4.89 kg a drop 450 mm.
4. Weights. One annular metal weight and several slotted weights weighing 2.5 kg each, 147 mm
in dia, with a central hole 53 mm in diameter.
5. Loading machine. With a capacity of atleast 5000 kg and equipped with a movable head or
base that travels at an uniform rate of 1.25 mm/min. Complete with load indicating device.
6. Metal penetration piston 50 mm dia and minimum of 100 mm in length.
7. Two dial gauges reading to 0.01 mm.
8. Sieves. 4.75 mm and 20 mm I.S. Sieves.
9. Miscellaneous apparatus, such as a mixing bowl, straight edge, scales soaking tank or pan,
drying oven, filter paper and containers
31
PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN
• Undisturbed specimen
Attach the cutting edge to the mould and push it gently into the ground. Remove the soil from
the outside of the mould which is pushed in . When the mould is full of soil, remove it from
weighing the soil with the mould or by any field method near the spot.
• Determine the density
• Remoulded specimen
Prepare the remoulded specimen at Proctor�s maximum dry density or any other density at
which C.B.R> is required. Maintain the specimen at optimum moisture content or the field
moisture as required. The material used should pass 20 mm I.S. sieve but it should be
retained on 4.75 mm I.S. sieve. Prepare the specimen either by dynamic compaction or by
static compaction.
• Dynamic Compaction
Take about 4.5 to 5.5 kg of soil and mix thoroughly with the required water.
1. Fix the extension collar and the base plate to the mould. Insert the spacer disc over the
base (See Fig.38). Place the filter paper on the top of the spacer disc.
2. Compact the mix soil in the mould using either light compaction or heavy compaction.
For light compaction, compact the soil in 3 equal layers, each layer being given 55 blows by
the 2.6 kg rammer. For heavy compaction compact the soil in 5 layers, 56 blows to each
layer by the 4.89 kg rammer.
3. Remove the collar and trim off soil.
4. Turn the mould upside down and remove the base plate and the displacer disc.
5. Weigh the mould with compacted soil and determine the bulk density and dry density.
6. Put filter paper on the top of the compacted soil (collar side) and clamp the perforated
base plate on to it.
• Static compaction
Calculate the weight of the wet soil at the required water content to give the desired density
when occupying the standard specimen volume in the mould from the expression.
W =desired dry density * (1+w) V
Where W = Weight of the wet soil
w = desired water content
V = volume of the specimen in the mould = 2250 cm3 (as per the mould available in
laboratory)
• Take the weight W (calculated as above) of the mix soil and place it in the mould.
• Place a filter paper and the displacer disc on the top of soil.
• Keep the mould assembly in static loading frame and compact by pressing the displacer
disc till the level of disc reaches the top of the mould.
• Keep the load for some time and then release the load. Remove the displacer disc.
• The test may be conducted for both soaked as well as unsoaked conditions.
• If the sample is to be soaked, in both cases of compaction, put a filter paper on the top of
the soil and place the adjustable stem and perforated plate on the top of filter paper. 32
• Put annular weights to produce a surcharge equal to weight of base material and pavement
expected in actual construction. Each 2.5 kg weight is equivalent to 7 cm construction. A
minimum of two weights should be put.
• Immerse the mould assembly and weights in a tank of water and soak it for 96 hours.
Remove the mould from tank.
• Note the consolidation of the specimen.

OBSERVATION TABLE

Date

Sample
No.

Soil Identification CH
Diameter of Mould 15 Cm
Length of Specimen 12.73Cm
Area of Specimen 177Cm2
Volume of mould 2250Cm3
Maximuim Dry Density 1.710gm/cc
Optimum Moisture Content 13.00 %
Weight of Soil 3848gm
Volume of Water 500cc
Type of compaction used
Dynamic / Statics
Surcharge Weight used 2.5 kg

33
 OBSERVATION TABLE

• CALCULATION
Least count of dial gauge =0.01mm
Least count of proving ring =1.60kg/div

Dial Proving Penetration of Load on CBR CBR value at

gauge ring plunger in mm plunger in Standar value at 5.0mm
reading reading kg d load 2.5mm penetration
in kg penetratio in mm
n in mm

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 0 0.0 0.0
50 6 0.5 9.6
100 10 1.0 16.0
150 11 1.5 17.6
200 12 2.0 19.2
250 14 2.5 22.4 1370 1.64
300 15 3.0 24.0
350 16 3.5 25.6
400 17 4.0 27.2
450 18 4.5 28.8
500 19 5.0 30.4 2055 1.48
550 20 5.5 32.0
600 21 6.0 33.6
650 21 6.5 33.6
700 21 7.0 33.6

34
 Dial Penetration Load on Standa CBR value CBR value at
gauge Proving of plunger in plunger in kgrd load at 2.5mm 5.0mm
reading ring mm in kg penetration penetration in
reading in mm mm

750 22 7.5 35.2

800 22 8.0 35.2
850 23 8.5 36.8
900 23 9.0 36.8
950 24 9.5 38.4
1000 24 10.0 38.4

1050 25 10.5 40.0

1100 25 11.0 40.0

1150 26 11.5 41.6

1200 26 12.0 41.6

1250 26 12.5 41.6

RESULT
CBR at specien at 2.5 mm penetration = 1.64%

35
 Load Penetration Curve

45.0
Load on Plunger (Kg)

40.0

35.0

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0

5.0

0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Penetration of Plunger (mm)

36
 NATURAL MOISTURE CONTENT

OBJECTIVE

To Determine the natural content of the given soil sample.

NEED AND SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENT

In almost all soil tests natural moisture content of the soil is to be determined. The knowledge
of the natural moisture content is essential in all studies of soil mechanics. To sight a few,
natural moisture content is used in determining the bearing capacity and settlement. The
natural moisture content will give an idea of the state of soil in the field.

DEFINITION
The natural water content also called the natural moisture content is the ratio of the weight of
water to the weight of the solids in a given mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as
percentage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Non-corrodible air-tight container.
2. Electric oven, maintain the temperature between 1050 C to 1100 C.
3. Desiccator.
4. Balance of sufficient sensitivity.

PROCEDURE
1. Clean the container with lid dry it and weigh it (W1).
2. Take a specimen of the sample in the container and weigh with lid (W2).
3. Keep the container in the oven with lid removed. Dry the specimen to constant weight
maintaining the temperature between 1050 C to 1100 C for a period varying with the type of
soil but usually 16 to 24 hours.
4. Record the final constant weight (W3) of the container with dried soil sample. Peat and
other organic soils are to be dried at lower temperature (say 600 ) possibly for a longer period.
Certain soils contain gypsum which on heating loses its water if crystallization. If itb is
suspected that gypsum is present in the soil sample used for moisture content determination it
shall be dried at not more than 800 C and possibly for a longer time.

37
OBSERVATIONS AND RECORDING
Data and observation sheet for water content determination

S.No Sample No. 1 2 3

.
1 Weight of container with
lid W1 gm
2 Weight of container with
lid +wet soil W2 gm
3 Weight of container with
lid +dry soil W3 gm
4 Water/Moisture content
W=
[(W2W3)/(W3W1)]�100

RESULT
The natural moisture content of the soil sample is ________

38
 ABRASION TEST
The Los Angeles (L.A.) abrasion test (Figure 1) is a
common test method used to indicate aggregate
toughness and abrasion characteristics. ... The
standard Los Angeles abrasion test is: AASHTO T 96
or ASTM C 131: Resistance to Degradation of Small-
Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in
the Los Angeles Machine

AIM
The Los Angeles abrasion test on aggregates are done for following purposes:
1. To determine the Los Angeles abrasion value.
2. To find the suitability of aggregates for use in road construction.

PRINCIPLE
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to produce abrasive action by use of standard steel
balls which when mixed with aggregates and rotated in a drum for specific number of
revolutions also causes impact on aggregates.

APPARATUS FOR LOS ANGELES TEST

1. The apparatus as per IS: 2386 (Part IV) – 1963 consists of:
2. Los Angeles Machine
3. Abrasive charge: Cast iron or steel balls, approximately 48mm in diameter and each
weighing between 390 to 445 g; six to twelve balls are required.
4. Sieve: 1.70, 2.36, 4.75, 6.3, 10, 12.5, 20, 25, 40, 50, 63, 80 mm IS Sieves.
5. Balance of capacity 5 kg or 10 kg
6. Drying oven
7. Miscellaneous like tray

39
PROCEDURE FOR LOS ANGELES TEST
1. The test sample consists of clean aggregates dried in oven at 105° – 110°C. The sample
should conform to any of the gradings shown in table 1.
2. Select the grading to be used in the test such that it conforms to the grading to be used in
construction, to the maximum extent possible.
3. Take 5 kg of sample for gradings A, B, C & D and 10 kg for gradings E, F & G.
4. Choose the abrasive charge as per Table 2 depending on grading of aggregates.
5. Place the aggregates and abrasive charge on the cylinder and fix the cover.
6. Rotate the machine at a speed of 30 to 33 revolutions per minute. The number of
revolutions is 500 for gradings A, B, C & D and 1000 for gradings E, F & G. The machine
should be balanced and driven such that there is uniform peripheral speed.
7. The machine is stopped after the desired number of revolutions and material is
discharged to a tray.
8. The entire stone dust is sieved on 1.70 mm IS sieve.
9. The material coarser than 1.7mm size is weighed correct to one gram.

Table 1: Grading of Test Samples – *Tolerance of ± 12 percent

permitted.

Sieve size Weight of test

(square hole) sample in gm

Passing Retained on
A B C D E F G
(mm) (mm)
80 63 2500*
63 50 2500*
50 40 5000* 5000*

40 25 1250 5000* 5000*

25 20 1250 5000*
20 12.5 1250 2500
12.5 10 1250 2500
10 6.3 2500
6.3 4.75 2500
4.75 2.36 5000

40
 TABLE 2: SELECTION OF ABRASIVE CHARGE
Grading No of Steel balls Weight of charge in gm.
A 12 5000 ± 25
B 11 4584 ±25
C 8 3330 ± 20
D 6 2500 ± 15
E 12 5000 ± 25
F 12 5000 ± 25
G 12 5000 ± 25

OBSERVATIONS OF LOS ANGELES TEST

Original weight of aggregate sample = W1 g
Weight of aggregate sample retained = W2 g
Weight passing 1.7mm IS sieve = W1 – W2 g
Abrasion Value = (W1 – W2 ) / W1 X 100

RESULTS
Los Angeles Abrasion Value = 12.38%

41
 IMPACT TEST
AIM
To determine the toughness of material.

PREPARATION OF SAMPLE
1. Take ballast sample which passes 12.5 mm IS sieve and is retained on a 10 mm IS sieve.
2. The sample shall be oven dried for 4 hours at a temperature of 100-110 ºC and cooled.
3. The measure shall be filled about one third full with the prepared aggregate and tamped with
25
strokes of the tamping rod. A further similar quantity of aggregate shall be added and further
tamping
of 25 strokes given.
4. The measure shall finally be filled to over flowing tamped 25 times and the surplus aggregate
stuck
off, using the tamping rod as straight edge. The net weight of the aggregate in the measure shall
be
determined to the nearest gm. ( weight A ).

PROCEDURE
1. The cup shall be fixed firmly in position on the base of the machine and the whole of test
sample
placed in it and compacted by a single tamping of 25 strokes of the tamping rod.
2. The 13.5 -14 kg hammer shall be raised until its lower face is 380 mm above the upper
surface of the
aggregate in the cup and allowed to fall freely on to the aggregate. The test sample shall be
subjected
to total of 15 such blows each being delivered at an interval of not less than one second.
3. The crushed sample shall then be removed from the cup and the whole of it sieved on the
2.36 mm IS
sieve.
4. The fraction passing through shall be weighed ( weight B ). The fraction retained on the
sieve shall
also be weighed ( weight C ).
5. If the total weight ( B&C ) is less than the initial weight ( weight A ) by more than one gram
the result
shall be discarded and a fresh test made.
6. Two tests shall be made.

CALCULATION B
Aggregate impact value = — x 100
A

42
OBSERVATION
S.No Weight of sample Weight of sample Weight of sample Impact
taken before impact passing retained on value
(A) 2.36 mm IS Sieve 2.36 mm IS sieve
( in g ) after impact after impact
(B) (C)
( in g ) ( in g )
1. 301 56 252 18

2. 310 57 253 18.38

RESULT
Average value of two results = %.

43
 WATER ABSORPTION TEST
AIM
To determine the water absorption of coarse aggregates

APPARATUS
1. Wire basket, perforated, electroplated or plastic coated, with wire hangers for suspending it
from the
balance.
2. Water-tight container for suspending the basket.
3. Dry soft absorbent cloth 75 x 45 cm size (2 nos.)
4. Shallow tray of minimum 650 square cm area
5. Air-tight container of capacity similar to basket
6. Drying oven
7. Test sample
8. A sample of not less than 2000 g shall be used

PROCEDURE
1. The sample shall be thoroughly washed to remove finer particle and dust, drained and
then placed in
the wire basket and immersed in distilled water at a temperature between 22-32 ºC.
2. After immersion the entrapped air shall be removed by lifting the basket and allowing it to
drop 25 seconds.
The basket and sample shall remain immersed for a period of 24+½ hours afterwards.

3. The basket and aggregate shall then be removed from the water, allowed to drain for few
minutes, after
which the aggregate shall be gently emptied from the basket on to one of dry clothes and gently
surface dried with the cloth, transferring it to second dry cloth when the first will remove no
further
moisture. The stone aggregate shall be spread on the second cloth and exposed to atmosphere
until it
appears to be completely surface dry. The aggregate then shall be weighed ( weight A ).
4. The aggregate shall then be placed in an oven at a temperature of 100 – 110 ºC for 24 hours.
It shall
then be removed from oven, cooled and weighed ( weight B ).

44
CALCULATION
(A-B)
Water absorption = x 100
B

OBSERVATION

Determination No. Unit I II III

Weight of saturated surface dry g 2409 2380 2491

sample in air (A)
Weight of oven dry sample in air g 2404 2375 2486
(B)
Absorption % 0.207 0.210 0.201

RESULT
Average value of I, II, & III = 0.206 %.

45
 TEST METHOD FOR THE GRAIN-SIZE ANALYSIS
OF GRANULAR SOIL MATERIALS
AIM
This test is performed to determine the percentage of different grain sizes contained within a
soil. The mechanical or sieve analysis is performed to determine the distribution of the coarser,
larger-sized particles, and the hydrometer method is used to determine the distribution of the
finer particles.
SCOPE
This test method describes the determination of particle size distribution in soils and other
material items of Departmental Specifications other than topsoil. The method covers material in
which the particle sizes are larger than No. 200 (0.075 mm) and smaller than 4 in. (100 mm). For
the distribution of particle sizes smaller than No. 200 (0.075 mm), a sedimentation process
utilizing a hydrometer is necessary. For material in which the particle sizes are larger than 4 in.
(100 mm), the distribution is determined visually.
EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required for this test:
•Platform Scale - With a capacity of at least 36 lbs. (16 kg). The scale shall be accurate, and be
readable to 0.01 lb (5 g).
•Balance - Triple beam or other with a capacity of at least 5½ lbs. (2500 g). It shall be accurate,
and be readable to 0.1 g.
•Containers - Metal pans of sufficient size to contain at least 1.1 lb. (500 g) of material for
moisture content determination.
•Large Pans - Metal pans of sufficient dimension to contain the total sample for mixing and
conditioning.
•Drying Apparatus - An infrared dryer, oven, hot plate or stove capable of drying samples
without causing alteration of the material’s particle size or shape, and without causing the loss
of material. Ovens must have a temperature control and be capable of maintaining a
temperature of (105°± 5° C). If a stove or hot plate is used, a bed of sand is required between
the sample containers and heat source.
•Miscellaneous - A flat bottom scoop, a wood mallet, an assortment of brushes, a large
weighing pan for the platform scale and leveling boards for the platform scale and balance.

PROCEDURE:
Sieve Analysis:
(1) Write down the weight of each sieve as well as the bottom pan to be used in the analysis.
(2) Record the weight of the given dry soil sample.
(3) Make sure that all the sieves are clean, and assemble them in the ascending order of sieve
numbers (#4 sieve at top and #200 sieve at bottom). Place the pan below #200 sieve. Carefully
pour the soil sample into the top sieve and place the cap over it.
(4) Place the sieve stack in the mechanical shaker and shake for 10
minutes. 46
(5) Remove the stack from the shaker and carefully weigh and record the weight of each sieve with
its retained soil. In addition, remember to weigh and record the weight of the bottom pan with its
retained fine soil.
Hydrometer Analysis:
(1) Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a beaker, and add 125 mL
of the dispersing agent (sodium hexametaphosphate (40 g/L)) solution. Stir the mixture until the
soil is thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.
(2) While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control cylinder and fill it with
distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at the top of the meniscus formed by the hydrometer
stem and the control solution. A reading less than zero is recorded as a negative
(-) correction and a reading between zero and sixty is recorded as a positive (+) correction. This
reading is called the zero correction. The meniscus correction is the difference between the top of
the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control jar (Usually about +1).
Shake the control cylinder in such a way that the contents are mixed thoroughly. Insert the
hydrometer and thermometer into the control cylinder and note the zero correction and
temperature respectively.
(3) Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if necessary, until mixing cup
is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a period of two minutes.
(4) Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder. Add distilled water
up to the mark.
(5) Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with the palm of your hand.
Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright for a period of one minute. (The cylinder
should be inverted approximately 30 times during the minute.
(6) Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the cylinder. After an
elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very slowly and carefully insert the hydrometer for
the first reading.
(7) The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed bythe and the hydrometer
stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly and placed back into the control cylinder. Very gently spin
it in control cylinder to remove any particles that may have adhered.
(8) Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5, 8, 15, 30, 60 minutes and 24 hours

CALCULATION
Weight of Container: 198.5 gm
Wt. Container+Dry Soil: 722.3 gm
Wt. of Dry Sample: 523.8 gm

47
OBSERVATION TABLE

Sieve Analysis
Sieve Diamet Mass of Mass of Soil Percent Percent
Number er Empty Sieve+S Retaine Retaine Passing
(mm) Sieve oil d d
(g) Retaine (g)
d (g)
4 4.75 116.23 166.13 49.9 9.5 90.5
10 2.0 99.27 135.77 36.5 8.0 83.5

20 0.84 97.58 139.68 42.1 7.0 75.5

40 0.425 98.96 138.96 40 7.6 67.8
60 0.25 91.46 114.46 23 4.4 63.4
140 0.106 93.15 114.46 91 17.4 46.1
200 0.075 90.92 101.12 10.2 1.9 44.1
PAN - 70.19 301.19 231.0 44.1 0.0

From Grain Size Distribution Curve:

% Gravel= 9.5_ D10= 0.002mm
% Sand= 46.4_ D30= 0.017mm
% Fines= 44.1_ D60= .0.25 mm
0.25
Cu = =125
0.002
(0.017 )^2 = 0.58
Cc =
0.25 0.002

48
Uses And Design
Of RE Wall For
Railway
Formation

49
 Reinforced Earth
• The concept of combining two materials of different strengths characteristics to form a
composite material of greater strength is quite familiar in civil engineering practices and is
in use for ages. The reinforced concrete constructions are examples for such composite
materials. It combines the high tensile strength of steel with the high compressive, but
relatively low tensile strength of concrete.
• Likewise, soils which have little if any tensile strength can also be strengthened by the
inclusion of materials with high tensile strength. This mobilisation of tensile strength is
obtained by surface interaction between the soil and the reinforcement through friction
and adhesion. The reinforced soil is obtained by placing extensible or inextensible materials
such as metallic strips or polymeric reinforcement within the soil to obtain the requisite
properties.
• Soil reinforcement through metallic strips, grids or meshes and polymeric strips sheets is
now a well developed and widely accepted technique of earth improvement. Anchoring
and soil nailing is also adopted to improve the soil properties.
• The use of reinforced earth technique is primarily due to its versatility, cost effectiveness
and ease of construction. The reinforced earth technique is particularly useful in urban
locations where availability of land is minimum and construction is required to take place
with minimum disturbance traffic. The various applications of reinforced earth

50
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Limit state principle is adopted for design of reinforced earth in this document.
Two limit states are considered in the design

•ultimate limit state

•Serviceability limit state

Ultimate limit state is associate with collapse or other similar forms of structure failure.
Margins of safety against attaining limit state of collapse is provided by use of partial material
factor and partial load factor. Disturbing forces are increased by multiplying by prescribed load
factor to produce design loads. Restoring forces are reduced by dividing by prescribed by factor
to produce design strength.
Serviceability limit states are attained if the magnitudes of deformation occurring within the
deigns life exceed prescribed limits.

PARTIAL FACTORS
Limit state design for reinforcement earth employs three principal partial factors. The factor
are as given below:
(i) Load factor:
Dead load factor (ff)
Live load factor (fq)
(ii) Material factor (fm)
(iii) Factor to take account economic ramification (fn )
The numerical value above factor is of unity or greater. The ranges of these values depend
upon the type of structure , mode of loading and its design life.

FUNDAMENTAL MECHANISMS
Soil has an inherently low tensile strength but a high compressive strength. An objective of
incorporating soil reinforcement is to absorb tensile loads or shear stresses within the structure.
In absence of the reinforcement, structure my fail in shear or by excess of the deformation
When an axial load is applied to the reinforced soil, it generates an axial compressive strain and
lateral tensile strain this is illustrated by model in Fig 2 . If the reinforcement has an axial tensile
stiffness greater than that of the soil, then lateral movements of the soil will only occur if soil
can move relative to the reinforcement. Movement of the soil, relative to the reinforcement,
will generate shear stresses at the soil/ reinforcement interface, these shear stresses are
redistributed back into the soil in the form of internal confining stress. Due to this, the strain
within the reinforced soil mass is less than the strain in unreinforced soil for the same amount of
stresses, this is indicated in Fig 2 where δhr < δh. and δvr < δv, provided the surface of the
reinforcement is sufficiently rough to prevent the relatively movement and the axial tensile
stiffness of reinforcement is more than that of soil

51
Uses And Design
Of RE Wall For
Railway
Formation

52
 Reinforced Earth
• The concept of combining two materials of different strengths characteristics to form a
composite material of greater strength is quite familiar in civil engineering practices and is
in use for ages. The reinforced concrete constructions are examples for such composite
materials. It combines the high tensile strength of steel with the high compressive, but
relatively low tensile strength of concrete.
• Likewise, soils which have little if any tensile strength can also be strengthened by the
inclusion of materials with high tensile strength. This mobilisation of tensile strength is
obtained by surface interaction between the soil and the reinforcement through friction
and adhesion. The reinforced soil is obtained by placing extensible or inextensible materials
such as metallic strips or polymeric reinforcement within the soil to obtain the requisite
properties.
• Soil reinforcement through metallic strips, grids or meshes and polymeric strips sheets is
now a well developed and widely accepted technique of earth improvement. Anchoring
and soil nailing is also adopted to improve the soil properties.
• The use of reinforced earth technique is primarily due to its versatility, cost effectiveness
and ease of construction. The reinforced earth technique is particularly useful in urban
locations where availability of land is minimum and construction is required to take place
with minimum disturbance traffic. The various applications of reinforced earth

53
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
Limit state principle is adopted for design of reinforced earth in this document.
Two limit states are considered in the design

•ultimate limit state

•Serviceability limit state

Ultimate limit state is associate with collapse or other similar forms of structure failure.
Margins of safety against attaining limit state of collapse is provided by use of partial material
factor and partial load factor. Disturbing forces are increased by multiplying by prescribed load
factor to produce design loads. Restoring forces are reduced by dividing by prescribed by factor
to produce design strength.
Serviceability limit states are attained if the magnitudes of deformation occurring within the
deigns life exceed prescribed limits.

PARTIAL FACTORS
Limit state design for reinforcement earth employs three principal partial factors. The factor
are as given below:
(i) Load factor:
Dead load factor (ff)
Live load factor (fq)
(ii) Material factor (fm)
(iii) Factor to take account economic ramification (fn )
The numerical value above factor is of unity or greater. The ranges of these values depend
upon the type of structure , mode of loading and its design life.

FUNDAMENTAL MECHANISMS
Soil has an inherently low tensile strength but a high compressive strength. An objective of
incorporating soil reinforcement is to absorb tensile loads or shear stresses within the structure.
In absence of the reinforcement, structure my fail in shear or by excess of the deformation
When an axial load is applied to the reinforced soil, it generates an axial compressive strain and
lateral tensile strain this is illustrated by model in Fig 2 . If the reinforcement has an axial tensile
stiffness greater than that of the soil, then lateral movements of the soil will only occur if soil
can move relative to the reinforcement. Movement of the soil, relative to the reinforcement,
will generate shear stresses at the soil/ reinforcement interface, these shear stresses are
redistributed back into the soil in the form of internal confining stress. Due to this, the strain
within the reinforced soil mass is less than the strain in unreinforced soil for the same amount of
stresses, this is indicated in Fig 2 where δhr < δh. and δvr < δv, provided the surface of the
reinforcement is sufficiently rough to prevent the relatively movement and the axial tensile
stiffness of reinforcement is more than that of soil

54
REINFORCEMENT GEOMETRY
Soil reinforcement can take a variety of forms , some of which are shown in Fig 4 . Grids meshes
and strips can be metallic or polymeric whilst sheet reinforcement takes the form of polymeric
geotextiles. Anchored earth fill employs multiple layers of flexible steel bars or polymeric
materials, which are shaped, at the end remote from the face of the wall, to form an anchor.
When used as soil nails, steel bars have a simple circular cross section.
Sheet reinforcement, and polymeric grids are generally installed full width, such that each metre
length of face is associated with a 1 m width of reinforcement, and so, in a multiplayer system,
the total stabilizing force developed by the reinforcement is a function of the number of layers of
reinforcement and their vertical spacings. Strip reinforcement, including wide strips of metallic or
polymeric grid, are not placed full width

55
REINFORCEMENT BOND

The length of the reinforcement depends upon the bond characteristic which in turn decide the
load carrying capacity and the length of the reinforcement should be sufficient to prevent pull out
the resisting zone. In assessing the bond performance for design purpose the shear stress
develop between soil and reinforcement are assumed to be uniformly distributed over the entire
length even though actually it is not uniform. The shear stresses is taken to be the product of
vertical stress multiply by coefficient μ or tan δ’ where δ’ is the angle of bond stress. For narrow
rough strip reinforcement embedded in cohesion less fill dilatancy in the fill causes vertically
effected stresses to rise locally give rise to enhanced pull-out resistance.

COMPONENTS OF REINFORCED EARTH STRUCTURE:

Reinforced earth structure consists of three main components , namely
• Reinforcing element

• Soil back fill

• Facing element

56
DESCRIPTION OF REINFORCING ELEMENT:
A variety of materials can be used as reinforcing materials .Those that have been used
successfully include steel, concrete, glass fibre, wood, rubber, aluminium and thermoplastics.
Reinforcement may take the form of strips, grids, anchors & sheet material, chains planks,
rope, vegetation and combinations of these or other material forms.
Types of reinforcing materials:

• Strips:
These are flexible linear element normally having their breadth, ‘ b’ greater than their
thickness, ‘t’. Dimensions vary with application and structure, but are usually within the range
t = 3-5 mm, b = 5-100 mm. The most common strips are metals. The form of stainless,
galvanized or coated steel strips being either plain or having several protrusions such as ribs
or gloves to increase the friction between the reinforcement and the fill. Strips can also be
formed from aluminium, copper, polymers and glass fibre reinforced plastic (GRP). Reed and
bamboo reinforcements are normally categorized as strips, as are chains.
• Planks:
Similar to strips except that their form of construction makes them stiff. Planks can be formed
from timber, reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete. The dimensions of concrete planks
vary; however, reinforcements with a thickness, ‘t’ = 100 mm and breadth, b= 200–300 mm
have been used. They have to be handled with care as they can be susceptible to cracking.
• Grids and Geogrids:
Reinforcing elements formed from transverse and longitudinal members, in which the
transverse members run parallel to the face or free edge of the structure and behave as
abutments or anchors

(a) Mono Oriented geogrid (b) Bi- Oriented geogrid

Geogrid

57
• Sheet reinforcement:
May be formed from metal such as galvanized steel sheet, fabric (textile) or expanded metal not
meeting the criteria for a grid.

• Nailing :
Earth may be protected by geosynthetics with earth nailing.

• Anchors:
Flexible linear elements having one or more pronounced protrusions or distortions which act as
abutments or anchors in the fill or soil. They may be formed from steel, rope, plastic (textile) or
combinations of materials such as webbing and tyres, steel and tyres, or steel and concrete

• Composite reinforcement :
Reinforcement can be in the form of combinations of materials and material forms such as
sheets and strips, grid and strips and anchors, depending on the requirements.

Care should be taken to ensure that:

-Bodkins have sufficient cross-sectional area and strength to avoid excessive deformation;
- Bodkins are not so large as to distort the parent material causing stress concentrations;
- Joints are pre-tensioned prior to loading, to reduce joint displacement as the components
lock together.

BASIS FOR DESIGN

In the reinforced earth wall two type of stability checked:

• External stability : It consider the reinforced structure as whole and check the stability
for sliding, overturning, bearing/tilt and slip

58
• Internal stability: It cover internal mechanism ( tension and pull out failure) such as
shear within the structure , arrangement and behavior of the reinforcement and
backfill. It checks the stability for each reinforcement layers and stability of wedges
within the reinforced fill

59
 Retaining wall
surcharge
A retaining wall is a structure that
holds or retains soil behind it.
There are many types of materials
that can be used to create
retaining walls like concrete
blocks, poured concrete, treated
timbers, rocks or boulders. Some
are easy to use, others have a
shorter life span, but all can retainGround level
soil.

USES OF RETAINING WALL

•Preventing Soil Erosion: A retaining wall can be used to prevent soil from being
washed away, through erosion. The wall prevents rainwater or water from
irrigation activities from washing off soil from your property.
•Stability: Landscaping a sloped garden poses a great challenge. The sloping
causes lateral pressure that may lead to the movement of soil downwards.
•The Retaining wall can be built using a wide variety of materials.
•To increase usable space – If your property is sloped, you may be losing out on
valuable usable space. By having a wall or wall system installed on the property, it
allows for the land to be leveled off, providing additional space that can be used
for a variety of purposes.
•To improve drainage – When land is sloped, it can create major issues due to
water flowing down the slope. To improve drainage and avoid flooding, structural
walls are often built to stop the water from travelling downhill.
•To impede erosion – Soil on land that is severely sloped can erode over time as
water, wind and gravity cause it to travel downhill. This can cause major
problems, compromising the structural integrity of the land, as well as resulting
in more minor issues.
•To enhance privacy – Sometimes retaining walls are built in order to enhance
privacy between properties. These walls are useful as privacy enhancers when
one home or building sits higher than another.

60
 Steps To Build A Railway Tie Formation(retaining Wall)

Step 1: Level and Tamp Down the Area

First, we leveled the area where to wall was going to be. Actually, it is slightly sloping down away from
the building. We then tamped the dirt to make a nice, hard foundation. Tamping the dirt will also
help to minimize settling and shifting of the wall. Although, it will settle and shift a bit

Step 2: Cut the Area to Make a Snug Fit for the Railroad Ties
You want to cut the area where the wall will be square so the ties fit in there nicely. Make the area
about 5 or 6 inches deeper than the railroad ties so you have room to fill the area behind the tie
wall with gravel. This will allow any water coming down the hill to seep into the gravel instead of
bulging out your tie wall and eventually making it fall down or move.

Step 3: Add in a Layer of Gravel

Once you've got a good area for your wall made, put down a foundational layer of gravel. We did ours
about 4 inches thick and tamped it down real good. This will provide bottom drainage for the wall,
allowing the water to drain away through the gravel instead of pushing the railroad ties out or
eroding the dirt away from the wall.

Step 4: Level the First Tie in the Wall

Once you have a good bed of gravel laid down and tamped, it's time to level the first tie in the wall.
It's important to get this tie as level as possible because any error will be compounded the higher the wall
is. Take away or add gravel underneath the tie as needed until it is level in both directions. Having the wall
out of plumb will also cause the wall to sag, bulge or fall faster. Using a sledgehammer as a tamper works
pretty well to tamp gravel under the front or back edge to adjust it.
Step 5: Make Your Pins to Secure the Ties Together
Next, you're gonna need to make some pins or "dead men." Most people use rebar because the ridges
help to grab the dirt and railroad ties to hold the wall solid.
Step 6: Drill Holes in the Tie for the Pins
Now you gotta drill some holes. You want the hole to be the same size or just slightly bigger than the
pin you are going to drive through it. You can drill it smaller if you want, but it will make pounding the pin
in a real pain. Especially if your pins are made out of rebar.

Step 7: Pound in the Pins

Now it's time to pound in some pins. We like to start them off with a 5 lb hand sledge and finish them
off with a 10 lb full sledge hammer when the goin' gets tough. Once you've got the pin almost all the way
in and there's about 4-5 inches sticking up, pound it over to lock the railroad tie down so it can't slide off
the pin.
Step 8: Fill the Gap in Between the Tie and the Wall
After the pins in the first tie are set, fill that 5-6 inch gap between the back of the tie and the hill that it
will be holding back with gravel. Tamp it down with a sledge hammer.
Step 9: Repeat the Process Until You've Reached the Desired
Height
Now just repeat the process. Place a railroad tie on top of the last tie you laid, drill into it and the one
below it as deep as you can, drive in the pins, fill the back side with gravel, tamp it down and repeat! 61
 Design Introduction
Site investigation and soil parameters
• Besides the extensive in situ site testing, such as cone penetration tests (CPT’s), pressiometer tests
and core drillings, also extensive laboratory testing was carried out on undisturbed samples.
• The results of these tests were used to determine the effective strength parameters.
• A number of CPT’s were performed directly from the train tracks and through the embankment fill.
The railway embankment is a poorly compacted and silty fill.

Finite difference model

• Special consideration was given to the compressibility of the alluvium.
• To model the stress dependant stiffness of this layer, a“double yield” soil mechanical model was
used.
• The double yield model allows for plastic volumetric strain hardening, although independent of
shear strain level.

Parameter Alluvium gravel Yc clay fill

coh. (kPa) 5 0 20 4

friction (°) 22 32 25 27

EM (MPa) 2.5 10 27 /

pl (MPa) 0.5 1.9 1.6 /

To limit excessive swelling of the embankment, a

simple double yield model was used with
constant loading and eloading moduli

62
 Design Of
Retaining Wall
For Railway
Formation

63
 East Side
KRCL officials informed that design document for East side retaining wall (collapsed on 17.06.2011) is not available.
They informed that consultants M/s SPA Mumbai approved the same design of Mass concrete Retaining Wall

West Side
System as of west side (designed in 2007) with increase in base width (from 2.20m to 2.75m). KRCL
provided the design calculations of their consultants for west side retaining wall and drawings provided by
consultants for construction of East side retaining wall .

Design Calculations provided by KRCL for West side

Retaining Wall
1.Safety Against Overturning
Design check is performed for safety against overturning only. Safety checks for soil bearing pressure and
sliding have not been carried out. However, it is mentioned in a Note that the mass concrete wall bears
against existing RCC raft 500mm thick which forms part of the trough, therefore, sliding cannot occur which
appears to be a reasonable assumption .
2. Backfill Material
φ value of backfill material is considered as 350. Value of friction angle δ (between wall and backfill soil
mass) is considered as 22.50 which is in conformity with provisions of IRC-78:2000 (Appendix-3). However,
the value of friction angle δ prescribed as per Clause 5.7 of IRS Bridge Substructure and Foundation Code
is φ/3 (i.e. 11.670).
Coefficient of Earth Pressure
Coefficient of earth pressure Ka (in non-seismic case) with 140 of wall angle (α) worked out by
consultants and used in design is 0.589. Whereas value of Ka with 15.950 of wall angle (α) works out to
0.627.
Overturning Moment Due To Earth Pressure
It is also noted that in calculating the overturning moment due to earth pressure net effect is taken
(i.e., overturning moment due to horizontal component minus restoring moment due to vertical
component) and factor of safety is calculated w.r.t. restoring moments of weight of wall.
Whereas, Factor of safety should have been calculated as ratio of sum of all overturning moments and
sum of all restoring moments.

64
Factor of Safety (FOS) against overturning for Non-seismic
Calculation sheets of design checks performed by RDSO for both non-seismic and seismic cases are placed as
Annexure-6. It can be seen that Factor of Safety (FOS) against overturning for Non-seismic case comes out to
1.32 against 2.31 worked out by Consultants keeping φ value of backfill material, wall friction angle δ, and

surcharge angle i same as those assumed by consultants .

Design of East Side Retaining Wall

As already mentioned, KRCL only provided drawings adopted for construction of East side retaining wall as
suggested by their consultants.
Bore log particulars of borehole no.4 at chainage 209/008 (in the stretch of collapsed retaining wall) of
October’07 on East side of cutting provided by KRCL classifies the soil as reddish yellowish colour highly
weathered rock (residual lateritic soil) at depth from 5.60m to 7.50m with N value of SPT results as 16.
Retaining wall of 5.50m height was founded on this stratum .

Design Cordination:
Design Calculations carried out by RDSO for East side retaining wall which collapsed on 17.06.2011 are
enclosed as Annexure-7. As can be seen, Factor of Safety (FOS) against overturning for Non-seismic case
works out to 1.84 keeping φ value of backfill material, wall friction angle δ, and surcharge angle i same as
those assumed by consultants M/s SPA Mumbai in design for west side retaining wall. FOS is further
reduced to 1.44 if calculated as per provisions of IRS substructure code .
•Design for East side retaining wall is also verified with following site details considering additional
surcharge due to landslide on first berm and calculations are placed at Annexure-8:
•φ value of backfill material (as per GE Lab tests conducted on soil samples collected from site = 33.12
degree
•wall-soil friction angle δ (As per IRS substructure and foundation code for concrete retaining wall, smooth
concrete surface) = φ/3
•Surcharge angle, i(flat berm as per site conditions) = 0 degree
• Approximate surcharge height due to land slide on first berm (as per information collected from KRCL
officials during site visit) = 1.50m to 2.0m
•Partial submergence of backfill material (assumed 2.50m)

• It can be seen that Factor of safety against overturning (for Non-seismic case) is reduced to 1.16 for
1.5m surcharge height and 1.06 for 2m surcharge height. In case of partial submergence of backfill this
FOS is further reduced. It is also noted that eccentricity of resultant force does not lie in middle third
portion of base and tensile stresses (negative bearing pressure) are generated at heel of wall base

65
 Design Numerical
Design a reinforced soil Retaining Wall of wall
height 6m with a reinforced friction angle is 35°
and backfill having angle of friction is 30°. The
maximum surcharge load on the crest is 25
Kpa.
Given,
wall height =6m
Reinforced soil
φr = 35 ° (Angle of Friction)
γr = 20 KN/m2 (unit rate of soil)
Backfill
Φb = 30 ° (Angle of Friction)
γb =18KN/m2 (unit weight of soil)
Surcharge,
qd = 15KPa (Surcharge at Dead Load)
qL = 25KPa (Surcharge at Live Load)
Assume that bearing Capacity; qna =200KPa
25KPa

6m H/2
H/3

KaγH Ka(qd +qL) 66

Kɑb = 1- sinφ = 1 – sin 30ͦ ̊ = ⅓
1+ sinφ 1+ sin 30 ̊

Active Load on Wall

Pɑ = ½ Kɑb γ H² + Kɑb (qD + qL) X H + Ph
= ½ X ⅓ X 18 X 6² + ⅓ (15+25) X 6 + 25
= 108 + 80 + 25
Pа= 213 KN/m

Overturning moment about the base

Mₒ = 108 X 2+ 80 X 3 + 25 X 6
= 216 + 240 + 150 15KPa
Mₒ = 606 KN-m/m

Assume the trial 6m

Length of RE block = 4m
4m
Weight of the reinforced soil block + permanent loads
Rv = 20 X 6 X 4 + 15 X 4
= 480 + 60
Rv = 540 KN/m

Resistance to lateral sliding = Rv X tan( 2/3 X ф/4)

= 540X tan (2/3 X 35) = 233 KN/m
Factor of Safety = 233 = 1.1 < 1.5 (NOT OK)
213
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 Pa = 215 KN/m
Mₒ = 606 KN-m/m

Increase the Length to 5m,

Rv = 20 X 6 + 5 + 15 X5
= 625 KN/m
Factor of Safety = 675 X tan ( 2/3 X 35 ) = 1.5 (approx.)
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Resisting moment,
MR =20 X6 X 5 X 2.5 + 15 X 5 X 5/2
= 1687.5 KN/m
FOS against overturning = 1687 = 2.75 > 2
606
Bearing Pressure on foundation
Rv = 20 X 6X5 + ( 15 + 25)X5
=800 KN/m
Eccentricity, e = Mₒ = 600 = 0.76 < 0.83 (=L/6)
Rv 800
σᵧb = Rv = 960 = 202 Kpa (Very close to qna)
B – 2e 6 – 2X0.63
10⁰

6m H’

7m
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Assume trial Length = 7m
H’= 6+7 X tan 10⁰
= 7.23 m

Ka = cos 10⁰ - √cos 10⁰ - cos 30⁰

cos 10⁰ + √cos 10⁰ -cos 30⁰
= 0.35
Pa= 1 Ka b үb H^2 X cos β + (qD + qL) H cosβ
2
= 0.5 X 0.35 X 18 X 7.23^2 X cos 10 +40 X 0.35X7.23 X cos 10⁰
= 262 KN/m
Assuming moment
M= 162 X 7.23 + 100 X 7.23
2 2
= 751 KN – m/m
Total downward force from the reinforced fill
Rv = 6X 7 X 20 + 1 X 1.23 X 20 + 15 X 7
2
Rv = 1031 KN/m

FOS against Sliding = Rv X tan (2/3 фr)

262
= 1031 X tan (2/3 tan 35⁰)
262
= 1.7 >1.5 (HENCE OK)
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 Ra = 262 KN/m
Mₒ = 751 KN/m
Resisting Moment
MR = 840 X 3.5 + 86.1 X 2/3 X 7 + 105 X 35
= 3710 KN/m (approx)
FOS against overturning = 3710 = 5 >>3
751
Bearing Pressure on the Foundation Soil
Rv = 6 X 7 X 20 + 1 X 7 X 1.23 X 20 + ( 15 + 25 ) X 77
2
Rv = 1206 KN/m
Eccentricity, e = Mₒ = 0.63 (< L /6)
Rv
Bearing Pressure
Σᵧb = Rv = 1206 = 210 KPa (approx)
B – 2e 7- 2X 0.63

6m

7.5m
6m
Lateral sliding (FOS > 1.5)
Overturning (FOS > 2)
FOS agaainst sliding circle Failure > 1.3
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The design tensile strength of polymeric reinforcement is
TD = Tcr / fm
Where Tcr is the creep strength and fm is the material factor
and it’s value is 1.0
For 80 RE TD = 38.5 / 1.0 = 38.5 kN/m
For 55 RE TD = 28.5 / 1.0 = 28.5 kN/m
The tensile loads in the grids
Tj = Kaw σvj. Svj
Or Tj = Tpj In this case strip loading is not occur therefore the
value of Tsj and Tfj is not considered
Tj= Kaw (ffs үw hj + fq ws ) Svj
1- Kab (ffs үb hj + 3 fq ws ) ( hj /L)^2
3(ffsүw hj + fq ws)
Therefore
Svj = Tj / Kaw σvj
Design Strength
svj =
Kaw (ffs үw hj + fq ws ) Svj
1- Kab (ffs үb hj + 3 fq ws ) ( hj /L)^2
3(ffsүw hj + fq ws)

Thus , at each depth hj there will be a value of svj for each grid

layout of reinforcement can be determined from this data.

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 hj (m) svj for 80 RE svj for 55RE
(m) (m)

0.5 4.88 3.61

1.0 3.28 2.43
1.5 2.47 1.83
2.0 1.98 1.47
2.5 1.65 1.22
3.0 1.42 1.05
3.5 1.24 0.92
4.0 1.11 0.82
4.5 1.00 0.74
5.0 0.91 0.67
5.5 0.83 0.62
6.0 0.77 0.57

LOCAL STABILITY
check The higher resistance grid i.e 80RE is placed at the
bottom of the structure as from the Table 5 the spacing is
0.7 consider and in the remaining height 55RE grid is
consider for the same spacing. The layout of
reinforcement with the vertical spacing is 0.7

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The resistance of jth reinforcing element should be checked
against rupture and adherence failure.

Tj = Tpj

Kaw (ffs үw hj + fq ws ) Svj

Tj=
1- Kab (ffs үb hj + 3 fq ws ) ( hj /L)^2
3(ffsүw hj + fq ws)
I) RUPTURE : In local stability
The value of TD /fn and Tj
hj Sv j Tj TD

1.5 0.7 11.15 25.9

3.0 0.7 20.40 25.9

4.5 0.7 31.70 35.0

6.0 0.7 46.80 35.0

the value of Tj is greater than TD /fn at the depth greater than

5m, the rupture condition is does not satisfy. Therefore we
decrease the vertical spacing between the grid , then consider
Sv j = 0.5. The layout of reinforcement with the vertical spacing
is 0.5
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The value of the force to be resisted with active surcharge
h tan β (ffs үw hj + 2 fq ws )
T=
2 tan ( фw + β )

H T Effective number Total reinforcement

(m) (kN/m) of grids resistance
With Without With Without
surcharge surcharge 55RE 80RE surcharge surcharge

1.5 14.73 8.66 3 - 82.30 69.32

3.0 46.78 34.65 6 - 167.80 154.82

4.5 96.14 77.96 9 - 253.30 240.32

6.0 162.81 138.60 10 2 358.80 345.82

Grids coincident with or below the bottom of the wedge are

disregarded in this evaluation. The value of equation (4) given
by considering the anchorage of the grid is greater than the
design strength of the grid, then eq. (4) value is limited to the
design strength. In this case total reinforcement resistance > T
and therefore the wedge check is satisfied.
For 80 RE TD / fn = 38.5 / 1.1 = 35.0 kN/m
For 55 RE TD / fn = 28.5 / 1.1 = 25.9 kN/m 74
H T Effective number of Total
(m) (kN/m) grids reinforcement
55 RE 80RE

1.5 14.73 3 - 77.7

3.0 46.78 6 - 155.40

4.5 96.14 9 - 233.10

6.0 162.81 10 2 329.00

In above table total reinforcement is greater than T and

therefore wedge check is satisfied. Hence the structure satisfy
all required condition. Now, it is safe

75
 REFERENCE

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