PHARMACOLOGY

Endocrine System
 Endocrine System

The endocrine system is made up

of glands of the body and the
hormones produced by those
glands.

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Endocrine Glands vs Exocrine Glands
Endocrine glands, secrete their products
directly into the bloodstream.

Exocrine glands are glands that secrete

their products into ducts.
Typical exocrine glands include sweat
glands, salivary glands, mammary glands,
and many glands of the digestive system.
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The glands of the Endocrine System:
1) Hypothalamus
2) Pituitary
3) Thymus
4) Pineal
5) Thyroid
6) Parathyroid
7) Adrenal
8) Pancreas
9) Gonads (testis in men, ovaries in women)

And (10) Miscellaneous organs discussed below. 4

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The endocrine glands are controlled
directly by stimulation from the nervous
system as well as by chemical receptors
in the blood and hormones.

By regulating the functions of organs in the

body, these glands help to maintain the
body’s homeostasis.

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 Hormone Functions
Cellular metabolism,
Reproduction,
Sexual development,
Sugar and Mineral Homeostasis,
Heart rate, and
Digestion

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 The Hypothalamus

The Hypothalamus serves many different functions in

the nervous system, and is also responsible for the
direct control of the endocrine system through the
pituitary gland.

The hypothalamus contains special cells called

neurosecretory cells—neurons that secrete
hormones

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Location of the Hypothalamus and
Pituitary glands

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The hypothalamus is a part of the brain located
superior and anterior to the brain stem and inferior
to the thalamus. The Thalamus is NOT an Endocrine
Gland, but the HYPOthalamus is:
(The thalamus has functions such as relaying sensory
and motor signals to the cerebral cortex, and the
regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness

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 Hormones released from the
Hypothalamus gland
• Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
• Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
• Growth hormone-inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
• Oxytocin
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
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 The Pituitary Gland
All of the hormones released by the hypothalamus
gland affect the function of the anterior pituitary
gland.
The pituitary gland, also known as the hypophysis,
is a small pea-sized lump of tissue connected to the
inferior portion of the hypothalamus of the brain.
(See picture on slide 9)
Many blood vessels surround the pituitary gland to
carry the hormones it releases throughout the
body. 12
The pituitary gland is actually made of 2 completely
separate structures: the posterior and anterior
pituitary glands.

• Posterior Pituitary: The posterior pituitary gland

is actually not glandular tissue at all, but nervous
tissue instead. The posterior pituitary is a small
extension of the hypothalamus through which
the axons of some of the neurosecretory cells of
the hypothalamus extend.

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 Hormones of Posterior Pituitary
Neurosecretory cells create 2 hormones in the
hypothalamus that are stored and released by
the posterior pituitary:
– Oxytocin triggers uterine contractions during
childbirth and the release of milk during
breastfeeding.
– Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) prevents water loss
in the body by increasing the re-uptake of water in
the kidneys and reducing blood flow to sweat
glands.
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 Anterior Pituitary
• Anterior Pituitary: The anterior pituitary gland is
the true glandular part of the pituitary gland. The
function of the anterior pituitary gland is
controlled by the releasing and inhibiting
hormones of the hypothalamus. The anterior
pituitary produces 6 important hormones:

• TSH FSH
• ACTH LH
• HGH PRL
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 Anterior Pituitary Hormones
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), as its name
suggests, is a tropic hormone responsible for the
stimulation of the thyroid gland.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulates
the adrenal cortex, the outer part of the adrenal
gland, to produce its hormones.
Human growth hormone (HGH) affects many
target cells throughout the body by stimulating
their growth, repair, and reproduction. 16
– Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates
the follicle cells of the gonads to produce
gametes—ova in females and sperm in males.

– Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the gonads

to produce the sex hormones—estrogens in
females and testosterone in males.

– Prolactin (PRL) has many effects on the body,

chief of which is that it stimulates the mammary
glands of the breast to produce milk.
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 The Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is a small pinecone-shaped mass
of glandular tissue found just posterior to the
thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces
the hormone melatonin that helps to regulate the
human sleep-wake cycle known as the circadian
rhythm.

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 The Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland
located at the base of the neck and wrapped
around the lateral sides of the trachea. (Refer
back to picture on slide 5).
The thyroid gland produces 3 major hormones:
• Calcitonin
• Triiodothyronine (T3)
• Thyroxine (T4)
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 Thyroid Hormones
Calcitonin functions to reduce the concentration of
calcium ions in the blood by aiding the absorption
of calcium into the matrix of bones.

The hormones T3 and T4 work together to

regulate the body’s metabolic rate.

Increased levels of T3 and T4 lead to increased

cellular activity and energy usage in the body.

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 Parathyroid gland

The parathyroid glands are 4 small masses of

glandular tissue found on the posterior side of
the thyroid gland.

The parathyroid glands produce the hormone

parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is involved in
calcium ion homeostasis.

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PTH is released from the parathyroid glands
when calcium ion levels in the blood drop below
a set point.

PTH stimulates the osteoclasts to break down the

calcium containing bone matrix to release free
calcium ions into the bloodstream.

PTH also triggers the kidneys to return calcium

ions filtered out of the blood back to the
bloodstream so that it is conserved.
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 The Adrenal Glands

The adrenal glands are a pair of roughly

triangular glands found immediately
superior to the kidneys.
The adrenal glands are each made of 2
distinct layers, each with their own unique
functions:
* the outer adrenal cortex and
* the inner adrenal medulla.
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 Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex produces many cortical hormones
in 3 classes: Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids, and
androgens.
– Glucocorticoids have many diverse functions,
including the breakdown of proteins and lipids to
produce glucose. Glucocorticoids also function to
reduce inflammation and immune response.
– Mineralocorticoids, as their name suggests, are a
group of hormones that help to regulate the
concentration of mineral ions in the body. 24
Androgens, such as testosterone, are produced at low
levels in the adrenal cortex to regulate the growth and
activity of cells that are receptive to male hormones.

In adult males, the amount of androgens produced by the

testes is many times greater than the amount produced
by the adrenal cortex, leading to the appearance of
male secondary sex characteristics.

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 Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla produces the hormones
epinephrine and norepinephrine under stimulation
by the sympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system. Both of these hormones help to
increase the flow of blood to the brain and muscles
to improve the “fight-or-flight” response to stress.
These hormones also work to increase heart rate,
breathing rate, and blood pressure while decreasing
the flow of blood to and function of organs that are
not involved in responding to emergencies 26
 Pancreas
The pancreas is a large gland located in the
abdominal cavity just inferior and posterior to the
stomach.
The pancreas is considered to be a heterocrine gland
as it contains both endocrine and exocrine tissue.
The endocrine cells of the pancreas make up just
about 1% of the total mass of the pancreas and are
found in small groups throughout the pancreas
called islets of Langerhans (see picture slide 5).
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 Pancreas Islets of Langerhans
Within these islets are 2 types of cells—
alpha and beta cells.
The alpha cells produce the hormone
glucagon, which is responsible for raising
blood glucose levels. Glucagon triggers
muscle and liver cells to break down the
polysaccharide glycogen to release glucose
into the bloodstream.
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 Insulin – Beta Cells
The beta cells produce the hormone
insulin, which is responsible for lowering
blood glucose levels after a meal.

Insulin triggers the absorption of glucose

from the blood into cells, where it is
added to glycogen molecules for storage.

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 Thymus Gland
The thymus is a soft, triangular-shaped organ found
in the chest posterior to the sternum. The thymus
produces hormones called thymosins that help to
train and develop T-lymphocytes during fetal
development and childhood.
The T-lymphocytes produced in the thymus go on
to protect the body from pathogens throughout a
person’s entire life. The thymus becomes inactive
during puberty and is slowly replaced by adipose
tissue throughout a person’s life. 30
 Gonads
The gonads—ovaries in females and testes in
males— (already discussed in Reproductive
lecture)
Gonads are responsible for producing the sex
hormones of the body:
Testosterone in Males
Progesterone and Estrogen in Females
These sex hormones determine the secondary sex
characteristics of adult females and adult males.
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 Other Hormone Producing Organs
In addition to the glands of the endocrine system,
many other non-glandular organs and tissues in the
body produce hormones as well. They are:
Heart: The hormone ANP works to reduce blood
pressure by triggering vasodilation to provide more
space for the blood to travel through.
Kidneys: The hormone erythropoietin (EPO) in
response to low levels of oxygen in the blood.
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EPO released by the kidneys travels to the red
bone marrow where it stimulates an increased
production of red blood cells. The number of
red blood cells increases the oxygen carrying
capacity of the blood.
In Dialysis patient’s you will observe that many of
them are given the erythropoietin hormone via
an injection called EPO at the end of their
dialysis treatment. This is a very expensive drug
but is very helpful to the patient with kidney
failure.
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 Digestive system Hormones
The hormones cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin,
and gastrin are all produced by the organs of
the gastrointestinal tract.
CCK, secretin, and gastrin all help to regulate the
secretion of pancreatic juice, bile, and gastric
juice in response to the presence of food in the
stomach.
CCK is also instrumental in the sensation of
satiety or “fullness” after eating a meal.
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 Adipose tissue
Adipose tissue produces the hormone leptin
that is involved in the management of
appetite and energy usage by the body.

Leptin is produced at levels relative to the

amount of adipose tissue in the body, allowing
the brain to monitor the body’s energy
storage condition

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 The Placenta in pregnant women
The placenta produces several hormones that
help to maintain pregnancy. Progesterone is
produced to relax the uterus, protect the fetus
from the mother’s immune system, and
prevent premature delivery of the fetus.
Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) assists
progesterone by signaling the ovaries to
maintain the production of estrogen and
progesterone throughout pregnancy.
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 Local Hormones
Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are produced
by every tissue in the body (except for blood
tissue) in response to damaging stimuli.

These two hormones mainly affect the cells that

are local to the source of damage, leaving the
rest of the body free to function normally.

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 Local Hormones, continued
Prostaglandins cause swelling, inflammation,
increased pain sensitivity, and increased local body
temperature to help block damaged regions of the
body from infection or further damage. They act as
the body’s natural bandages to keep pathogens out
and swell around damaged joints like a natural cast
to limit movement.
Leukotrienes help the body heal after prostaglandins
have taken effect by reducing inflammation while
helping white blood cells to move into the region to
clean up pathogens and damaged tissues. 38
 Hormone Properties
Once hormones have been produced by glands, they
are distributed through the body via the
bloodstream. As hormones travel through the body,
they pass through cells or along the plasma
membranes of cells until they encounter a receptor
for that particular hormone.
Hormones can only affect target cells that have the
appropriate receptors. This property of hormones is
known as specificity. Hormone specificity explains
how each hormone can have specific effects in
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widespread parts of the body.
 Hormone Regulation
The levels of hormones in the body can be regulated
by several factors. The nervous system can control
hormone levels through the action of the
hypothalamus and its releasing and inhibiting
hormones.
Nutrition can also control the levels of hormones in
the body. For example, the hormones T3 and T4
require 3 or 4 iodine atoms to be produced. In
people lacking iodine in their diet, they will fail to
produce sufficient levels of thyroid hormones to
maintain a healthy metabolic rate 40