Module 1: Introduction to heat transfer

1. Introduction
Heat transfer is a science, which deals with the flow of heat from a higher temperature to
lower temperature. Heat cannot be stored and it is defined as the energy in transit due to
the difference in the temperatures of the hot and cold bodies. The study of heat transfer
not only explains how the heat energy transports but also predicts about the rate of heat
transfer. When a certain amount of water is evaporated or condensed, the amount of
heat transferred in either of the processes is same. However, the rate of heat transfer in
both the cases may be different.

At this point, it is very important to understand about the basic information that the phases of a
substance (solid, liquid, and gas) are associated with its energy content. In the solid phase, the
molecules or atoms are very closely packed to give a rigid structure (fig.1.1a). In the liquid
phase, sufficient thermal energy is present, which keeps the molecules sufficiently apart and as a
result the rigidity looses (fig.1.1b). In the gas phase, the presence of additional energy results in
a complete separation and the molecules or atoms are free to move anywhere in the space
(fig.1.1c). It must be noticed that whenever a change in phase occurs, a large amount of energy
involves in the transition.

Fig. 1.1: Relative molecular distance of different phases of a substance at a fixed

temperature (a) gas/vapour, (b) liquid, and (c) solid

As we are dealing with the heating and cooling of materials in almost our all the processes, the
heat transfer is an indispensable part of any of the industries. Therefore, heat transfer is a
common subject in many engineering disciplines, especially mechanical and chemical
engineering. Study of heat transfer has a vital role in the chemical process industries. Chemical
engineers must have a thorough knowledge of heat transfer principles and their applications.

There are three different modes in which heat may pass from a hot body to a cold one. These
modes are conduction, convention, and radiation. It should be noted that the heat transfer takes
place in combination of two or three modes in any of the real engineering application. In this
chapter, we will briefly discuss about the different modes of heat transfer along with the various
basic information that will help us as a building block for further study.

1.1 Mode of heat transfer

In this section, we will discuss about the three different modes of heat transfer. The discussion
will help us to understand about the conduction, convection, and radiation. Moreover, we would
be able to understand the basic difference between the three modes of heat transfer.

1.1.1 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat in a continuous substance without any observable motion of
the matter. Thus, heat conduction is essentially the transmission of energy by molecular motion.
Consider a metallic rod being heated at the end and the other end of the rod gets heated
automatically. The heat is transported from one end to the other end by the conduction
phenomenon. The molecules of the metallic rod get energy from the heating medium and collide
with the neighbouring molecules. This process transfers the energy from the more energetic
molecules to the low energetic molecules. Thus, heat transfer requires a temperature gradient,
and the heat energy transfer by conduction occurs in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Figure 1.2 shows an illustration for the conduction, where the densely packed atoms of the rod
get energized on heating and vibration effect transfers the heat as described in fig.1.2.
 Fig.1.2: Different stages during conduction in a metallic rod

1.1.2 Convection
When a macroscopic particle of a fluid moves from the region of hot to cold region, it carries
with it a definite amount of enthalpy. Such a flow of enthalpy is known as convection.
Convection may be natural or forced. In natural convection, the movement of the fluid particles
is due to the buoyancy forces generated due to density difference of heated and colder region of
the fluid as shown in the fig.1.3a. Whereas, in forced convection the movement of fluid particles
from the heated region to colder region is assisted by some mechanical means too (eg., stirrer)
as shown in fig.1.3b.
 Fig.1.3: Heat transfer through convection (a) natural, and (b) forced

1.1.3 Radiation
We have seen that a medium is required for the heat transfer in case of conduction and
convection. However, in case of radiation, electromagnetic waves pass through the empty space.
Electromagnetic waves travel at the velocity of light in vacuum. These waves are absorbed,
reflected, and/or transmitted by the matter, which comes in the path of the wave. We will limit
our discussion (in this NPTEL course) to the thermal radiation. Thermal radiation is the term used
to describe the electromagnetic radiation, which is observed to be emitted by the surface of the
thermally excited body. The heat of the Sun is the most obvious example of thermal radiation.

There will be a continuous interchange of energy between two radiating bodies, with a net
exchange of energy from the hotter to the colder body as shown in the fig.1.4.

Fig.1.4: Heat transfer through radiation

1.2 Material properties of importance in heat transfer Before understanding heat transfer
laws, we have to understand various properties of the material. This section is devoted to a brief
discussion of some of the important properties of the material.

1.2.1 Thermal conductivity

As discussed earlier, the heat conduction is the transmission of energy by molecular action.
Thermal conductivity is the property of a particular substance and shows the ease by which the
process takes place. Higher the thermal conductivity more easily will be the heat conduction
through the substance. It can be realized that the thermal conductivity of a substance would be
dependent on the chemical composition, phase (gas, liquid, or solid), crystalline structure (if
solid), temperature, pressure, and its homogeneity.
The thermal conductivity of various substances is shown in table-1.1 and table 1.2.

Table-1.1: Thermal conductivities of various substances at 0oC

Table-1.2: Thermal conductivity of mercury at three different phases
 The general results of the careful analysis of the table-1.1 and 1.2 are as follows,

 Thermal conductivity depends on the chemical composition of the substance.

 Thermal conductivity of the liquids is more than the gasses and the metals have the highest.
 Thermal conductivity of the gases and liquids increases with the increase in temperature.
 Thermal conductivity of the metal decreases with the increase in temperature.
 Thermal conductivity is affected by the phase change.

These differences can be explained partially by the fact that while in gaseous state, the
molecules of a substance are spaced relatively far away and their motion is random. This means
that energy transfer by molecular impact is much slower than in the case of a liquid, in which the
motion is still random but in liquids the molecules are more closely packed. The same is true
concerning the difference between the thermal conductivity of the liquid and solid phases.
However, other factors are also important when the solid state is formed.

Solid having a crystalline structure has high thermal conductivity than a substance in an
amorphous solid state. Metal, crystalline in structure, have greater thermal conductivity than
non-metal (refer table-1.1). The irregular arrangement of the molecules in amorphous solids
inhibits the effectiveness of the transfer of the energy by molecular impact. Therefore, the
thermal conductivity of the non-metals is of the order of liquids. Moreover, in solids, there is an
additional transfer of heat energy resulting from vibratory motion of the crystal lattice as a
whole, in the direction of decreasing temperature.

Many factors are known to influence the thermal conductivity of metals, such as chemical
composition, atomic structure, phase changes, grain size, temperature, and pressure. Out of the
above factors, the temperature, pressure, and chemical composition are the most important.
However, if we are interested in a particular material then only the temperature effects has to be
accounted for.

As per the previous discussion and the table it is now clear that the thermal conductivity of the
metal is directly proportional to the absolute temperature and mean free path of the molecules.
The mean free path decreases with the increase in temperature so that the thermal conductivity
decreases with the temperature. It should be noted that it is true for the pure metal, and the
presence of impurity in the metal may reverse the trend. It is usually possible to represent the
thermal conductivity of a metal by a linear relation k = ko(1 + bT), where ko is the thermal
conductivity of the metal at 0oC, Tis the absolute temperature, and b is a constant.

In general the thermal conductivity of the liquids is insensitive to the pressure if the pressure is
not very close to the critical temperature. Therefore, in liquids (as in solids) the temperature
effects on the thermal conductivity are generally considered. Liquids, in general, exhibit a
decreasing thermal conductivity with temperature. However, water is a notable exception. Water
has the highest thermal conductivity among the non-metallic liquids, with a maximum value
occurring at 450oC.

The thermal conductivity of a gas is relatively independent of pressure if the pressure is near 1
atm. Vapours near the saturation point show strong pressure dependence. Steam and air are of
great engineering importance. Steam shows irregular behaving rather showing a rather strong
pressure dependence for the thermal conductivity as well as temperature dependence.

The above discussions concerning thermal conductivity were restricted to materials composed of
homogeneous or pure substances. Many of the engineering materials encountered in practice are
not of this nature like building material, and insulating material. Some material may exhibit non-
isotropic conductivities. The non-isotropic material shows different conductivity in different
direction in the material. This directional preference is primarily the result of the fibrous nature of
the material like wood, asbestos etc.

1.2.2 Specific heat capacity

Now we know that the thermal conductivity facilitates the heat to propagate through the
material due to the temperature gradient. Similarly, specific heat capacity or specific heat is the
capacity of heat stored by a material due to variation in temperature. Thus the specific heat
capacity (unit: kJ/kg·oC) is defined as the amount of thermal energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit amount of material by 1oC. Since heat is path dependent, so is specific
heat. In general, the heat transfer processes used in the chemical process plant are at constant
pressure; hence the specific heat capacity (co) is generally used.

Frequently Asked Questions (Module 1)

Q.1. What is the basic difference among conduction, convection, and radiation?
Q.2. Define thermal conductivity.
Q.3. What is the order of thermal conductivity of gas, What liquid, and metal in general?
Q.4. should be the approach to select a good thermal insulator?
Q.5. Discuss the effect of temperature on thermal conductivity.
Q.6. What is the difference between thermal conductivity and specific heat capacity?
Module2: Conduction: one dimensional

The fundamentals of heat conduction were established over one and a half century and its
contribution goes to a French mathematician and physicist, Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier. You
may be aware that any flow whether it is electricity flow, fluid flow, or heat flow needs a driving
force. The flow is proportional to the driving force and for various kinds of flows the driving force
is shown in the table 2.1.

Table 2.1. Various flows and their driving forces

Thus the heat flow per unit area per unit time (heat flux, ) can be represented by the
following relation,

where, proportionality constant k is the thermal conductivity of the material, T is the

temperature and x is the distance in the direction of heat flow. This is known as Fourier‟s law of
conduction.

The term steady-state conduction is defined as the condition which prevails in a heat conducting
body when temperatures at fixed points do not change with time. The term one-dimensional is
applied to a heat conduction problem when only one coordinate is required to describe the
distribution of temperature within the body. Such a situation hardly exists in real engineering
problems. However, by considering one-dimensional assumption the real problem is solved fairly
upto the accuracy of practical engineering interest.

2.1 Steady-state conduction through constant area

A simple case of steady-state, one-dimensional heat conduction can be considered through a flat
wall as shown in the fig.2.1.
 Fig.2.1: Steady-state conduction through a slab (constant area)

The flat wall of thickness dx is separated by two regions, the one region is at high temperature
(T1 ) and the other one is at temperature T2 . The wall is very large in comparison of the thickness
so that the heat losses from the edges are negligible. Consider there is no generation or
accumulation of the heat in the wall and the external surfaces of the wall are at isothermal
temperatures T1 and T2 . The area of the surface through which the heat transfer takes place is A.
Then the eq.2.2 can be written as,

The negative sign shows that the heat flux is from the higher temperature surface to the lower
temperature surface and is the rate of heat transfer through the wall.

Now if we consider a plane wall made up of three different layers of materials having different
thermal conductivities and thicknesses of the layers, the analysis of the conduction can be done
as follows.

Consider the area (A) of the heat conduction (fig.2.2) is constant and at steady state the rate of
heat transfer from layer-1 will be equal to the rate of heat transfer from layer-2. Similarly, the
rate of heat transfer through layer-2 will be equal to the rate of heat transfer through layer-3. If
we know the surface temperatures of the wall are maintained at T1 and T2 as shown in the fig.2.2,
the temperature of the interface of layer1 and layer 2 is assumed to be at T' and the interface of
layer-2 and layer-3 asT".
 Fig.2.2: Heat conduction through three different layers

The rate of heat transfer through layer-1 to layer-2 will be,

and,
The rate of heat transfer through layer 2 to layer 3 will be,

and,
The rate of heat transfer through layer 3 to the other side of the wall,

On adding the above three equations,

Where, R represents the thermal resistance of the layers. The above relation can be written
analogous to the electrical circuit as,

Fig 2.3: Equivalent electrical circuit of the fig.2.2

The wall is composed of 3-different layers in series and thus the total thermal resistance was
represented by R (= R1 + R2 + R3 ). The discussed concept can be understood by the illustrations
shown below.

The unit of the various parameters used above is summarized as follows,

Illustration 2.1
The two sides of a wall (2 mm thick, with a cross-sectional area of 0.2 m2) are maintained at 30oC and
90oC. The thermal conductivity of the wall material is 1.28 W/(m·oC). Find out the rate of heat transfer
through the wall?
Solution 2.1
Assumptions
1. Steady-state one-dimensional conduction
2. Thermal conductivity is constant for the temperature range of interest
3. The heat loss through the edge side surface is insignificant
4. The layers are in perfect thermal contact
Given,
 Fig. 2.4: Illustration 2.1

Illustration 2.2

Solution 2.2
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state one-dimensional conduction.
2. Thermal conductivity is constant for the temperature range of interest.
3. The heat loss through the edge side surface is insignificant.
4. The layers are in perfect thermal contact.
On putting all the known values,

Fig. 2.5: Illustration 2.2

Thus,

The previous discussion showed the resistances of different layers. Now to understand the
concept of equivalent resistance, we will consider the geometry of a composite as shown in
fig.2.6a.
The wall is composed of seven different layers indicated by 1 to 7. The interface temperatures of
the composite are T1 to T5 as shown in the fig.2.6a. The equivalent electrical circuit of the above
composite is shown in the fig 2.6b below,

Fig.2.6. (a) Composite wall, and (b) equivalent electrical circuit

The equivalent resistance of the wall will be,

where,
Therefore, at steady state the rate of heat transfer through the composite can be represented
by,

where, R is the equivalent resistance.

Illustration 2.3
Consider a composite wall containing 5-different materials as shown in the fig. 2.7. Calculate the rate of
heat flow through the composite from the following data?

Solution 2.3
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state one-dimensional conduction.
2. Thermal conductivity is constant for the temperature range of interest.
3. The heat loss through the edge side surface is insignificant.
4. The layers are in perfect thermal contact.
5. Area in the direction of heat flow is 1 m2.

The height of the first layer is 4 m (h1 = h2 + h3 ).

The equivalent circuit diagram of the above composite is,

On calculating equivalent resistance with the given data (Note: thickness of layer 2 = thickness of
layer 3 and thickness of layer 4 = thickness of layer 5, in the heat flow direction),
Fig. 2.7: Composite of illustration 2.3; (a) composite, (b) corresponding
electrical circuit

Thus the heat flow rate through the composite,

2.2 Thermal contact resistance
In the previous discussion, it was assumed that the different layers of the composite have perfect
contact between any two layers. Therefore, the temperatures of the layers were taken
same at the plane of contact. However, in reality it rarely happens, and the contacting surfaces
are not in perfect contact or touch as shown in the fig.2.8(a). It is because as we know that due
to the roughness of the surface, the solid surfaces are not perfectly smooth. Thus when the solid
surfaces are contacted the discrete points of the surfaces are in contact and the voids are
generally filled with the air. Therefore, the heat transfer across the composite is due to the
parallel effect of conduction at solid contact points and by convection or probably by radiation
(for high temperature) through the entrapped air. Thus an apparent temperature drop may be
assumed to occur between the two solid surfaces as shown in the fig.2.8b. If TI and TII are the
theoretical temperature of the plane interface, then the thermal contact resistance may be
defined as,

where Rcrepresents the thermal contact resistance.

The utility of the thermal contact resistance (Rc ) is dependent upon the availability of the reliable
data. The value of Rc depends upon the solids involved, the roughness factor, contact pressure,
material occupying the void spaces, and temperature. The surface roughness of a properly
smooth metallic surface is in the order of micrometer. The values of Rc generally obtained by the
experiments. However, there are certain theories which predict the effect of the various
parameters on the Rc.

It can be seen in the fig.2.8, that the two main contributors to the heat transfer are (i) the
conduction through entrapped gases in the void spaces and, (ii) the solid-solid conduction at the
contact points. It may be noted that due to main contribution to the resistance will be through
first factor because of low thermal conductivity of the gas.
 Fig.2.8 (a) Contacting surfaces of two solids are not in perfect contact, (b)
temperature drop due to imperfect contact

If we denote the void area in the joint by Av and contact area at the joint by Ac, then we may
write heat flow across the joint as,

where, thickness of the void space and thermal conductivity of the fluid (or gas) is represented
by lgand kf, respectively. It was assumed that lg/2 is the thickness of solid-I and solid-II for evenly
rough surfaces.
2.3 Steady-state heat conduction through a variable area
It was observed in the previous discussion that for the given plane wall the area for heat transfer
was constant along the heat flow direction. The plane solid wall was one of the geometries but if
we take some other geometry (tapered plane, cylindrical body, spherical body etc.) in which the
area changes in the direction of heat flow. Now we will consider geometrical configuration which
will be mathematically simple and also of great engineering importance like hollow cylinder and
hollow sphere. In these cases the heat transfer area varies in the radial direction of heat
conduction. We will take up both the cases one by one in the following sections.

2.3.1 Cylinder
Consider a hollow cylinder as shown in the fig.2.9a. The inner and outer radius is represented by
riand ro , whereas Ti and To (Ti > To ) represent the uniform temperature of the inner and outer
wall, respectively.

Fig. 2.9. (a) Hollow cylinder, (b) equivalent electrical circuit

Consider a very thin hollow cylinder of thicknessdr in the main geometry (fig.2.9a) at a radial
distancer. If dr is small enough with respect to r, then the area of the inner and outer surface of
the thin cylinder may be considered to be of same area. In other words, for very small dr with
respect to r, the lines of heat flow may be considered parallel through the differential element in
radial outward direction.

We may ignore the heat flow through the ends if the cylinder is sufficiently large. We may thus
eliminate any dependence of the temperature on the axial coordinate and for one dimensional
steady state heat conduction, the rate of heat transfer for the thin cylinder,
Where dT is the temperature difference between the inner and outer surface of the thin cylinder
considered above and k is the thermal conductivity of the cylinder. On rearranging,

To get the heat flow through the thick wall cylinder, the above equation can be integrated
between the limits,

On solving,

Where , and the careful analysis of the above equation shows that the
expression is same as for heat flow through the plane wall of thickness (ro–ri ) except the
expression for the area. The ALM is known as log mean area of the cylinder, whose length

is L and radius is rLM (= ). The fig.2.9b shows the equivalent electrical circuit of the
fig.2.9b.

Now we have learnt that how to represent the analogous electrical circuit for the cylindrical case.
It will provide the building block for the composite cylinders similar to the plane composite we
have learnt earlier. The following fig.2.10a shows a composite cylinder with 4-layers of solid
material of different inner and outer diameter as well as thermal conductivity. The equivalent
electrical circuit is shown below in fig.2.10b.
 (a)

(b)

Fig.2.10.(a) Four layer composite hollow cylinder, (a) equivalent electrical circuit

The total heat transfer at steady-state will be,

where R1 , R2 , R3 , and R4 are represented in the fig.2.10b.

2.3.2 Sphere
The rate of heat transfer through a hollow sphere can be determined in a similar manner as for
cylinder. The students are advised to derive the following expression shown below.

The final expression for the rate of heat flow is,

2.4 Heat conduction in bodies with heat
sources
The cases considered so far have been those in which the heat conducting solid is free of
internal heat generation. However, the situations where the internal heat is generated are very
common cases in chemical industries for example, the exothermic reaction in the solid pallet of a
catalyst.

We have learnt that how the Fourier equation is used for the steady-state heat conduction
through the composites of three different geometries that were not having any heat source in it.
However, the heat generation term would come into the picture for these geometries. It would
not be always easier to remember and develop heat conduction relations for different standard
and non-standard geometries. Therefore, at this point we should learn how to develop a general
relation for the heat conduction that should be applicable to the entire situation such as steady-
state, unsteady state, heat source, different geometry, heat conduction in different direction, etc.
Again here we will consider that the solid is isotropic in nature, which means the thermal
conductivity of the material is same in all the direction of heat flow.

To get such a general equation the differential form of the heat conduction equation is most
important. For simplicity, we would consider an infinitesimal volume element in a Cartesian
coordinate system. The dimensions of the infinitesimal volume element are dx , dy , and dz in the
respective direction as shown in the fig.2.11.

Fig.2.11. Volume element for deriving general equation of heat conduction in

cartesian coordinate

The fig.2.11 shows that the heat is entering into the volume element from three different faces
of the volume element and leaving from the opposite face of the control element. The heat

source within the volume element generates the volumetric energy at the rate of
According to Fourier‟s law of heat conduction, the heat flowing into the volume element from the
left (in the x-direction) can be written as,

The heat flow out from the right surface (in the x-direction) of the volume element can be
obtained by Taylor series expansion of the above equation. As the volume element is of
infinitesimal volume, we may retain only first two element of the Taylor series expansion with a
reasonable approximation (truncating the higher order terms). Thus,

The left side of the above equation represent the net heat flow in the x-direction. If we put the

value of in the right side of the above equation,

In a similar way we can get the net heat flow in the y and z-directions,

As we know some heat is entering, some heat is leaving and some heat in generating in the
volume element and as we have not considered any steady state assumption till now, thus
because of all these phenomena some of the heat will be absorbed by the element. Thus the
rate of change of heat energy within the volume element can be written as,
where, cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (J/(kg·K)), ρ is the density (kg/m3) of
the material, and t is the time (s).

We know all the energy term related to the above problem, and with the help of energy
conservation,

On putting all the values in the above equation,

or,

As we have considered that the thermal conductivity of the solid is isotropic in nature, the above
relation reduces to,

or,
where is the thermal diffusivity of the material and its unit m2/s signifies the rate at
which heat diffuses in to the medium during change in temperature with time. Thus, the higher
value of the thermal diffusivity gives the idea of how fast the heat is conducting into the medium,
whereas the low value of the thermal diffusivity shown that the heat is mostly absorbed

by the material and comparatively less amount is transferred for the conduction. The called

the Laplacian operator, and in Cartesian coordinate it is defined as

Equation 2.19 is known as general heat conduction relation. When there is no heat generation
term the eq.2.19 will become,

and the equation is known as Fourier Field Equation.

General heat conduction relation in cylindrical coordinate system (fig. 2.12) is derived (briefly)
below.
Fig.2.12. Cylindrical coordinate system (a) and an element of the cylinder

The energy conservation for the system is written as,

Ӏ + ӀӀ = ӀӀӀ + ӀV (2.21)
where,
I : Rate of heat energy conducted in
II : Rate of heat energy generated within the volume element
III : Rate of heat energy conducted out
IV : Rate of energy accumulated (ӀV)
and the above terms are defines as,

Thus,
On putting the values in equation 2.21,

Thus the Laplacian operator is,

Fig.2.13. Spherical coordinate system (a) and an element of the sphere

In a similar way the general expression for the conduction heat transfer in spherical body with
heat source can also be found out as per the previous discussion. The Laplacian operator for the
spherical coordinate system (fig.2.13) is given below and the students are encouraged to derive
the expression themselves.

Frequently Asked Questions and Problems for Practice (Module 2)

Q.1 Write the driving force for electricity, fluid, and heat flow and discuss the similarity among
them.

Q.2 What is the ratio of heat flux through area A1 and area A2 of an irregular pipeline shown in
the figure below? The area A1 and A2 are same and the curved surface is well insulated for
any kind of heat loss at steady state.
Q.3 What is the unit of thermal conductivity?

Q.4 What is the significance of log mean area?

Q.5 A hollow cylinder has two different layers of insulation of same thickness but different
thermal conductivity. The outer diameter of the insulated cylinder is double that of the inner
diameter of the cylinder. What will be the change in heat flow if the insulation layers are
interchanged considering the same temperature driving force? The thermal conductivity of
the inner layer is considered to be the four times that of the other layer for previous case.

Q.6 A thick wall of 30 cm thick and 20 W/(m·oC) of thermal conductivity has one surface
(maintained at 250oC) and the opposite surface is completely insulated. The heat is
generated in the wall at a uniform volumetric rate of 180 kW/m3. Determine the following,
a. the temperature distribution in the wall at steady state,
b. the maximum wall temperature and its location, and
c. the average wall temperature.

Q.7 A hollow aluminium sphere having inner diameter of 5 cm and outer diameter of 10 cm is
maintained at 100 oC and 50 oC at inside and outside of the sphere. Calculate the heat flux
at the outer surface.

Q.8 A hot steam pipe (k = 50 W/m·oC) having an inner diameter of 8 cm is at 250 oC. The
thickness of the wall is 5.5 mm. The pipe is covered with a 90 mm layer of insulation (k =
0.2 W/m·oC) followed by a 40 mm layer of insulation (k = 0.3 W/m·oC) . The outside
temperature of the insulation is 20 oC. Calculate the heat loss per unit of the pipe length.

Q.9 Consider a plane wall having uniformly distributed heat sources and one face maintained at
a temperature T1 while the other face is maintained at a temperature T2. The thickness of
the wall may be taken as 2t. Derive an expression for the temperature distribution in the
plane wall.

Q.10 Derive an expression for the temperature distribution in a sphere of radius R with uniform
heat generation and constant surface temperature.
Module 3: Convective heat transfer: One dimensional

The rate of heat transfer in a solid body or medium can be calculated by Fourier‟s law. Moreover,
the Fourier law is applicable to the stagnant fluid also. However, there are hardly a few physical
situations in which the heat transfer in the fluid occurs and the fluid remains stagnant. The heat
transfer in a fluid causes convection (transport of fluid elements) and thus the heat transfer in a
fluid mainly occurs by convection.

3.1 Principle of heat flow in fluids and concept of heat transfer coefficient It is learnt
by day-to-day experience that a hot plate of metal will cool faster when it is placed in front of a
fan than exposed to air, which is stagnant. In the process, the heat is convected away, and we
call the process convective heat transfer. The term convective refers to transport of heat (or
mass) in a fluid medium due to the motion of the fluid. Convective heat transfer, thus,
associated with the motion of the fluid. The term convection provides an intuitive concept of the
heat transfer process. However, this intuitive concept must be elaborated to enable one to arrive
at anything like an adequate analytical treatment of the problem.

It is well known that the velocity at which the air blows over the hot plate influences the heat
transfer rate. A lot of questions come into the way to understand the process thoroughly. Like,
does the air velocity influence the cooling in a linear way, i.e., if the velocity is doubled, will the
heat transfer rate double. We should also suspect that the heat-transfer rate might be different if
we cool the plate with some other fluid (say water) instead of air, but again how much difference
would there be? These questiones may be answered with the help of some basic analysis in the
later part of this module.

The physical mechanism of convective heat transfer for the problem is shown in fig.3.1.
 Fig. 3.1: Convective heat transfer from a heated wall to a fluid

Consider a heated wall shown in fig.3.1. The temperature of the wall and bulk fluid is denoted by
respectively. The velocity of the fluid layer at the wall will be zero. Thus the
heat will be transferred through the stagnant film of the fluid by conduction only. Thus we can
compute the heat transfer using Fourier‟s law if the thermal conductivity of the fluid and the fluid
temperature gradient at the wall is known. Why, then, if the heat flows by conduction in this
layer, do we speak of convective heat transfer and need to consider the velocity of the fluid? The
answer is that the temperature gradient is dependent on the rate at which the fluid carries the
heat away; a high velocity produces a large temperature gradient, and so on. However, it must
be remembered that the physical mechanism of heat transfer at the wall is a conduction process.

It is apparent from the above discussion that the prediction of the rates at which heat is
convected away from the solid surface by an ambient fluid involves thorough understanding of
the principles of heat conduction, fluid dynamics, and boundary layer theory. All the complexities
involved in such an analytical approach may be lumped together in terms of a single parameter
by introduction of Newton‟s law of cooling,

where, h is known as the heat transfer coefficient or film coefficient. It is a complex function of
the fluid composition and properties, the geometry of the solid surface, and the hydrodynamics
of the fluid motion.

If k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, the rate of heat transfer can be written directly by
following the Fourier‟s law. Therefore, we have,

where, is the temperature gradient in the thin film where the temperature gradient is
linear.

On comparing eq.3.1 and 3.2, we have,

It is clear from the above expression that the heat transfer coefficient can be calculated if k and δ
are known. Though the k values are easily available but the δ is not easy to determine.
Therefore, the above equation looks simple but not really easy for the calculation of real
problems due to non-linearity of k and difficulty in determining δ. The heat transfer coefficient is
important to visualize the convection heat transfer phenomenon as discussed before. In fact, δ is
the thickness of a heat transfer resistance as that really exists in the fluid under the given
hydrodynamic conditions. Thus, we have to assume a film of δ thickness on the surface and the
heat transfer coefficient is determined by the properties of the fluid film such as density,
viscosity, specific heat, thermal conductivity etc. The effects of all these parameters are lumped
or clubbed together to define the film thickness. Henceforth, the heat transfer coefficient
(h) can be found out with a large number of correlations developed over the time by the
researchers. These correlations will be discussed in due course of time as we will proceed
through the modules. Table 3.1 shows the typical values of the convective heat transfer
coefficient under different situations.

Table-3.1: Typical values of h under different situations

3.2 Individual and overall heat transfer coefficient

If two fluids are separated by a thermally conductive wall, the heat transfer from one fluid to
another fluid is of great importance in chemical engineering process plant. For such a case the
rate of heat transfer is done by considering an overall heat transfer coefficient. However, the
overall heat transfer coefficient depends upon so many variables that it is necessary to divide it
into individual heat transfer coefficients. The reason for this becomes apparent if the above
situation can be elaborated as discussed in the following sub-sections.
3.2.1 Heat transfer between fluids separated by a flat solid wall
As shown in fig.3.2, a hot fluid is separated by solid wall from a cold fluid. The thickness of the
solid wall is l, the temperature of the bulk of the fluids on hot and cold sides are Th and Tc,
respectively. The average temperature of the bulk fluid is T1 and T4, for hot and cold fluid,
respectively. The thicknesses of the fictitious thin films on the hot and cold sides of the flat solid
are shown by δ1 and δ2. It may be assumed that the Reynolds numbers of both the fluids are
sufficiently large to ensure turbulent flow and the surfaces of the solid wall are clean.

Fig.3.2. Real temperature profile

It can be seen that the temperature gradient is large near the wall (through the viscous
sublayer), small in the turbulent core, and changes rapidly in the buffer zone (area near the
interface of sublayer and bulk fluid). The reason was discussed earlier that the heat must flow
through the viscous sublayer by conduction, thus a steep temperature gradient exists because of
the low temperature gradient of most of the fluids.

The average temperatures of the warm bulk fluid and cold bulk fluids are slightly less than the
maximum temperature Th (bulk temperature of hot fluid) and slightly more than the minimum
temperature Tc (bulk temperature of cold fluid), respectively. The average temperatures are
shown by T1 and T4, for the hot and cold fluid streams, respectively.

Figure 3.3 shows the simplified diagram of the above case, where T2 and T3 are the
temperatures of the fluid wall interface.

Fig.3.3. Simplified temperature profile for fig.3.2

If the thermal conductivity of the wall is k, and the area of the heat transfer is A, the electrical
analogy of the fig.3.3 can be represented by fig.3.4, where h1 and h2 are the individual heat
transfer coefficient of the hot and cold side of the fluid.

Fig.3.4. Equivalent electrical circuit for fig. 3.3

Considering that the heat transfer is taking place at the steady-state through a constant area and
the heat loss from other faces are negligible, then the rate of heat transfer on two sides of the
wall will be represented by eq. 3.4-3.6.

Rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid to the wall,

Rate of heat transfer through the wall,

Rate of heat transfer from the wall to cold fluid,

At steady state, the rate of heat transfers are same and can be represented
by . Therefore,

On adding equations (3.7 to 3.9)

where,

Thus,

The quantity is called the overall heat transfer coefficient (can be calculated if

the are known). Thus from the system described is established that the overall
heat transfer coefficient is the function of individual heat transfer coefficient of the fluids on the
two sides of the wall, as well as the thermal conductivity of the flat wall. The overall heat
transfer coefficient can be used to introduce the controlling term concept. The controlling
resistance is a term which possesses much larger thermal resistance compared to the sum of the
other resistances. At this point it may be noted that in general the resistance offered by the solid
wall is much lower. Similarly, if a liquid and a gas are separated by a solid wall the resistance
offered by the gas film may generally be high.

Illustration 3.1.

The steady state temperature distribution in a wall is , where x (in meter) is the
position in the wall and T is the temperature (in oC). The thickness of the wall is 0.2 m
and the thermal conductivity of the wall is 1.2 (W/m·oC). The wall dissipates the heat
to the ambient at 30 oC. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient at the surface of the
wall at 0.2 m.

Solution 3.1
The rate of heat transfer through the wall by conduction will be equal to the rate of heat transfer from the
surface to the ambient by convention at steadystate,

Rate of heat transfer by conduction at x=0.2 is given by,

where Ta is the ambient temperature.

On putting the values and solving,

3.2.2 Heat transfer between fluids separated by a cylindrical wall

In the above section we have seen that how the rate of heat transfer is calculated when the two
fluids are separated by a flat wall. Another commonly encountered shape in the chemical
engineering plant is the heat transfer between fluids separated by a cylindrical wall. Therefore,
we will see them to understand the overall heat transfer coefficient in such a system. Consider a
double pipe heat exchanger which consists of two concentric pipes arrange as per the fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.5: Schematic of a co-current double pipe heat exchanger

The purpose of a heat exchanger is to increase the temperature of a cold fluid and decrease that
of the hot fluid which is in thermal contact, in order to achieve heat transfer.

The fig. 3.5 shows that the hot fluid passes through the inner tube and the cold fluid passes
through the outer tube of the double pipe heat exchanger. The inner and the outer radii of the
inner pipe are , respectively, whereas the inner radius of the outer tube is . The

heat transfer coefficient of the fluid in the inner pipe is and the heat transfer coefficient of
the fluid over the inner pipe is are the inner and outer wall temperatures of
the inner pipe. The bulk fluid temperatures of the hot and cold fluids are ,
respectively, at steady state condition and assumed to be fairly constant over the length of the
pipe (say L). The construction in fig. 3.6 provides a better understanding.

Fig. 3.6: Cross-section of the double pipe heat exchanger shown in fig. 3.5

The rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid to the inner surface which is at temperature

(3.12)

The rate of heat transfer through the pipe wall is,

(3.13)

(Refer to the section, heat conduction through varying area.)

The rate of heat transfer from the outer surface of the inner pipe to the cold fluid is,
The rate of heat transfers will be same, thus

Thus on rearranging above equations,

where,

If we compare the overall heat transfer coefficient shown above with the overall heat transfer
coefficient discussed in eq.3.11 (for flat plate). It can be seen that due to the different inside and
outside radii of the pipe, the overall heat transfer coefficient will be different. Therefore, the
overall heat transfer coefficient can be defined either by Ui (overall heat transfer coefficient based
on inside surface area) or Uo (overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area). But
it should be noted that the rate of heat transfer and the driving force remain the
same. Therefore, we have

(3.19)
where,

or,

Similarly,

In terms of thermal resistance, we can use eq. 3.19

Illustration 3.2.

Warm methanol flowing in the inner pipe of a double pipe heat exchanger is being
cooled by the flowing water in the outer tube of the heat exchanger. The thermal
conductivity of the exchanger, inner and outer diameter of the inner pipe are 45
W/(m·oC), 26 mm, and 33 mm, respectively. The individual heat transfer coefficients
are:

Coefficient (W/(m2·oC))
Methanol, hi 1000
 Water, ho 1750

Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside area of the inner
tube.

Solution 3.2

Using following equation,

It is apparent that all the values are known. Thus, on putting the values theUo is 519 W/(m2·oC).

3.3 Enhanced heat transfer: concept of fins

In the previous discussion, we have seen that the heat transfer from one fluid to another fluid
needs a solid boundary. The rate of heat transfer depends on many factors including the
individual heat transfer coefficients of the fluids. The higher the heat transfer coefficients the
higher will be the rate of heat transfer. There are many situations where the fluid does not have
a high heat transfer coefficient. For example, the heat lost by conduction through a furnace wall
must be dissipated to the surrounding by convection through air. The air (or the gas phase in
general) has very low heat transfer coefficient, since the thermal conductivities of gases are very
low, as compared to the liquid phase. Thus if we make heat transfer device for gas and a liquid
(of course separated by a heat conducting wall), the gas side film will offer most of the thermal
resistance as compared to the liquid side film. Therefore, to make the heat transfer most
effective we need to expose higher area of the conductive wall to the gas side. This can be done
by making or attaching fins to the wall of the surface. A fin (in general) is a rectangular metal
strip or annular rings to the surface of heat transfer. Thus, a fin is a surface that extends from an
object to increase the rate of heat transfer to or from the environment by increasing
convections. Fins are sometimes known as extended surface. Figure 3.7 shows photographs of
an electric motor with the fins on the motor body and a computer processor with the fins to
dissipate the generated heat into the environment. Figure 3.8 shows the different types of finned
surfaces.
Fig. 3.7. Cooling fins of (a) electric motor, (b) computer processor
Figure 3.9 shows a simple straight rectangular fin on plane wall. The fin is protruded a
distance l from the wall. The temperature of the plane wall (in fact the base of the fin) is Tw and
that of the ambient is T∞. The distances of the fin are: length l; thickness t; and the breadth b.
The heat is conducted through the body by conduction and dissipates to the surrounding by
convection. The heat dissipation to the surrounding occurs from both top, bottom, and side
surfaces of the fin. Here, it is assumed that the thickness of the fin is small and thus the
temperature does not vary in the Y-direction. However, the fin temperature varies in the X-
direction only.

Fig. 3.9. 1-D heat conduction and convection through a rectangular fin

Consider a thin element of thickness dx of the fin at a distance x from the fin base. The energy
balance on the fin element at steady state is discussed below.
where, P is the perimeter [2(b+t)] of the element, T is the local temperature of the fin, h is the
film heat transfer coefficient, and bt is the fin area (A) perpendicular to the direction of heat
transfer.

Thus, at steady state,

Rate of heat input – Rate of heat output – Rate of heat loss = 0

However, the other boundary conditions depend on the physical situation of the problem. A few
of the typical cases are,
Case I: The fin is very long and thus the temperature at the end of the fin is same as that of the
ambient fluid.
Case II: The fin is of finite length and looses heat from its end by convection.

Case III: The end of the fin is insulated so that at

3.3.1 Analytical solution of the above cases

Case I:
The boundary conditions will be

Using boundary conditions, the solution of the equation 3.23 becomes,

All of the heat lost by the fin must have conducted from the base at x=0. Thus, we can compute
the heat loss by the fin using the equation for temperature distribution,

Similarly, for Case – II, the boundary conditions are:

The second boundary condition is a convective boundary condition which implies that the rate at
which heat is conducted from inside the solid to the boundary is equal to the rate at which it is
transported to the ambient fluid by convection.

The temperature profile is,

or we can write,

Therefore, the boundary conditions led to the following solution to the eq.3.23.
Thus, the heat loss by the fin, using the equation for temperature distribution can be easily found
out by the following equation,

In a similar fashion we can solve the case – III also.

The boundary conditions are,

Thus, on solving eq.3.23,

Thus the heat loss by the fins, using the equation for temperature distribution,

It is to be noted that the general expression for the temperature gradient (eq.3.23) was
developed by assuming the temperature gradient in the x-direction. It is really applicable with
very less error, if the fin is sufficiently thin. However, for the practical fins the error introduced by
this assumption is less than 1% only. Moreover, the practical fin calculation accuracy is limited by
the uncertainties in the value of h. It is because the h value of the surrounding fluid is hardly
uniform over the entire surface of the fin.
3.3.2 Fin efficiency
It was seen that the temperature of the fin decreases with distance x from the base of the body.
Therefore, the driving force (temperature difference) also decreases with the length and hence
the heat flux from the fin also decreases. It may also be visualized that if the thermal
conductivity of the fin material is extremely high. Its thermal resistance will be negligibly small
and the temperature will remain almost constant (Tw) throughout fin. In this condition the
maximum heat transfer can be achieved and of-course it is an ideal condition. It is therefore,
interesting and useful to calculate the efficiency of the fins.

The fin efficiency may be define as,

Thus depending upon the condition, the actual heat transfer can be calculated as shown
previously. As an example, for case – III (end of the fin is insulated), the rate of heat transfer
was

The maximum heat would be transferred from the fin in an ideal condition in which the entire fin
area was at Tw. In this ideal condition the heat transferred to the surrounding will be,

Therefore, under such conditions, the efficiency of the fin will be;
If the fin is quite deep as compared to the thickness, the term 2b will be very large as compared
to 2t, and

The equation shows that the efficiency (from eq.3.30) of a fin which is insulated at the end can
be easily calculated, which is the case-III discussed earlier. The efficiency for the other cases
may also be evaluated in a similar fashion.

The above derivation is approximately same as of practical purposes, where the amount of heat
loss from the exposed end is negligible.

It can be noted that the fin efficiency is maximum for the zero length of the fin (l = 0) or if there
is no fin. Therefore, we should not expect to be able to maximize fin efficiency with respect to
the fin length. However, the efficiency maximization should be done with respect to the quantity
of the fin material keeping economic consideration in mind.

Sometimes the performance of the fin is compared on the basis of the rate of heat transfer with
the fin and without the fin as shown,

Illustration 3.3.

A steel pipe having inner diameter as 78 mm and outer diameter as 89 mm has 10

external longitudinal rectangular fins of 1.5 mm thickness. Each of the fins extends
30 mm from the pipe. The thermal conductivity of the fin material is 50 W/m oC. The
temperature of the pipe wall and the ambient are 160 oC, and 30 oC, respectively,
whereas the surface heat transfer coefficient is 75 W/m2 oC. What is the percentage
increase in the rate of heat transfer after the fin arrangement on the plane tube?

Solution 3.3

As the fins are rectangular, the perimeter of the fin, P = 2(b + t). The thickness (t) of the fin is
quite small as compared to the width (b) of the fin. Thus, P = 2b as well as we may assume that
there is no heat transfer from the tip of the fin. Under such condition we can treat it as case-III,
where there was no heat transfer to the atmosphere due to insulated fin tip.
Using eq. 3.30,

As the pipe length is not given, we will work-out considering the length of the pipe as 1 m and
henceforth the breadth of the fins should also be considered as 1 m. We have to consider the
area of the fins in order to consider the heat dissipation from the fins. However, we may neglect
the fin area at the y-z plane and x-y plane (refer fig. 3.8) as compared to the area of x-z plane.

The area of all the fins = (number of fins) (2 faces) (1) (0.03) = 0.6 m2

The maximum rate of heat transfer from the fins

Actual rate of heat transfer =

The total rate of heat transfer from the finned tube will be the sum of actual rate of heat transfer from the
fins and the rate of heat transfer from the bare pipe, the pipe portion which is not covered by the fins.
Therefore, the remaining area will be calculated as follows,

The remaining area = Total pipe area - base area covered by the 10 fins

Pipe are =

Attached area of 10 fins = (10) (1) (0.0015) = 0.015 m2

The remaining area comes out to be (0.28 – 0.015) = 0.265 m2
The corresponding heat transfer = (75) (0.265) (160-30) = 2583.75 W
The total heat transfer from the finned tube = 3802.5 + 2583.75 = 6386.25 W Rate of heat
transfer from the tube if it does not have any fins = (75) (0.28) (160-30) = 2730 W

The percentage increase in the heat transfer =

3.4 Thermal insulation
We have seen how heat transfer is important in various situations. Previous discussion indicates
that we are all the time interested in the flow of the heat from one point to another point.
However, there are many systems; in fact it is a part of the system, in which we are interested
to minimize the losses through heat transfer. For example, in a furnace we want to have high
heat transfer inside the furnace; however we do not want any heat loss through the furnace wall.
Thus to prevent the heat transfer from the furnace to the atmosphere a bad heat conductor or a
very good heat insulator is required. In case of furnace the wall is prepared by multiple layers of
refractory materials to minimize the heat losses. Therefore, wall insulation is required in various
process equipment, reactors, pipelines etc. to minimize the heat loss from the system to the
environment or heat gain from the environment to the system (like cryogenic systems).
However, there are situations in which we want to maximize the losses for example, insulation to
electric wires.

The petroleum conservation research association (PCRA) provides a good database on the
properties and applications of industrial thermal insulations
(http://www.pcra.org/English/education/literature.htm). The table 3.2 shows some common
insulations used in chemical process industries for various process equipment and pipelines.

Table-3.2: Thermal properties of a few of the insulations being used in the chemical
process industries

Material Temperature Approximate thermal Density

(°C) conductivity(W/(m°C)) (kg/m3)
Asbestos -200 to 0 0.074 469
Glass wool −7 to 38 0.031 64

38 to 93 0.041 64
Fibre insulating board 21 0.049 237
Hard rubber 0 0.151 2000
Polyurethane foam −170 to 110 0.018 32

An interesting application of the heat loss from a surface of some practical significance is found
in the case of insulation of cylindrical surfaces like small pipes or electrical wires. In many a cases
we desire to examine the variation in heat loss from the pipe with the change in insulation
thickness, assuming that the length of the pipe is fixed. As insulation is added to the pipe, the
outer exposed surface temperature will decrease, but at the same time the surface area available
to the convective heat dissipation will increase. Therefore, it would be interesting to study these
opposing effects.
 Fig. 3.10: Heat dissipation from an insulated pipe

Let us consider a thick insulation layer which is installed around a cylindrical pipe as shown in fig.
3.10 (equivalent electrical circuit is shownin figure 3.11). Let the pipe radius be R and the
insulation radius is r. This (r-R) will represent the thickness of the insulation. If the fluid carried
by the pipe is at a temperature T and the ambient temperature is Ta. The insulation of the pipe
will alter pipe surface temperature T in the radial direction. That is the temperature of the inner
surface of the pipe and the outer surface (below insulation) of the pipe will be different.
However, if the thermal resistance offered by the pipe is negligible, it can be considered that the
temperature (T) is same across the pipe wall thickness and it is a common insulation case
(please refer previous discussion). It can also be assumed that the heat transfer coefficient
inside the pipe is very high as compared to the heat transfer coefficient at the outside of the
insulated pipe. Therefore, only two major resistances in series will be available (insulation layer
and gas film of the ambient).

Fig.3.11: Resistance offered by the insulation and ambient gas film

Therefore,
where, k is the thermal conductivity of the material.

On differentiating above equation with respect to r will show that the heat dissipation
reaches a maximum,

So it is maxima, where the insulation radius is equal to

where, rc denotes the critical radius of the insulation. The heat dissipation is maximum at rc which
is the result of the previously mentioned opposing effects.

Fig. 3.12: The critical insulation thickness of the pipe insulator

Therefore, the heat dissipation from a pipe increases by the addition of the insulation. However,
above rc the heat dissipation reduces. The same is shown in fig. 3.12.

The careful analysis of the rc reveals that it is a fixed quantity determined by the thermal
properties of the insulator. If R <rc , then the initial addition of insulation will increase the heat
loss until r =rcand after which it begins to decrease. The same heat dissipation which was at bare
pipe radius is again attained at r*. The critical insulation thickness may not always exist for an
insulated pipe, if the values of k and h are such that the ratio k/h turns out to be less than R.

It is clear from the above discussion that the insulation above rc reduces the heat dissipation
from the cylindrical surface. However, if we keep on increasing the insulation the cost of
insulation also increases. Thus again there are two opposing factors that must be considered to
obtain the optimum thickness. It should be calculated that what is the pay-back period, that is in
how many years the cost of insulation is recovered by the cost of energy saving.

Fig. 3.13: Optimum insulation thickness

The optimum insulation thickness (fig. 3.13) can be determined at which the sum of the
insulation cost and the cost of the heat loss is minimum.

Frequently Asked Questions and Problems for Practice (Module 3)

Q.1 What is convection and how is it different than conduction?

Q.2 What is heat transfer coefficient? Explain its physical significance.
Q.3 What is film thickness? What is its relevance in the heat transfer operations?
Q.4 Out of Ui and Uo, which one is larger in magnitude and why?
Q.5 What is the concept of controlling resistance?

Q.6 What is critical insulation thickness? Comment on the critical insulation thickness of a plane
wall.

Q.7 The temperature profile of a solid sphere is at steady state condition, the temperature T is in
o
C and r is in meter. The thermal conductivity of the sphere is 15 W/m oC. The solid sphere is
put in the atmosphere condition at 30 oC. Calculate the rate of heat transfer and
 evaluate the maximum temperature in the sphere?
Q.8 Steam at 170 oC is flowing in a 10 cm diameter pipe. In order to reduce the heat loss to the
environment (at 30 oC) the pipe is planned to be insulated with 10 cm thick insulator. The
various data is given under

kinsulator
(T in oC)
h for outside air (over insulator) 6 W/m2 oC
h for outside air (on bare pipe at 160 oC , if no 25 W/m2 oC
insulator)
Cost of insulation Rs. 16000/m3
Steam cost Rs. 750/ton
Latent heat of steam 1820 kJ/kg

Estimate the pay-back period assuming a rate of interest of 0.18/yr.

Module 4: Forced convective heat transfer

4.1 Principle of convection

Till now we have understood and solved the problem where heat transfer coefficient was known.
Now, we would emphasize on finding the convective heat transfer coefficient h. Finding out the
heat transfer coefficient is not so easy in a given situation as it is a very complex term and
depends in many physical properties of the fluid like, thermal conductivity, viscosity, density etc.
Moreover, the flow field has a great impact on the convective heat transfer. The convective heat
transfer requires a good knowledge of fluid dynamics, and we expect that the reader has
adequate knowledge of that.

We have seen that it is easy to form a differential heat balance equations. However, for practical
cases, it becomes tedious or impossible to solve the differential equations. Therefore, for
practical situations, the heat transfer coefficient is calculated using the empirical correlations,
which are developed over the years. Though these correlations have a good amount of error in
most of the situations but these are indispensible for the estimation of heat transfer coefficients.

The convective heat transfer may be

 forced convection: in which the motion in the fluid medium is generated by the application of an
external force, e.g. by a pump, blower, agitator etc.
 natural convection: in which the motion in the fluid is generated due to a result of density
difference caused by the temperature difference.
Moreover, in many applications, heat is transferred between fluid streams without any phase
change in the fluid. However, in some situations, the heat transfer is accompanied by phase
change.
In this chapter we will consider the forced convection. Before we analyse the forced convection
we need to know its physical mechanism.

4.2 Forced convection mechanism: flow over a flat horizontal plate Consider the flow of
a fluid over an immersed flat horizontal plate of very large width, as shown in fig. 4.1. The fig.
shows that the flow is fully developed with no entrance losses. The bulk flow or free stream
velocity is represented by v. Velocity of the fluid at the surface of the flat plate is zero at no-slip
condition. The velocity of the fluid in the y-direction from the plate increases from zero to free
stream velocity. The region above the plate surface within which this change of velocity from
zero to the free stream value occurs is called the boundary layer. The thickness of this region is
called the boundary layer thickness and is generally denoted by δ. It can be seen in the fig.4.1
that the boundary layer thickness increased with the distance x from the body edge. The
boundary layer thickness, δ, usually is defined as the distance from the surface to the point
where the velocity is within 1% of the free shear velocity. It should be noted that the y-axis of
the fig. 4.1 is exaggerated greatly to have a clear picture.

Fig.4.1. Boundary layer flow past a flat plate

The velocity profile merges smoothly and asymptotically in the free shear and the boundary layer
thickness is difficult to measure. However, the theoretical laminar boundary layer thickness can
be calculated using the eq.4.1.
where, Rex is the local Reynold number at a distance x. The derivative of δ can be found in any
stated boundary.
The turbulent boundary layer thickness can be calculated using eq.4.2.

Figure 4.2 shows the velocity boundary layer for the turbulent and laminar zone.

Fig.4.2: Boundary layer flow past a flat surface (a) turbulent, and (b) laminar

In continuation to the above discussion and understanding, if the solid surface is maintained at a
temperature, Ts , which is different from the fluid temperature, Tf , measured at a point far away
from the surface, a variation of the temperature of the fluid is observed, which is similar to the
velocity variation described. That is, the fluid temperature varies from Ts at the wall toTf far away
from the wall, with most of the variation occurring close to the surface
IfTs >Tf , the fluid temperature approaches asymptotically and the temperature profile at a
distance xis shown in fig.4.3. However, a thermal boundary may be defined (similar to velocity
boundary) as the distance from the surface to the point where the temperature is within 1% of
the free stream fluid temperature (Tf ). Outside the thermal boundary layer the fluid is assumed
to be a heat sink at a uniform temperature ofTf . The thermal boundary layer is generally not
coincident with the velocity boundary layer, although it is certainly dependant on it. That is, the
velocity, boundary layer thickness, the variation of velocity, whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent etc are all the factors which determine the temperature variation in the thermal
boundary layer. The thermal boundary layer and velocity boundary layer are related by the

Prandtl number, is called the momentum diffusivity and

is called the thermal diffusivity; is less than unity, the momentum boundary layer (or velocity
boundary layer) remains within the thermal boundary layer. If Pr >1, the boundary layers will be
reversed as shown in the fig.4.4. The thermal boundary layer and velocity boundary layer
coincides at Pr =1.

Fig.4.4: The relation of two boundary layers at different Pr numbers

The above boundary layer theory will be helpful to understand the heat transfer in the process.
Through the boundary layers heat transfer is covered in a separate chapter, but the detailed
derivation and development of all the relationships having engineering importance for the
prediction of forced convection heat transfer coefficient is beyond the scope of the course. The
reader may consult any standard fluid mechanics and heat transfer books for detailed knowledge.

The purpose of this chapter is to present a collection of the most useful of the existing relations
for the most frequently encountered cases of forced convection. Some of these relations will be
having theoretical bases, and some will be empirical dimensionless correlations of experimental
data. In some situations, more than one relation will be given.

The discussion on heat transfer correlations consists of many dimensionless groups. Therefore,
before we discuss the importance of heat transfer coefficients, it is important to understand the
physical significance of these dimensionless groups, which are frequently used in forced
convection heat transfer. The table 4.1 shows some of the dimensionless numbers used in the
forced convection heat transfer.

Table-4.1: Some important dimensionless numbers used in forced heat transfer

convection
4.3 Flow through a pipe or tube

4.3.1 Turbulent flow

A classical expression for calculating heat transfer in fully developed turbulent flow in smooth
tubes/pipes of diameter (d) and length (L) is given by Dittus and Boelter

(4.3)

where,

n = 0.4, for heating of the fluid

n = 0.3, for cooling of the fluid

The properties in this equation are evaluated at the average fluid bulk temperature. Therefore,
the temperature difference between bulk fluid and the wall should not be significantly high.
Application of eq. 4.3 lies in the following limits

Gnielinski suggested that better results for turbulent flow in smooth pipe may be obtained from
the following relations

When the temperature difference between bulk fluid and wall is very high, the viscosity of the
fluid and thus the fluid properties changes substantially. Therefore, the viscosity correction must
be accounted using Sieder – Tate equation given below

However, the fluid properties have to be evaluated at the mean bulk temperature of the fluid
exceptμw which should be evaluated at the wall temperature. The earlier relations were applicable
for fully developed flow when entrance length was negligible. Nusselt recommended the following
relation for the entrance region when the flow is not fully developed.

(4.7)
where, L is the tube length and d is the tube diameter.

The fluid properties in eq. 4.7 should be evaluated at mean bulk temperature of the fluid.

Applicability conditions, .
As different temperature terms will appear in the course therefore to understand these terms see
the following details.

Bulk temperature/mixing cup temperature: Average temperature in a cross-section.

Average bulk temperature: Arithmetic average temperature of inlet and outlet bulk
temperatures.

Wall temperature: Temperature of the wall.

Film temperature: Arithmetic average temperature of the wall and free stream temperature.

Free stream temperature: Temperature free from the effect of wall.

Log mean temperature difference: It will be discussed in due course of time

Illustration 4.1
Pressurized air is to be heated by flowing into a pipe of 2.54 cm diameter. The air at 200 C and 2 atm
o

pressure enters in the pipe at 10 m/s. The temperature of the entire pipe is maintained at 220oC. Evaluate
the heat transfer coefficient for a unit length of a tube considering the constant heat flux conditions are
maintained at the pipe wall. What will be the bulk temperature of the air at the end of 3 m length of the
tube?

The following data for the entering air (at 200oC) has been given,
Solution 4.1

Reynolds number can be calculated from the above data,

The value of Reynolds number shows that the flow is in turbulent zone. Thus the Dittus-Boelter
equation (eq.4.3) should be used,

Thus h can be calculated for the known values of k, and d, which comes out to be

Energy balance is required to evaluate the increase in bulk temperature in a 3 m length of the
tube,
Therefore the temperature of the air leaving the pipe will be at 210.81oC.

4.3.2 Laminar flow

Hausen presents the following empirical relations for fully developed laminar flow in tubes at
constant wall temperature.

The heat transfer coefficient calculated from eq. 4.8 is the average value over the entire length

(including entrance length) of tube .

Sieder and Tate suggested a simple relation for laminar heat transfer in tubes.

The condition for applicability of eq. 4.9:

where, μ is the viscosity of the fluid at the bulk temperature and μw is that at the wall
temperatureTw . The other fluid properties are at mean bulk temperature of the fluid. Here also
the heat transfer coefficient calculated from eq. 4.9 is the average value over the entire length

(including entrance length) of tube .

The empirical relations shown in eq. 4.2-4.9 are for smooth pipe. However, it case of rough
pipes, it is sometimes appropriate that the Reynolds analogy between fluid friction and heat
transfer be used to effect a solution under these conditions and can be expressed in terms of
Stanton number.

In order to account the variation of the thermal properties of different fluids the following

equations may be used (i.e. Stanton number multiplied by ),

where, is the mean free velocity. The friction factor can be evaluated from Moody‟s chart.

4.3.3 Flow through non-circular ducts

The same co-relations as discussed in section 4.4.1 can be used for the non-circular ducts.
However, the diameter of the tube has to be replaced by the hydraulic diameter or equivalent
diameter for the non-circular ducts. The hydraulic diameter is defined as

Where rh is hydraulic radius.

4.3.4. Flow over a flat plate

Heat transfer in flow over a plate occurs through the boundary layer formed on the plane.
Therefore at any location the heat transfer coefficient will depend on the local Reynolds and
Prandtl number. For local heat transfer coefficient in laminar boundary layer flow, the following
correlation can be used to find the local Nusselt number. It depends upon the distance from the
leading edge (x) of the plate.

(4.13)

where, and are the local Nusselt and Reynold numbers,

respectively.
An average value of the heat transfer coefficient over a distance l may be obtained by,
4.3.5 Flow across cylinders and spheres

4.3.5.1 Flow across a cylinder

The heat transfer coefficient can be found out by the correlations given by many researchers
Applicability of eq. 4.19: 102 < Re < 107, and Re Pr >0.2 .

However, the following equation (eq. 4.20) is more accurate for the condition where 20,000
< Re < 4,00,000 and Re Pr > 0.2.
4.3.5.2. Flow across a sphere

The above correlation is applicable to both gases and liquids.

4.3.5.3 Flow over a bank of tubes

Flow over bank of tubes is one of the very important phenomena in chemical process industries.
Heat exchanger, air conditioning for cooling and heating etc. involve a bank or bundle of tube
over which a fluid flows. The two most common geometric arrangements of a tube bank are
shown in fig. 4.5.
 Fig.4.5: Tube banks: (a) aligned; (b) staggered

In any of the arrangements, D is the diameter of tube, SL is the longitudinal spacing, and ST is the
transverse tube spacing.

The flow over a tube is quite different than the flow over bank of tubes. In case of bank of tube,
the flow is influenced by the effects such as the “shading” of one tube by another etc. Moreover,
the heat transfer for any particular tube thus not only determined by the incident fluid conditions,
v∞ andT∞, but also by D, SL , and ST and the tube positions in the bank. It is now clear that the
heat transfer coefficient for the first row of tubes is much like that for a single cylinder in cross
flow. However, the heat transfer coefficient for the tubes in the inner rows is generally larger
because of the wake generation by the previous tubes.

For the heat transfer correlations, in tube banks, the Reynolds number is defined by

where vm is the maximum fluid velocity occurring at the minimum vacant area of the tube bank.
For the aligned tube arrangement,
In case of bank of tubes, generally we are interested for a single tube but interested to know the
average heat transfer coefficient for the entire bank of tubes. Zukauskas has summarized his
extensive for the heat transfer coefficients for fluid past a bank of tubes,

(4.27)

The applicability of eq. 4.27: , and number of tubes are

atleast 20.
The constants C and m of co-relation 5.26 can be found out from any standard book on heat
transfer. It may be noted that the above relation is for the inner rows of bank, or for banks of
many rows.

4.4 Momentum and heat transfer analogies

Consider a fluid flows in a circular pipe in a laminar low (fig.6.6). The wall of the pipe is
maintained at Tw temperature, which is higher than the flowing fluid temperature. The fluid being
in relatively lower temperature than the wall temperature will get heated as it flows through the
pipe. Moreover, the radial transport of the momentum in the pipe occurs as per the Newton‟s law
of viscosity. For a circular pipe momentum transport and heat transport may be written in a
similar way as shown in the eq. 4.28,

Momentum flux = momentum diffusivity × gradient of concentration of momentum

 4.28(a)

It may be noted that the fluid velocity is a function of radius of the pipe.

Heat flux= thermal diffusivity × gradient of concentration of heat energy

Now, the question comes, why are we discussion about the similarities? The answer is straight
forward that it is comparatively easy to experimentally/theoretically evaluate the momentum
transport under various conditions. However, the heat transport is not so easy to find out.
Therefore, we will learn different analogies to find the heat transport relations.

Equation 4.28 is for the laminar flow but if the flow is turbulent, eddies are generated. Eddy is a
lump/chunk of fluid elements that move together. Thus it may be assumed that the eddies are
the molecules of the fluid and are responsible for the transport of momentum and heat energy in
the turbulent flow. Therefore, in turbulent situation the momentum and heat transport is not
only by the molecular diffusion but also by the eddy diffusivities.

Thus, turbulent transport of momentum and turbulent transport of heat may be represented by
eq. 4.29a and 4.29b, respectively.

The terms represent the eddy diffusivities for momentum and heat, respectively.

At the wall of the pipe, the momentum equation (eq. 4.29a) becomes,
Where f is the fanning friction factor (ratio of shear force to inertial force) and is the
average fluid velocity.

Equation eq.4.30 can be rearranged as,

The eq.4.32 is the dimensionless velocity gradient at the wall using momentum transport. We
may get the similar relation using heat transport as shown below. Wall heat flux can be written
as,

Where Tav is the wall temperature and the Tav is the average temperature of the fluid. Thus, the
dimensionless temperature gradient at the wall using heat transfer will be,

Where the heat transfer coefficient is represented by h and dimensionless temperature is

represented by .
Based on the above discussion many researchers have given their analogies. These analogies are
represented in the subsequent section.

4.4.1 Reynolds analogy

Reynolds has taken the following assumptions to find the analogy between heat and momentum
transport.

1. Gradients of the dimensionless parameters at the wall are equal.

2. The diffusivity terms are equal. That is

Thus if we use the above assumptions along with the eq.4.32 and 4.33,

Thus if we use the above assumptions along with the eq.4.32 and 4.33,

Equation 4.34 is known as Reynolds‟s analogy.

The above relation may also be written in terms of the Darcy‟s friction factor (fD) instead of
fanning friction factor (fD = 4f)
Where Stanton number (St) is defined as,
The advantage of the analogy lies in that the h may not be available for certain
geometries/situations however, for which f value may be available as it is easier to perform
momentum transport experiments and then to calculate the f. Thus by using the eq.4.34 the h
may be found out without involving into the exhaustive and difficult heat transfer experiments.

4.4.2 The Chilton-Colburn analogy

The Reynolds analogy does not always give satisfactory results. Thus, Chilton and Colburn
experimentally modified the Reynolds‟ analogy. The empirically modified Reynolds‟ analogy is
known as Chilton-Colburn analogy and is given by eq.4.35,

It can be noted that for unit Prandtl number the Chilton-Colburn analogy becomes Reynolds
analogy.

4.4.3 The Pradntl analogy

In the turbulent core the transport is mainly by eddies and near the wall, that is laminar sub-
layer, the transport is by molecular diffusion. Therefore, Prandtl modified the above two
analogies using universal velocity profile while driving the analogy (eq. 4.36).

4.4.4 The Van Karman analogy

Though Prandtl considered the laminar and turbulent laminar sublayers but did not consider the
buffer zone. Thus, Van Karman included the buffer zone into the Prandtl analogy to further
improve the analogy.
Frequently Asked Questions and Problems for Practice (Module 4)

Q.1 What is the local Reynolds number?

Q.2 What are the important dimensionless groups in heat transfer? Explain their physical
significance.

Q.3 What is the difference between Reynolds and Prandtl anologies?

Q.4 Explain why there is more heat transfer in forced convection as compared to natural
convection.

Q.5 What is Dittus-Boelter equation and when is it applied?

Q.6 Water is to be heated from 50oC to 100oC in a smooth hot pipe. The pipe is maintained at a
constant temperature above 30oC that of bulk water temperature under the condition of
constant heat flux. Calculate the length of the pipe required for heating, if the tube
diameter is 0.6 m and the Reynolds number of the water inside the pipe is 95000?
Q.7 A tube bank having a square array of 100 tubes arranged in an in-line position is at 100oC.
The diameter and length of the tubes are 15 mm and 100 cm, centre to centre tube
spacing is 20 mm. Atmospheric air enters in the tube bank at 25oC and at the free stream
velocity of 5.5 m/s. Determine the total heat loss by the tubes.

Q.8 Water at 15oC flow past a sphere at the free stream velocity of 4 m/s. The diameter and
temperature of the sphere are 30 mm and 70oC, respectively. Calculate the heat loss by the
sphere.

Q.9 Atmospheric air flows at 10 m/s of free stream velocity in a rectangular duct having
dimensions of 25 cm by 50 cm. The air and wall temperature of the duct are 25 oC and
50oC, respectively. Calculate the mean exit temperature of the air per unit length of the
duct.
Q.10 Air at 25 oC flows in a 10 mm diameter tube at a Reynolds number of 50,000. If the length
of the tube is 100 cm, estimate the average heat transfer coefficient for a constant heat
flux at the wall.
Module 5: Heat transfer by natural convection

5.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter, we have discussed about the forced convective heat transfer when the
fluid motion relative to the solid surface was caused by an external input of work by means of
pump, fan, blower, stirrer, etc. However, in this chapter we will discuss about the natural or free
convection. In natural convection, the fluid velocity far from the solid body will be zero.
However, near the solid body there will be some fluid motion if the body is at a temperature
different from that of the free fluid. In this situation there will be a density difference between
the fluid near the solid surface and that far away from the system. There will be a positive or
negative buoyancy force due to this density difference. Hot surface will create positive buoyancy
force whereas the cold surface will create the negative buoyancy force. Therefore, buoyancy
force will be the driving force which produce and maintain the free convective process. Figure
5.1 shows the natural convective process for a hot and cold vertical surface.

Fig.5.1: Free convection boundary layer for vertical (a) hot surface and (b) cold
surface

Consider a vertical flat plate with contact of a fluid (say liquid) on one side of the plate. Now
assume that we raise the temperature of the plate to Ts, a natural convective boundary layer
forms as shown in fig. 5.2. The velocity profile in this boundary layer is slightly different as
compared to forced convection boundary layer. At the wall the velocity is zero because of no slip
condition. The velocity increases to maximum and then reduces to zero at the end of the
boundary layer because the fluid is at rest in the bulk. Initially the laminar flow is achieved in the
boundary layer, but at some distance from the leading edge, depending on the fluid properties
and the temperature difference between plate and bulk fluid, turbulent eddies are found thus
laminar to transition region comes. On further away from the leading edge the boundary layer
may become turbulent and the boundary layer instability comes in to picture. Instability of the
boundary layer is quite complex and does not fall into the scope of this study material.

Fig. 5.2: Boundary layer on a hot vertical flat plate (Ts: surface temperature; Tb: bulk
fluid temperature)

It has been found over the years that the average Nusselt number (or the average heat transfer
coefficient) for convective heat transfer can be represented by the following functional
dependence (say viscous flow past a hard body).

Nu = f(Re,Gr,Ec,Pr) (5.1)

The Reynolds number (Re) is the ratio of inertia forces in the fluid to the viscous forces. The
Grashof number (Gr) is the ratio of buoyant forces to the viscous forces. The Eckert number (Ec)
is a measure of the thermal equivalent of kinetic energy of the flow to the imposed temperature
differences. The Eckert number arises due to the inclusion of viscous dissipation. Thus Ec is
absent where dissipation is neglected. The Prandtl number, Pr, is the ratio of the momentum
diffusivity (kinematic viscosity) to the thermal diffusivity. In other words, Prandtl number is a
measure of the relative magnitude of the diffusion of momentum, through viscosity, and the
diffusion of heat through conduction, in the fluid.

In case of perfect natural-convection and in absence of heat dissipation, the eq. 5.1 reduces to,
 Nu = f(Gr,Pr) (5.2)

It is to be noted that in case of perfect natural convection, the main fluid stream is absent, thus
Reynolds number is no longer significant.

The dimensionless numbers involved in eq. 5.2 evaluated at the average film

temperature, It can be easily found that in case of the forced convection and in
absence of heat dissipation the function for average heat transfer will be,

Nu = f(Re,Pr) (5.3)

On comparing eq. 5.2 and 5.3, one can see that the Grashof number will perform for free
convection in a same way as the Reynolds number for forced convection.

Another parameter, the Rayleigh number is also used for perfect natural-convection is defined
as,

Ra = Gr . Pr (5.4)

Thus the functional relation is eq. 5.2 can be written as,

Nu = f(Ra,Pr) (5.5)

As discussed earlier that all free convection flows are not limited to laminar flow. If instability
occurs, the problem becomes complex. A general rule one may expect that transition will occur
for critical Rayleigh number of

(5.6)

The Grashof number is defined as

where,

g = acceleration due to gravity

β=

coefficient of volume expansion =

Ts = surface temperature
Tb = bulk fluid temperature
L = characteristic lenght
v = Momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity)
5.2 Empirical relations for natural-convective heat transfer

5.2.1 Natural convection around a flat vertical surface

Churchill and Chu provided the correlation for average heat transfer coefficient for natural
convection for different ranges of Rayleigh number.

Case I: If RaL < 109

(5.7)

Case II: If 10-1 < RaL < 1012

(5.8)

It should be noted that the eq. 5.7 and 5.8 are also applicable for an inclined surface upto less
than inclination from the vertical plane.

The above relations can be used for the vertical cylinder if the boundary layer thickness is quite
small as compared to the diameter of the cylinder. The criteria to use the above relation for
vertical cylinder is,

(5.9)

where, is the diameter and is the height of the cylinder.

5.2.2 Natural convection around a horizontal cylinder

Churchill and Chu has provided the following expression for natural-convective heat transfer.

(5.10)

Condition of applicability of the eq.5.10:

5.2.3 Natural convection around a horizontal flat surface

In the previous case of vertical flat surface, the principal body dimension was in-line with the
gravity (i.e. vertical). Therefore, the flow produced by the free convection was parallel to the
surface regardless of whether the surface was hotter or cooler compared to the bulk fluid
around. However, in case of horizontal flat plate the flow pattern will be different and shown in
fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.3: A representative flow pattern (natural convection) for (a) hot surface down,
(b) hot surface up, (c) cold surface down, and (d) cold surface up

Thus from fig. 5.3 it is understood that there are in fact two cases (i) when the heated plate
facing up or cooled plate facing down, and (ii) heated plate facing down or cooled plate facing
up.

Case I: Heated plate facing up, cooled plate facing down

(5.11)

(5.12)

Case II: Heated plate facing down, cooled plate facing up

(5.13)

where, Lc is characteristic length defined as below.

5.2.4 Natural convection around sphere

Churchill proposed,

(5.14)

Condition for applicability: Pr ≥ 0.7; Ra ≤ 1011

5.2.5 Natural convection in enclosure

It is another class of problems for which there are many cases and their corresponding
correlations are also available in the literature. Here two cases will be discussed, (i) in which a
fluid is contained between two vertical plates separated by a distance d, (ii) the other where the
fluid is in an annulus formed by two concentric horizontal cylinders.

In the case first, the plates are at different temperature, T1 and T2. Heat transfer will be from
higher temperature (T1) to lower temperature (T2) through the fluid.

The corresponding Grashof number will be

McGregor and Emery proposed the following correction for free convection heat transfer in a
vertical rectangular enclosure, where the vertical walls are heated or cooled and the horizontal
surfaces many be assumed adiabatic,

(5.15)

Applicability conditions for the above equation are,

or,
 (5.16)

Applicability conditions are,

Here L/d is known as the aspect ratio.

At steady state condition, the heat flux (qx) is equal thus,

qx = h(T1 - T2)
or,

or,

or,

or,

where, kc(= Nuxk) is known as the apparent thermal conductivity.

In the second case the heat transfer is involved in the enclosure formed by two concentric
cylinders in horizontal position, the correlation given by Raithby and Holland,

(5.17)

is the modified Rayleigh number given by,

where, di and d0 are the outer and inner diameter of the inner and outer cylinders, respectively.
The enclosure characteristic length l is defined as (d0 - di).

The applicability of the eq. 5.17 is 102 < > 107.

It should be noted that the rate of heat flow by natural convection per unit length is same as
that through the annular cylindrical region having effective thermal conductivity ke for the case,

where, T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the inner and outer cylindrical walls, respectively.

Illustration 5.1

A hot oven is maintained at 180 oC having vertical door 50 cm high is exposed to the
atmospheric air at 20oC. Calculate the average heat transfer coefficient at the surface
of the door.

The various air properties at the average temperature [(180+20)/2 = 100oC] are,

k = 0.032 W/m oC; Pr = 0.7; Kinematic viscosity = 24 x 10-6 m2/s

At Tb = 20oC,

Solution 5.1

First we have to find the Grashof number,

With the help of Gr and Pr, we can estimate the Ra number,

Ra = GrPr = 1.16 X 108 X 0.7 = 8.12 X 107

As Ra < 109, the eq.5.7 can be used,

 5.3 Combined natural and forced convection

As we know that there is hardly any situation in which only natural or forced convective heat
transfer occurs. Generally, in all the processes natural and forced convection heat transfer occur
but depending upon the contribution made, the process may be approximated as either natural
or forced convection problem. However, certain situation needs to be addressed as combined
natural and forced convection problem. The following is a thumb rule to determine the individual
situations.

1. Forced convection region i.e. negligible natural convection contribution

2. Natural convection region i.e. negligible forced convection contribution

3. Mixed convection i.e., significant contribution by both natural and forced convections

In this situation, the following equation may be used,

where, Nu is the Nusselt number due to mixed convection, Nun is the Nusselt number due to
natural convection, and Nuf is the Nusselt number due to forced convection. The value of m is
generally taken as 3, whereas positive and negative signs can be used for the convection in the
same and opposite directions, respectively.

Illustration 5.2

In the oven door described in illustration 5.1 is subjected to an upward flow of air
(that is forced convection). What would be the minimum free stream velocity for
which natural convection may be neglected?
Solution 5.2.

Section 5.3 above shows that for the following condition the effect of natural convection may be
neglected,

The value of Gr number calculated in the previous illustration was 1.16 X 108

Thus,

U >> 0.24 m/s

Therefore, the bulk velocity of the air should be far greater that 0.24 m/s.

Frequently Asked Questions and Problems for Practice (Module 5)

Q.1 Define Grashof number and its physical significance. What is the analogous in
forced convection?
Q.2 What are the criteria to know natural and forced convection?

Q.3 Define Rayleigh number and its physical significance.

Q.4 Show the flow pattern of natural convection for a (a) hot surface down, (b) hot
surface up, (c) cold surface down, and (d) cold surface up.
Q.5 Warm air at 65oC, 3 m/s enters into a square (25 cm) duct made up of steel
metal. The un-insulated duct is 10 m long and is in contact with the
atmospheric air at 25oC. If the heat losses to the atmosphere by natural
convection then what will be the exit warm air temperature from the duct. It
may be assumed that the natural convective flow at one surface does not affect
the others as the two surfaces are horizontal, one at the top and at the
bottom, and the two surfaces are vertical. Calculate the heat transfer coefficient
for the obviously forced convection inside of the duct.
Q.6. A horizontal tube having diameter of 10 mm is heated to a surface temperature
of 240 oC. The tube is exposed to air at 25oC. Calculate the natural convective
heat transfer.
Q.7. A sphere having diameter of 25 cm is heated to a surface temperature of 240
o
C. The sphere is exposed to air at 25oC. Calculate the natural convective heat
transfer.
Q.8. A square (1 m) flat plate inclined at 45 oC with the horizontal is exposed to air
at 25oC and 1 atm. The plate receives 750 W/m2 from the Sun and dissipated
the heat to the atmosphere by natural convection. What will be the average
 temperature of the plate at steady-state?

Module 6: Heat transfer in boiling and condensation

Heat transfer in boiling and condensation

In the previous chapter we have discussed about the convective heat transfer in which the
homogeneous single phase system was considered. The heat transfer processes associated with
the change of fluid phase have great importance in chemical process industries. In this chapter,
we will focus our attention towards the phase change from liquid to vapour and vice-versa.

6.1 Heat transfer during boiling

The conversion of a liquid into a vapour is one of the important and obvious phenomena. It has
been found that if water (say) is totally distilled and degassed so that it does not have any
impurity or dissolved gases, it will undergo liquid to vapour phase change without the
appearance of bubbles, when it is heated in a clean and smooth container. However, in normal
situation, as can be understood, the presence of impurities, dissolved gases, and surface
irregularities causes the appearance of vapour bubble on the heating surface, when the rate of
heat input is significantly high.

The boiling may be in general of two types. The one in which the heating surface is submerged
in a quiescent part of liquid, and the heat transfer occur by free convection and bubble agitation.
The process is known as pool boiling. The pool boiling may further be divided into sub-cooled or
local boiling and saturated or bulk boiling. If the temperature of the liquid is below the saturation
temperature, the process is known as sub-cooled, or local, boiling. If the liquid is maintained at
saturation temperature, the process is known as saturated or bulk boiling.

The other form of the boiling is known as forced convective boiling in which the boiling occurs
simultaneously with fluid motion induced by externally imposed pressure difference. In this
chapter, we will mostly consider the pool boiling.

As generally the bubbles are formed during boiling, we will first refresh the following basic
information. Consider a spherical bubble of radius in a liquid as shown in fig. 6.1
 Fig. 6.1: Force balance on a submerge spherical bubble in a liquid

The pressure of vaporisation inside the bubble, Pvap, must exceed that in the surrounding liquid,
Pliq, because of the surface tension (σ) acting on the liquid-vapour interface.

The force balance on the equatorial plane

πr2(Pvap - Pliq) = 2πrσ

(6.1)

The eq. 6.1 shows that to create a bubble of small radius, it would be necessary to develop very
large pressure in the vapour. In other word, a high degree super heat is necessary for the
generation of a tiny bubble (or nucleus) in the bulk liquid. This is the reason, the bubble are
usually formed at bits existing in the surface irregularities, where a bubble of finite initial radius
may form, or where gasses dissolved in the system of the liquid come out of the solution.

6.2 Boiling of saturated liquid

In this section, we will discuss about the boiling curve which is a log-log plot between heat flux
(q/A) or heat transfer coefficient (h) and excess temperature (ΔT). Excess temperature (ΔT = Tw -
Tsat) is the temperature difference between heating surface (Tw) and saturated temperature of the
liquid (Tsat).

Figure 6.2 shows a typical representative pool boiling curves for water contained in a container
where the water is heated by an immersed horizontal wire. Consider we are measuring the heat
flux (thus,h) and the temperature difference (ΔT) between the boiling water (Tsat) and the wall
temperature of the heater wire (Tw). The temperature of the heater wire is gradually raised while
measuring the heat flux between heated surface and boiling water until a large value of ΔT
reaches. The corresponding plot is prepared at the log-log scale. The plot shows six different
sections in the boiling curve shown in the fig.6.2.

Fig. 6.2: Saturated water boiling curve

The different regimes of the boiling plot (fig. 6.2) have different mechanism. We will see those
mechanisms in-brief in the following section.

Section PQ: In section PQ, initially when the wire temperature is slightly above the saturation
temperature of the liquid, the liquid in contact with the heating surface get slightly superheated.
The free convection of this heated fluid element is responsible for motion of the fluid, and it
subsequently evaporated when it rises to the surface. This regime is called the interfacial
evaporation regime.

Section QS: The section QS is composed of section QR and section RS. In QR section, bubbles
begin to form on the surface of the wire and are dissipated in the liquid after detaching from the
heating surface. If the excess temperature ( further increases, bubbles form rapidly on the
surface of the heating wire, and released from it, rise to the surface of the liquid, and are
discharged into the top of the water surface (fig 6.3). This particular phenomenon is shown in
section RS. Near the pointS, the vapour bubbles rise as columns and bigger bubbles are formed.
The vapour bubbles break and coalesce thus an intense motion of the liquid occurs which in-turn
increases the heat transfer coefficient or heat transfer flux to the liquid from the heating wire.
The section QS is known as nucleate boiling.

Fig. 6.3: (a) Formation of tiny bubbles, and (b) Grown up bubbles

Section ST: At the beginning of the section ST or at the end of the section , the maximum
number of bubbles are generated from the heating surface. The bubbles almost occupy the full
surface of the heating wire. Therefore, the agitation becomes highest as they discharge from the
surface. Thus, maximum heat transfer coefficient is obtained at point S. However, once the
population of the bubbles reaches to maximum, the nearby bubbles coalesce and eventually a
film of vapour forms on the heating surface. This layer is highly unstable and it forms
momentarily and breaks. This is known as transition boiling (nucleate to film). In this situation
the vapour film (unstable) imparts a thermal resistance and thus the heat transfer coefficient
reduces rapidly.

Section TU: If the excess temperature is further increased, the coalesced bubbles form so
rapidly that they blanket the heating surface (stable vapour film) and prevent the inflow of fresh
liquid from taking their place. The heat conducts only by the conduction through this stable
vapour film. As a result the flux of heat transfer decreases continuously and reaches a minimum
at point U. All the resistance to the heat transfer is imposed by this layer stable layer of vapour
film.

Section UV: At very high excess temperature the heat transfer is facilitated by the radiation
through the vapour film and thus the heat transfer coefficient start increasing. Infact the excess
temperature in this regime is so high that the heating wire may get melted. This situation is
known as boiling crises. The combine regime of ST, TU, and UV is known as film boiling regime.

At this stage it would be interesting to know the Leidenfrost phenomenon, which was observed
by Leidenfrost in 1756. When water droplets fall on a very hot surface they dance and jump on
the hot surface and reduces in size and eventually the droplets disappear. The mechanism is
related to the film boiling of the water droplets. When water droplet drops on to the very hot
surface, a film of vapour forms immediately between the droplet and the hot surface. The vapour
film generated provide and up-thrust to the droplet. Therefore, the droplet moves up and when
again the droplet comes in the contact of the hot surface, the vapour generated out of the water
droplet and the phenomenon continues till it disappears.

The effectiveness of nucleate boiling depends primarily on the ease with which bubbles form and
free themselves from the heating surface. The important factor in controlling the rate of bubble
detachment is the interfacial tension between the liquid and the heating surface. If this interfacial
tension is large the bubbles tends to spread along the surface and blocked the heat transfer
area, rather than leaving the surface, to make room for other bubbles. The heat transfer
coefficient obtained during the nucleation boiling is sensitive to the nature of the liquid, the type
and condition of the heating surface, the composition and purity of the liquid, agitation,
temperature and pressure.

Fact: Film boiling is not normally desired in commercial equipment because the heat transfer
rate is low for such a large temperature drop.

6.2.1 Nucleation boiling

Rohsenow correlation may be used for calculating pool boiling heat transfer

(6.2)

where,

q is the heat flux (W/m2)

μl is the liquid viscosity (Pa.s)
λ is the enthalpy of liquid vaporisation (J/kg)
ρl and ρv are the liquid and vapour density, respectively, (kg/m3)
cp1 is the specific heat of liquid (J/kg/°C)
σ is the surface tension (N/m)
Te is the excess temperature of the boiling surface, Tw - Tsat, (K)
Pr1 is the liquid Prandtl number
Csf and n are the constants and depend on the liquid and heating surface combination for boiling
operation, for example,

All the properties are to be evaluated at film temperature.

6.2.2 Maximum heat flux

Maximum heat flux corresponding to the point S in the fig.6.2 can be found by Leinhard
correlation,

(6.3)

The notations are same as for eq.6.2.

6.2.3 Film boiling

(6.4)

where, kv is the thermal conductivity of the vapour, µv is the viscosity of the vapour, d is the
characteristic length (tube diameter or height of the vertical plate), other notations are same as
for eq. 6.2.

If the surface temperature is high enough to consider the contribution of radiative heat transfer,
the total heat transfer coefficient may be calculation by,

(6.5)

where, hr is the radiative heat transfer coefficient and is given in eq.6.4.

Upto this section, we have discussed about the boiling phenomenon where the liquid phase
changes to vapour phase. In the subsequent sections, we will study the opposite phenomena of
boiling that is condensation, where the vapour phase changes to the liquid phase.

6.3 Heat transfer during condensation

Condensation of vapours on the surfaces cooler than the condensing temperature of the vapour
is an important phenomenon in chemical process industries like boiling phenomenon. It is quite
clear that in condensation the phase changes from vapour to liquid. Consider a vertical flat plate
which is exposed to a condensable vapour. If the temperature of the plate is below the saturation
temperature of the vapour, condensate will form on the surface and flows down the plate due to
gravity. It is to be noted that a liquid at its boiling point is a saturated liquid and the vapour in
equilibrium with the saturated liquid is saturated vapour. A liquid or vapour above the saturation
temperature is called superheated. If the non-condensable gases will present in the vapour the
rate of condensation of the vapour will reduce significantly.

Condensation may be of two types, film condensation and dropwise condensation. If the liquid
(condensate) wets the surface, a smooth film is formed and the process is called film type
condensation. In this process, the surface is blocked by the film, which grows in thickness as it
moves down the plate. A temperature gradient exists in the film and the film represents thermal
resistance in the heat transfer. The latent heat is transferred through the wall to the cooling fluid
on the other side of the wall. However, if the liquid does not wet the system, drops are formed
on the surface in some random fashion. This process is called dropwise condensation. Some of
the surface will always be free from the condensate drops (for a reasonable time period).

Now, with the help of the above discussion one can easily understand that the condensate film
offers significant heat transfer resistance as compared to dropwise condensation. In dropwise
condensation the surface is not fully covered by the liquid and exposed to the vapour for the
condensation. Therefore, the heat transfer coefficient will be higher for dropwise condensation.
Thus the dropwise condensation is preferred over the film condensation. However, the dropwise
condensation is not practically easy to achieve. We have to put some coating on the surface or
we have to add some additive to the vapour to have dropwise condensation. Practically, these
techniques for dropwise condensation are not easy for the sustained dropwise condensation.
Because of these reasons, in many instances we assume film condensation because the film
condensation sustained on the surface and it is comparatively easy to quantify and analyse.

6.4 Film condensation on a vertical flat plate

Figure 6.4 shows a vertical wall very long in z-direction. The wall is exposed to a condensable
vapour. The condensate film is assumed to be fully developed laminar flow with zero interfacial
shear and constant liquid properties. It is also assumed that the vapour is saturated and the heat
transfer through the condensate film occurs by condensation only and the temperature profile is
assumed to be linear.

Fig. 6.4: Condensation of film in laminar flow

The wall temperature is maintained at temperature Tw and the vapour temperature at the edge of
the film is the saturation temperature Tv. The condensate film thickness is represented by δx, a
function of x. A fluid element of thickness dx was assumed with a unit width in the z-direction.
The force balance on the element provides,

F1 = F2 - F3

where, shear force is the viscosity of the condensate (liquid). In the

subsequent sections of this module, the subscripts l and v will represent liquid and vapour phase.

Gravity force, F2 = ρlg (δx - y)dx; and

Buoyancy force, F3 = ρvg (δx - y)dx

Thus,
On integrating for the following boundary condition, u = 0 at y = 0; no slip condition.

(6.6)

Equation 6.6 shows the velocity profile in the condensate falling film.

The corresponding mass flow rate of the condensate for dy thickness and unit width of the film,

(6.7)

where dy is the length of the volume element at y distance. The rate of condensation for dx.1
(over element surface) area exposed to the vapour can be obtained from the rate of heat
transfer through this area.

The rate of heat transfer

The thermal conductivity of the liquid is represented by kl. The above rate of heat transfer is due
to the latent heat of condensation of the vapour. Thus,

(6.8)

The specific latent heat of condensation is represented by λ. On solving eqs.6.7 and 6.8, for
boundary layer conditions (x = 0; δx = 0)

(6.9)

The eq. 6.9 gives the local condensate film thickness at any location x. If h is the film heat
transfer coefficient for the condensate film, heat flux through the film at any location is,
 (6.10a)

The local Nusselt number will be,

We can also calculate the average heat transfer coefficient along the length of the surface,

(6.10b)

In eq. 6.10, the liquid properties can be taken at the mean film temperature The

equation 6.10 is applicable for Pr > 0.5 and ≤ 1.0

It can also be understood that at any location on the plate the liquid film temperature changes
fromTv to Tw. It indicates that apart from latent heat some amount of sensible heat will also be
removed. Thus, to take this into account and to further improve the accuracy of Nusselt‟s

equation (eq. 6.10), a modified latent heat term can be used in place
of λ. The term Ja is called the Jacob number as is defined by eq. 6.11. All the properties are to be
evaluated at film temperature.

(6.11)

In the previous discussion we have not discussed about the ripples or turbulent condition of the
condensate film as it grows while coming down from the vertical wall. The previous discussion
was applicable only when the flow in the condensate film was 1-D and the velocity profile was
half parabolic all along the length of the wall. However, if the rate of condensation is high or the
height of the condensing wall is more, the thickness of the condensate film neither remains small
nor the flow remains laminar.

The nature of the flow is determined by the film Reynolds number (Ref). The local average liquid
velocity in the film can be obtained by eq. 6.6.
Now, the Ref can be calculated by,

(6.12)

where D is the hydraulic diameter of the condensate film. The hydraulic diameter can be
calculated by the flow area (δx.1) and wetted perimeter (unit breadth, thus 1). It has been found
that, if

Case 1: Ref ≤ 30; the film remains laminar and the free surface of the film remains wave free.
Case 2: 30 < Ref < 1600; the film remains laminar but the waves and ripples appear on the
surface.
Case 3: Ref ≥ 1600; the film becomes turbulent and surface becomes wavy.

The corresponding average heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by the following
correlation,

: for Case 1

(It is same as eq. 6.10 if Ref is taken at the bottom of the wall.)
: for Case 2

: for Case 3

The Nusselt number in case-1 is defined as Modified Nusselt number or condensation number
(Co).

The above relations may also be used for condensation inside or outside of a vertical tube if the
tube diameter is very large in comparison to condensate film thickness. Moreover, the relations
are valid for the tilted surfaces also. If the surface make an angle “θ” from the vertical plane the
“g” will be replaced by “g.cosθ” in the above equations

Illustration 6.1

Saturated steam at 70.14 kPa is condensing on a vertical tube 0.5 m long having an outer
diameter of 2.5 cm and a surface temperature of 80oC. Calculate the average heat-transfer
coefficient.
Solution 6.1

It is a problem of condensation on a vertical plate, thus eq.6.10b can be

used,

where, different liquid and steam properties are evaluate at average film temperature,

Using steam table, the temperature of the steam corresponding to 70.14kPa pressure is 90oC.
The average film temperature will then be the average of 80 oC and 90 oC and it comes out to be
85 oC,

Using given data the different properties can be found using steam table and other relevant
tables given in the standard literature. The data is tabulates below at 85oC,

On putting the above values in the above equation,

hav = 1205.2 W/m2 °C

6.5 Condensation for horizontal tube

6.5.1 Condensation outside horizontal tube or bank of tube This type of condensation is
very common especially for the shell and tube heat exchanger. In case of condensation outside
the vertical array of horizontal tubes the condensate flows as a film along the cylindrical surface
or it may drop down. In case of another tube below, the condensate film flows down from the
bottom edge of the upper tube to the upper edge of the bottom tube. As it goes on to the lower
tubes, the thickness of the condensate film increases. Some of the correlations are given below.

6.5.1.1 Condensation on a single horizontal tube

(6.13)

6.5.1.2 Condensation on a vertical tube of N horizontal tubes

(6.14)

6.5.1.3 Condensation inside a horizontal tube

Figure 6.5 shows the physical picture of the condensation inside a horizontal tube (like an open
channel flow).

Fig. 6.5: Film condensation inside a horizontal tube

Case 1: The length is small or the rate of condensation is low.

This situation will have small thickness of the flowing condensate layer at the bottom of the tube
and the following coefficient can be used,
 (6.15)

where, and the vapour Reynolds number (Rev) should be less than 35,000.
The Rev is calculated based on inlet condition of vapour and inside diameter of tube.

Case 2: The length is high or the rate of condensation is high.

In this the following relation can be used.

(6.16)

where,

(Condition: Rel >5000, Rev > 20,000)

where, Gl and Gv are the liquid and vapour mass velocities calculated on the basis of the cross-

section of the tube.

6.6 Correlations for packed and fluidized bed

6.6.1 Packed bed
The heat transfer correlation for gas flow through a packed bed is given as,

(6.17)

Conditions to use eq.6.12 are,

where,

is the Stanton number.

 is the particle Reynolds number

dp = Diameter or the effective diameter of a particle

v0 = Superficial fluid velocity. It is the velocity based on the cross-section of the bed).

∈ : Bed porosity or void fraction

∈ : 0.3 → 0.5

Theoretically: ∈ = 0.69 for uniform shape

= 0.71 bed of cubes

= 0.79 bed of cylinder

Colburn factor

6.6.2 Fluidized bed

The heat transfer coefficient to or from particles in a fluidized bed can be estimated with the
help of following correlation,

(6.18)

where, v0 is the superficial velocity.

Frequently Asked Questions and Problems for Practice (Module 6)

Q.1 What is Leidenfrost phenomenon?

Q.2 How the presence of non-condensable gases affect the condensation rate of
vapour?
Q.3 What is the difference between drop-wise and film condensation?

Q.4 Discuss the phenomena of condensation on a vertical and a horizontal plate.

Q.5 Saturated vapour of methanol condenses on a vertical plate at 1 atm. The

vertical plate is maintained at 55 oC by cooling water at the other side.
 Calculate the following,
(a)Length of the plate over which the condensate film remains laminar.
(b) What is the thickness of the film at the end of the laminar region?
(c)Determine the average heat transfer coefficient and the rate of condensation
in the laminar region.
(c) What is the average heat transfer coefficient for the entire plate?
Q.6. Saturated steam flows in a horizontal tube having 5 cm diameter and 15 cm of
length. Calculate the condensation for a tube wall temperature of 96 oC.
Q.7. An uninsulated water pipe carrying water at 2 oC passes through hot and humid
area where the temperature is 32 oC and the relative humidity is 75%. Estimate
the condensate if the pipe is 50 mm in diameter and the exposed length is 75
cm. It may be assumed that the pipe is exposed to saturated vapour at the
partial pressure of the water vapour in the air.
Q.8. Compare the heat transfer coefficients for boiling water and condensing steam
on a horizontal tube for normal atmospheric conditions.

Module 7: Radiation heat transfer

In the previous chapters it has been observed that the heat transfer studies were based on the
fact that the temperature of a body, a portion of a body, which is hotter than its surroundings,
tends to decrease with time. The decrease in temperature indicates a flow of energy from the
body. In all the previous chapters, limitation was that a physical medium was necessary for the
transport of the energy from the high temperature source to the low temperature sink. The heat
transport was related to conduction and convection and the rate of heat transport was
proportional to the temperature difference between the source and the sink.

Now, if we observe the heat transfer from the Sun to the earth atmosphere, we can understand
that there is no medium exists between the source (the Sun) and the sink (earth atmosphere).
However, still the heat transfer takes place, which is entirely a different energy transfer
mechanism takes place and it is called thermal radiation.

Thermal radiation is referred when a body is heated or exhibits the loss of energy by radiation.
However, more general form “radiation energy” is used to cover all the other forms. The
emission of other form of radiant energy may be caused when a body is excited by oscillating
electrical current, electronic bombardment, chemical reaction etc. Moreover, when radiation
energy strikes a body and is absorbed, it may manifest itself in the form of thermal internal
energy, a chemical reaction, an electromotive force, etc. depending on the nature of the incident
radiation and the substance of which the body is composed.

In this chapter, we will concentrate on thermal radiation (emission or absorption) that on

radiation produced by or while produces thermal excitation of a body.
There are many theories available in literature which explains the transport of energy by
radiation. However, a dual theory is generally accepted which enables to explain the radiant
energy in the characterisation of a wave motion (electromagnetic wave motion) and
discontinuous emission (discrete packets or quanta of energy).

An electromagnetic wave propagates at the speed of light (3×108 m/s). It is characterised by its
wavelength λ or its frequency ν related by

c = λv (7.1)

Emission of radiation is not continuous, but occurs only in the form of discrete quanta. Each
quantum has energy

E = hv (7.2)

where, = 6.6246×10-34 J.s, is known as Planck‟s constant.

Table 7.1 shows the electromagnetic radiation covering the entire spectrum of wavelength

Table 7.1: Electromagnetic radiation for entire spectrum of wavelength

Type Band of wavelength (µm)

Cosmic rays upto 4×10⁻7

Gamma rays 4×10⁻7 to 1.4×10⁻4

X-rays 1×10⁻5 to 2×10⁻2

Ultraviolet rays 5×10⁻3 to 3.9×10⁻1

Visible light 3.9×10⁻1to 7.8×10⁻1

Infrared rays 7.8×10⁻1 to 1×103

Thermal radiation 1×10⁻1 to 1×102

Microwave, radar, radio waves 1×103 to 5×1010

It is to be noted that the above band is in approximate values and do not have any sharp
boundary.

7.1 Basic definition pertaining to radiation

Before we further study about the radiation it would be better to get familiarised with the basic
terminology and properties of the radiant energy and how to characterise it.
As observed in the table 7.1 that the thermal radiation is defined between wavelength of about
1×10-1 and 1×102 μm of the electromagnetic radiation. If the thermal radiation is emitted by a
surface, which is divided into its spectrum over the wavelength band, it would be found that the
radiation is not equally distributed over all wavelength. Similarly, radiation incident on a system,
reflected by a system, absorbed by a system, etc. may be wavelength dependent. The
dependence on the wavelength is generally different from case to case, system to system, etc.
The wavelength dependency of any radiative quantity or surface property will be referred to as a
spectral dependency. The radiation quantity may be monochromatic (applicable at a single
wavelength) or total (applicable at entire thermal radiation spectrum). It is to be noted that
radiation quantity may be dependent on the direction and wavelength both but we will not
consider any directional dependency. This chapter will not consider directional effect and the
emissive power will always used to be (hemispherical) summed overall direction in the
hemisphere above the surface.

7.1.1 Emissive power

It is the emitted thermal radiation leaving a system per unit time, per unit area of surface. The
total emissive power of a surface is all the emitted energy, summed over all the direction and all
wavelengths, and is usually denoted as E. The total emissive power is found to be dependent
upon the temperature of the emitting surface, the subsystem which this system is composed,
and the nature of the surface structure or texture.

The monochromatic emissive power Eλ, is defined as the rate, per unit area, at which the surface
emits thermal radiation at a particular wavelength λ. Thus the total and monochromatic
hemispherical emissive power are related by

(7.3)

and the functional dependency of Eλ on λ must be known to evaluate E.

7.1.2 Radiosity
It is the term used to indicate all the radiation leaving a surface, per unit time and unit area.

(7.4)

where, J and Jλ are the total and monochromatic radiosity.

The radiosity includes reflected energy as well as original emission whereas emissive power
consists of only original emission leaving the system. The emissive power does not include any
energy leaving a system that is the result of the reflection of any incident radiation.
7.1.3 Irradiation

It is the term used to denote the rate, per unit area, at which thermal radiation is incident upon
a surface (from all the directions). The irradiative incident upon a surface is the result of
emission and reflection from other surfaces and may thus be spectrally dependent.

(7.5)

where, G and Gλ are the total and monochromatic irradiation.

Reflection from a surface may be of two types specular or diffusive as shown in fig.7.1.

Fig. 7.1: (a) Specular, and (b) diffusive radiation

Thus,

J = E + ρG (7.6)

7.1.4 Absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmitting

The emissive power, radiosity, and irradiation of a surface are inter-related by the reflective,
absorptive, and transmissive properties of the system.
When thermal radiation is incident on a surface, a part of the radiation may be reflected by the
surface, a part may be absorbed by the surface and a part may be transmitted through the
surface as shown in fig.7.2. These fractions of reflected, absorbed, and transmitted energy are
interpreted as system properties called reflectivity, absorptivity, and transmissivity, respectively.
 Fig. 7.2: Reflection, absorption and transmitted energy

Thus using energy conservation,

(7.7)

(7.7)

where, are total reflectivity, total absorptivity, and total transmissivity. The
subscript λ indicates the monochromatic property.

In general the monochromatic and total surface properties are dependent on the system
composition, its roughness, and on its temperature.

Monochromatic properties are dependent on the wavelength of the incident radiation, and the
total properties are dependent on the spectral distribution of the incident energy.

Most gases have high transmissivity, i.e. (like air at atmospheric

pressure). However, some other gases (water vapour, CO2 etc.) may be highly absorptive to
thermal radiation, at least at certain wavelength.

Most solids encountered in engineering practice are opaque to thermal radiation Thus
for thermally opaque solid surfaces,

ρ+α=1 (7.6)

Another important property of the surface of a substance is its ability to emit radiation. Emission
and radiation have different concept. Reflection may occur only when the surface receives
radiation whereas emission always occurs if the temperature of the surface is above the absolute
zero. Emissivity of the surface is a measure of how good it is an emitter.
7.2 Blackbody radiation

In order to evaluate the radiation characteristics and properties of a real surface it is useful to
define an ideal surface such as the perfect blackbody. The perfect blackbody is defined as one
which absorbs all incident radiation regardless of the spectral distribution or directional
characteristic of the incident radiation.

A blackbody is black because it does not reflect any radiation. The only radiation leaving a
blackbody surface is original emission since a blackbody absorbs all incident radiation. The
emissive power of a blackbody is represented by , and depends on the surface temperature only.

Fig. 7.3: Example of a near perfect blackbody

It is possible to produce a near perfect blackbody as shown in fig.7.3.

Figure 7.2 shows a cavity with a small opening. The body is at isothermal state, where a ray of
incident radiation enters through the opening will undergo a number of internal reflections. A
portion of the radiation absorbed at each internal reflection and a very little of the incident beam
ever find the way out through the small hole. Thus, the radiation found to be evacuating from
the hole will appear to that coming from a nearly perfect blackbody.

7.2.1 Planck’s law

A surface emits radiation of different wavelengths at a given temperature (theoretically zero to
infinite wavelengths). At a fixed wavelength, the surface radiates more energy as the
temperature increases. Monochromatic emissive power of a blackbody is given by eq.7.10.
 (7.7)

where, h = 6.6256 X 10-34 JS; Planck‟s constant

c = 3 X 108 m/s; speed of light
T = absolute temperature of the blackbody
λ = wavelenght of the monochromatic radiation emitted
k = Boltzmann constant

Equation 7.10 is known as Planck‟s law. Figure 7.4 shows the representative plot for Planck‟s
distribution.

Fig. 7.4: Representative plot for Planck’s distribution

7.2.2 Wien’s law

Figure 7.4 shows that as the temperature increases the peaks of the curve also increases and it
shift towards the shorter wavelength. It can be easily found out that the wavelength
corresponding to the peak of the plot (λmax) is inversely proportional to the temperature of the
blackbody (Wein‟s law) as shown in eq. 7.11.

λmax T = 2898 (7.11)

Now with the Wien‟s law or Wien‟s displacement law, it can be understood if we heat a body,
initially the emitted radiation does not have any colour. As the temperature rises the λ of the
radiation reach the visible spectrum and we can able to see the red colour being height λ (for red
colour). Further increase in temperature shows the white colour indicating all the colours in the
light.

7.2.3 The Stefan-Boltzmann law for blackbody

Josef Stefan based on experimental facts suggested that the total emissive power of a blackbody
is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature. Later, Ludwig Boltzmann
derived the same using classical thermodynamics. Thus the eq. 7.12 is known as Stefan-
Boltzmann law,

Eb = σT4 (7.12)

where, Eb is the emissive power of a blackbody, T is absolute temperature, and σ (= 5.67 X 10-
8
W/m2/K4) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

The Stefan-Boltzmann law for the emissive power gives the total energy emitted by a blackbody
defined by eq.7.3.

7.2.4 Special characteristic of blackbody radiation

It has been shown that the irradiation field in an isothermal cavity is equal to Eb. Moreover, the
irradiation was same for all planes of any orientation within the cavity. It may then be shown
that the intensity of the blackbody radiation, Ib, is uniform. Thus, blackbody radiation is defined
as,

Eb = πIb (7.13)

where, is the total intensity of the radiation and is called the spectral
radiation intensity of the blackbody.

7.2.5 Kirchhoff’s law

Consider an enclosure as shown in fig.7.2 and a body is placed inside the enclosure. The radiant
heat flux (q) is incident onto the body and allowed to come into temperature equilibrium. The
rate of energy absorbed at equilibrium by the body must be equal to the energy emitted.
where, E is the emissive power of the body, is absorptivity of the of the body at equilibrium
temperature, and A is the area of the body.

Now consider the body is replaced by a blackbody i.e. E → Eb and = 1, the equation 7.14
becomes

Eb= q (7.15)

Dividing eq. 7.14 by eq.7.15,

(7.16)

At this point we may define emissivity, which is a measure of how good the body is an emitter as
compared to blackbody. Thus the emissivity can be written as the ratio of the emissive power to
that of a blackbody,

(7.17)

On comparing eq.7.16 and eq.7.17, we get

(7.18)

Equation 7.18 is the Kirchhoff‟s law, which states that the emissivity of a body which is in
thermal equilibrium with its surrounding is equal to its absorptivity of the body. It should be
noted that the source temperature is equal to the temperature of the irradiated surface.
However, in practical purposes it is assumed that emissivity and absorptivity of a system are
equal even if it is not in thermal equilibrium with the surrounding. The reason being the
absorptivity of most real surfaces is relatively insensitive to temperature and wavelength. This
particular assumption leads to the concept of grey body. The emissivity is considered to be
independent of the wavelength of radiation for grey body.

7.3 Grey body

If grey body is defined as a substance whose monochromatic emissivity and absorptivity are
independent of wavelength. A comparative study of grey body and
blackbody is shown in the table 7.2.
 Table-7.2: Comparison of grey and blackbody

Blackbody Grey body

Ideal body Ideal body

Emissivity independent of Emissivity is independent of

wavelength wavelength

Absorptivity s independent of Absorptivity (α) is independent of

wavelength wavelength

ε=1 ε <1

α= 1 α< 1

Illustration 7.1
The surface of a blackbody is at 500 K temperature. Obtain the total emissive power, the
wavelength of the maximum monochromatic emissive power.

Solution 7.1

Using eq. 7.12, the total emissive power can be calculated,

Eb = σT4

where, σ (= 5.67 X 10-8 W/m2/K4) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant. Thus at 500 K,

Eb = (5.67 X 10-8)(50004) W/m2

Eb = 354.75 W/m2

The wavelength of the maximum monochromatic emissive power can be obtained from the
Wien‟s law (eq. 7.11),

λmaxT = 2898

7.4 Radiative heat exchanger between surfaces

Till now we have discussed fundamental aspects of various definitions and laws. Now we will
study the heat exchange between two or more surfaces which is of practical importance. The
two surfaces which are not in direct contact, exchanges the heat due to radiation phenomena.
The factors those determine the rate of heat exchange between two bodies are the temperature
of the individual surfaces, their emissivities, as well as how well one surface can see the other
surface. The last factor is known as view factor, shape factor, angle factor or configuration
factor.

7.4.1 View factor

In this section we would like to find the energy exchange between two black surfaces having
area A1and A2, respectively, and they are at different temperature and have arbitrary shape and
orientation with respect to each other. In order to find the radiative heat exchange between the
bodies we have to first define the view factor as

F12 = fraction of the energy leavings surface 1 which reaches surface 2

F21 = fraction of the energy leaving surface 2 which reaches surface 1 or in general,
Fmn = fraction of the energy leaving surface m which raches surface n

Thus the energy leaving surface 1 and arriving at surface 2 is Eb1A1F12 and the energy leaving
surface 2 and arriving at surface 1 is Eb2A2F21. All the incident radiation will be absorbed by the
blackbody and the net energy exchange will be,

Q = Eb1A1F12 - Eb2A2F21

At thermal equilibrium between the surfaces Q12 = 0 and Eb1 = Eb2, thus

0 = Eb1 (A1F12 - A2F21)

A1F12 - A2F21 (7.19)

Equation 7.19 is known as reciprocating relation, and it can be applied in general way for any
blackbody surfaces.

AiFij - AjFji (7.20)

Though the relation is valid for blackbody it may be applied to any surface as long as diffuse
radiation is involved.

7.4.1.1 Relation between view factors

In this section we will develop some useful relation of view factor considering fig. 7.5
 Fig. 7.5: Exchange of energy between area A1 and A2 (A is area of blackbody)

View factor for radiation from A1 to the combined area A2,

F12 = F13 + F14 (7.21)

and using the reciprocating relations for surface 1 and 4,

A1F14 = A4F41 (7.22)

Using eq. 7.21 and 7.22,

Thus the unknown view factor F14 can be estimated if the view factors F12 and F13, as well as their
areas are (A1, A2) known.

Now, consider a flat plate (for eg.) which is emitting the radiation, it can be understood that the
radiation of the flat plat cannot fall on its own surface (partly or fully). Such kind or surfaces are
termed as “not able to see itself”. In such situations,

F11 = F22 = F33 = F44 = 0

However, if the surface can see itself like concave curved surfaces, which may thus see
themselves and then the shape factor will not be zero in those cases.

Another property of the shape factor is that when the surface is enclosed, then the following
relation holds,
 (7.23)

where, Fij is the fraction of the total energy leaving surface i which arrives at surface j.

In case of N-walled enclosure, some of the view factors may be evaluated from the knowledge of
the rest and the total N2 view factors may be represented in square matrix form shown below,

Illustration 7.2

A pipe having 10 cm of diameter is carrying saturated steam at 8 bar of absolute

pressure. The pipe runs through a room. The wall of the room is at 300 oK. A portion
around 1 m of the pipe insulation is damaged and exposed to the room atmosphere.
Calculate the net rate of heat loss from the pipe by radiation.

Solution 7.2

The emissivity of the pipe surface is not given so it may be considered black. Moreover, since the
room may be big compared to the surface area of the pipe, the room may also be
considered to be a blackbody.
We can write F11 + F12 = 1.
The value of F11 = 0, as the pipe cannot see itself.
Thus F12, the view factor (1-pipe, 2-room) will be 1.
The net rate heat loss due to radiation,

Tpipe can be obtained by the temperature of the steam at the prevailing pressure with the help of
steam table = 450 K.

σ (= 5.67 X 10-8 W/m2/K4)

On putting the value,

Q12 = {π(0.1)(1)}(1)(1)(5.67 X 10-8){4504 - 3004}

Q12 = 586 W
7.5 Heat exchange between non blackbodies
Evaluation of radiative heat transfer between black surfaces is relatively easy because in case of
blackbody all the radiant energy which strikes the surface is absorbed. However, finding view
factor is slightly complex, but once it can be done, finding heat exchange between the black
bodies is quite easy.

When non blackbodies are involved the heat transfer process becomes very complex because all
the energy striking on to the surface does not get absorbed. A part of this striking energy
reflected back to another heat transfer surface, and part may be reflected out from the system
entirely. Now, one can imagine that this radiant energy can be reflected back and forth between
the heat transfer surfaces many times.

In this section, we will assume that all surfaces are in the analysis are diffuse and uniform in
temperature and that the reflective and emissive properties are constant over all surfaces.

Fig. 7.6: (a) Surface energy balance for opaque surface (b) equivalent electrical
circuit

It is also assumed that the radiosity and irradiation are uniform over each surface. As we have
already discussed that the radiosity is the sum of the energy emitted and the energy reflected
when no energy is transmitted (as opaque body), or

(7.24)

where, is the emissivity and Eb is the blackbody emissive power. Because the transmissivity is zero
due to opaque surface and absorptivity of the body (grey) will be equal to its emissivity by
Kirchhoff‟s law.
Thus, eq.7.24 becomes

(7.25)

The net energy leaving the surface is the difference between the radiosity and the irradiance
(fig.7.6a),

(7.26)

The eq.7.26 can be analogous to the electrical circuit as shown in fig.7.6(b). The numerator of
the eq.7.26 is equivalent to the potential difference, denominator is equivalent to the surface
resistance to radiative heat, and left part is equivalent to the current in the circuit.

In the above discussion we have considered only one surface. Now we will analyse the exchange
of radiant energy by two surfaces, A1 and A2, as shown in the fig.7.7a.

Fig. 7.7: (a) Energy exchange between two surfaces, (b) equivalent circuit diagram

The radiation which leaves surface 1, the amount that reaches surface 2 is
 J1A1F12

Similarly, the radiation which leaves system 2, the amount that reaches surface 1 is

J2A2F21

The net energy transfer between the surfaces,

Reciprocity theorem states that

(7.27)

It also resembles an electrical circuit shown in fig.7.7b. The difference between eq.7.26 and 7.27
is that in eq.7.27 the denominator term is space resistance instead of surface resistance.

Now, to know, the net energy exchange between the two surfaces we need to add both the
surface resistances along with the overall potential as shown in the fig.7.8. Here the surfaces see
each other and nothing else.

Fig. 7.8: Radiative nature for two surfaces which can see each other nothing else

(7.28)
7.6 Radiation shield
Till now we have discussed about the radiative heat transfer from one surface to another without
any interfering surface in between. Here we will discuss about an interfering shield in between,
which is termed as radiation shield. A radiation shield is a barrier wall of low emissivity placed
between two surfaces which reduce the radiation between the bodies. In fact, the radiation
shield will put additional resistance to the radiative heat transfer between the surfaces as shown
in fig.7.9.

Fig. 7.9: Radiation between two large infinite plates (a) without and (b) with
radiation shield

Considering fig.7.9(b) and the system is at steady state, and the surfaces are flat (Fij because

each plate is in full view of the other). Moreover, the surface are large enough and

may be considered and the equivalent blackbody radiation energy may be written as Eb = σT4.

Thus, eq. 7.28 becomes

(7.29)

In order to have a feel of the role of the radiation shield, consider that the emissivities of all the
three surfaces are equal.

Then it can be seen that the heat flux is just one half of that which would be experienced if there
were no shield present.
In similar line we can deduce that when n-shields are arranged between the two surfaces then,
 (7.30)

7.7 Electrical network for radiation through absorbing and transmitting medium The
previous discussions were based on the consideration that the heat transfer surfaces were
separated by a completely transparent medium. However, in real situations the heat transfer
medium absorbs as well as transmits. The examples of such medium are glass, plastic film, and
various gases.

Consider two non-transmitting surfaces (same as in fig. 7.8) are separated by a transmitting and
absorbing medium. The medium may be considered as a radiation shield which see themselves
and others. If we distinguish the transparent medium by m and if the medium is non-reflective
(say gas) then using Kirchhoff‟s law,

(7.31)

The energy leaving surface 1 which is transmitted through the medium and reaches the surface
2 is,

and that which leaves surface 2 and arrives at surface 1 is,

Therefore, the net exchange in the transmission process is therefore,

Using eq. 7.31,

Thus the equivalent circuit diagram is shown in fig. 7.9

 Fig. 7.9. Equivalent electrical circuit for radiation through gas

7.8 Radiation combined with conduction and convection

In industrial processes, in general, the heat transfer at higher temperature has significant portion
of radiation along with conduction and convection. For example, a heated surface is shown in the
fig. 7.10 with all the three mechanism of heat transfer.

Fig. 7.11: Radiation combined with conduction and convection

At steady state

Heat flux by conduction = heat flux by convention + heat flux by radiation

where, h is the heat transfer coefficient at the surface in contact (outer surface) with
atmosphere due to natural and forced convection combined together, is the emissivity of the
outer surface, andTatm is the atmospheric temperature.

Questions for Practice (Module 7)

Q.1 What is the wavelength for thermal and infrared radiation?

Q.2 Define black body and grey body emphasising on the differences and similarity.
Q.3 If a stainless steel body reflects 45% of the incident solar radiation, what will be the
absorptivity and transmissivity?
Q.4 What is Wein's law?
Q.5 What is the practical advantage of studying radiation shield?
Q.6 What is the difference between spectral emissive power and spectral radiation intensity?
Q.7 A hollow sphere having 1 m of diameter is evacuated and heated to a interior surface
temperature of 600 o K. If the sphere has a hole of 0.25 cm of diameter in the wall, how
many watts of radiant energy is emitted from the hole. The inner surface of the sphere
 has an emissivity of (i) 0.9, and (ii) 0.4?
Q.8 Find the view factor for the following geometry, all dimensions are in meter,

(i) (ii)
Q.9 A surface has a monochromatic emissivity of 0.2 for all the wavelengths less than or equal
to 0.3micrometer and 0.85 for all the wabelengths greater than or equal to 3 micrometer.
Find the total emissivity of the surface for a surface temperature of 1100 o
K. Determine also the solar absorptivity of the surface.

Module 8: Heat Exchanger

In any process industry, we need to transfer heat for different operations (like cooling, heating,
vaporizing, or condensing) to or from various fluid streams in various equipment like condensers,
water heaters, re-boilers, air heating or cooling devices etc., where heat exchanges between the
two fluids. In a chemical process industry, the heat exchanger is frequently used for such
applications. A heat exchanger is a device where two fluids streams come into thermal contact in
order to transfer the heat from hot fluid to cold fluid stream.

In this chapter, we will discuss about the technical analysis of the heat exchangers along with
the method for predicting heat exchanger performance and operational parameters. Moreover
the discussion on heat exchanger size will also be discussed. However, we will not discuss the
economics (though discuss the heat exchanger size) of the heat exchanger. We will consider that
the heat transfer will primarily be taken by conduction and convection only. We will describe the
commonly used heat exchangers and their important characteristics.

In general heat exchangers may be categorized into two general classes depending on the
relative orientation of the flow direction of the two fluid streams. If the two streams cross one
another in space, usually at right angles, the heat exchangers are known as cross flow heat
exchanger as shown in the fig. 8.1(a).
In the second class of heat exchanger the two streams move in parallel direction in space. The
usual shell and tube heat exchanger or concentric pipe exchanger or double tube exchanger is
the most frequently used exchanger in the class. Two situations may arise when the fluid flow in
the parallel direction, one in which the fluids flow in same direction and the other in which the
fluids flow in opposites direction. “Parallel –flow” or “Co-current flow” is used when the flow is in
same direction and counter current is used when the fluid flow is in the opposite direction.

Before understanding the principle of heat exchanger we would first understand it from the point
of construction.

8.1 Elements of shell and tube heat exchanger

We will discuss shell and tube heat exchanger as they or the most commonly used heat
exchangers in the chemical process industries. Schematic of a typical shell and tube heat
exchanger is shown in fig. 8.2.
 Fig. 8.1: Orientation of fluid stream in heat exchanger (a) cross flow (b) counter
current flow (c) parallel flow

The heat exchanger as shown in fig. 8.2 consists of a bundle of tubes properly secured at either
ends in tube sheets. The tube sheets are drilled plates into which the tubes are fixed up using
different technique to have leak proof joints. The entire tube bundles shown in the fig. 8.3 is
placed inside a closed shell, which seals around the tube sheet periphery to form the two
immiscible zones for hot and cold fluids are shown in fig.8.4.
Fig.8.2: A schematic of (a) one-shell pass, one tube pass heat exchanger; (b) parallel
flow; and (c) counter flow
 Fig. 8.4: Tube bundle inside a shell

One fluid flows through the tubes while the other fluid flows around the outside of the tubes, it
is the space between the tube sheets and enclosed by the outer shell.

For a thorough distribution of the shell side fluid, baffles are placed normal to the tube bundle.
This baffle creates turbulence in the shell side fluid and enhances the transfer coefficients for the
shell side flow.

Fig. 8.2 shows the simplified diagram of a shell and tube heat exchanger, showing a few of the
important components. Infact, the present heat exchanger used in the process industry are quite
complex and have improved design such as factors for thermal expansion stresses, tube fouling
due to contaminated fluids, ease of assembly and disassembly, size, weight, etc.

The heat exchanger shows in fig. 8.2 is having one shell and one tube pass since both the shell
and tube side fluid make a single traverse through the heat exchanger. Thus, this type of shell-
and-tube heat exchangers is designated as 1-1 exchanger. If we desire to pass the tube fluid
twice, then it is designated as 1-2 exchangers. Similarly, if there are 2 shell pass and 4 tube
pass, the designation will be 2-4 exchanger. The number of pass in tube side is done by the pass
partition plate. A pass particular plate or pass divider as shown in fig.8.5. The shell side pass can
be creator by a flat plate as shown in fig.8.6.

Fig. 8.6: 2-4 exchanger showing shell and tube passes

It can be understood that for a given number of tubes; the area available for flow of the tube
side fluid is inversely proportional to the number of passes. Thus, on increasing the pass the area
reduces and as a result the velocity of fluid in the tube increases and henceforth the Reynolds
number increases. It would result in increased heat transfer coefficient but at the expense of
high pressure drop. Generally, even numbers of tube passes are used for the multi- pass heat
exchangers.

Figure 8.2 shows some baffles. These baffles (or shell-side baffles) are a metal plate usually in
the form of the segment of a circular disc having holes to accommodate tubes. Shell-side baffles
have two functions. The first is to create turbulence in the shell side fluid by changing the flow
pattern parallel or cross flow to the tube bundles and thus increases the shell side heat transfer
coefficient. The second major function of these baffles is to support the tube all along its length
otherwise the tube may bend. Moreover, these baffles may have horizontal or vertical cuts
(segmental baffle) as shown in fig.8.7.
Fig.8.7: Baffles; (a) horizontal cut baffles; (b) Vertical cut baffles; (c, d and e)the
shaded region show the baffle area

The cut portion of the baffle, which is called baffle window, provides the area for flow of the shell
fluid. The baffle window area ranges from 15% to 50%. At 25% cut segmental baffle means
that the area of the cut-out portion is 25% of the area of the baffle. The spacing between the
baffles is an important aspect. A larger baffles spacing reduces the shell side pressure drop but at
the same time decreases the turbulence and heat transfer coefficient. Smaller baffle spacing
increases the turbulence and heat transfer coefficient. However, the pressure drop may increase
significantly, thus the advantage attained due to the higher heat transfer coefficient may be
nullified. Therefore baffle spacing is selected considering the allowable shell side pressure drop
and the heat transfer coefficient desired. A rule of thumb is that the minimum spacing of
segmental baffles is one by fifth of the shell diameter or 5 cm, whichever is larger.

8.2 Thermal design of heat exchangers

The mechanical design is done by the mechanical engineers on the inputs of chemical engineers
and using the codes. The most widely used code in Tubular Exchanger Manufactures
Associations (TEMA). This USA code along with ASME selection VIII (unfired pressure vessel)
code is used together for the mechanical design of the heat exchanger. The Indian code for the
heat exchanger design IS 4503.

Here we would discuss about the process design (or thermal design) leading to the sizing of the
heat exchanger. Before understanding design steps, it is necessary to understand the following
for the heat exchanger.
8.2.1 Overall heat transfer coefficient

As understood by the previous discussion that generally heat exchangers are tubular in nature
(Note: we are not discussing about plate type heat exchangers). Thus we can easily find out the
overall heat transfer coefficient based on our previous knowledge. Figure 8.8 shows a simplest
form (double pipe heat exchanger) of tubular heat exchanger, where fluid A is being heated by
fluid B in a co-current flow pattern. The inside and outside radii of the inner tube is represented
ri and ro. The length of the exchanger for heat transfer is considered as L for section 1 to 2.

Fig.8.8: (a) Schematic of a double pipe heat exchanger (b) thermal resistance
network for overall heat transfer

Thus the rate of heat transfer from the hot fluid to the cold fluid will be represented by eq.8.1,

(8.1)

The overall heat transfer coefficient;

Based on inside area of the inner pipe (eq.8.2)

 (8.2)

Based on outer side area of the outer pipe (eq.8.3)

(8.3)

8.2.2 Fouling factor or dirt factor

Over a time period of heat exchanger operation the surface of the heat exchanger may be coated
by the various deposits present in the flow system. Moreover, the surfaces may become corroded
or eroded over the time. Therefore, the thickness of the surface may get changed due to these
deposits. These deposits are known as scale. These scales provide another resistance and usually
decrease the performance of the heat exchangers. The overall effect is usually represented by
dirt factor or fouling factor, or fouling resistance, Rf (Table 8.1) which must have included all the
resistances along with the resistances due to scales for the calculation of overall heat transfer
coefficient.

The fouling factor must be determined experimentally using eq. 8.4,

(8.4)

Thus to determine the Rf, it is very important to know Uclean for the new heat exchanger. TheUclean
must be kept securely to obtain the Rf, at any time of the exchanger‟s life.

Table-8.1 Fouling factor of a few of the industrial fluids

8.2.3 Temperature profiles in heat exchangers

Fig. 8.9 shows the temperature profile along the length of a 1-2 exchangers and 2-4 exchangers.
 Fig.8.9 Temperature-length curve corresponding to (a) 1-2 exchanger ; (b) 2-4
exchanger

The nomenclature used in the fig.8.9 is described below

T : Inlet temperature of hot fluid

ha

T : Outlet temperature of hot fluid

hb

T : Inlet temperature of cold fluid

ca

T : Outlet temperature of cold fluid

cb

T : Intermediate temperature of cold fluid

ci

In the above arrangement it is assumed that the hot fluid is flowing in the shell side and cold
fluid is flowing in the tube side of the exchangers. The fig.8.9 (a) shows the 1-2 exchangers in
which the hot fluid enter into the exchanger from the left side and exits from the right side. The
cold fluid enters concurrently that is from the left side to the tube of the exchangers and goes up
to right end of the exchangers and returns back to make two tube pass, and exits from the left
end of the exchangers. The temperature profile all along the length of the exchanger is shown in
the corresponding temperature length profile. Figure8.9 (b) shows the flow direction and
corresponding temperature length profile for 2-4 exchangers. The shell side fluid two passes and
the tube side fluid has 4-passes in the exchangers.

It can be easily understood that whenever the number of passes is more than one, the flow
cannot be truly co-current or counter current. Thus it will be a mix of co-current and counter
current flows in any multi pass heat exchangers.

Though the temperature profile of the hot and cold streams can be easily predictable for single
pass heat exchangers but for the complex flow modes, the prediction of temperature distribution
will be difficult as shown in fig.8.9. As can be seen when 1-2 exchangers was (fig.8.9 (a)) used in
co-current mode, the temperature profile was given in the figure. However, if the fluid streams
enter in counter current mode a temperature cross may occur sometimes. Temperature cross is
described as the positive temperature difference between the cold and the hot fluid, when these
fluids leave the exchangers. In that case the cold fluid will attain the maximum temperature
inside the exchanger instead of at the exit (fig.8.10).
Fig. 8.10: 1-2 flow pattern and temperature profile in exchanger showing cross flow

At this temperature cross, the cold fluid temperature reaches the maximum at a point inside the
exchanger and not at its exits. This temperature cross point also coincides with the point of
intersection of the temperature profile of the hot fluid and the co-current zone of the cold fluid.
The difference (Tc2 - Th2) is called the temperature cross of the exchanger. However, if the
temperature cross does not appear then the (Tc2 - Th2) is called the approach. Moreover, on
careful evaluation it can be seen that for the multi shell side pass a significant length of the
exchanger have cross flow pattern in the tube flow when the shell side fluid is migrating from
one shell pass to another shell pass. Thus calculating heat transfer co-efficient for shell side
becomes little challenging and will be explained in section 8.2.6. Although the parallel flow or
counter flow arequite similar, the parallel flow and counter flow heat exchangers differ greatly in
the manner in which the fluid temperatures vary as the fluid pass through. The difference can be
understood in the figure 8.11.

The fig.8.11 shows an important parameter, mcp, the product of mass flow rate (m) and the
specific heat, cp, of the fluids. The product mcp is called the rate of heat capacity. The overall
energy balance of the heat exchanger gives the total heat transfer between the fluids, q,
expressed by eq.8.5,

(8.5)

The fig.8.11 shows the relative variation of the two fluid temperatures through the heat
exchanger, which is influenced by whether is greater or less than .
In particular, for counter flow, examination of the sketches in fig.8.11 shows that limiting

condition for maximum heat transfer is determine by whether is greater or less

than . When, > the maximum possible heat transfer is determined by
the fact that the hot fluid can be cooled to the temperature of the cold fluid inlet. Thus,

for >
Fig.8.11: Temperature profiles of (a) parallel flow, and (b) counter flow, for different

inequalities
For the other case when the limit is determined as the cold fluid is heated to the inlet
temperature of the hot fluid:

For,

Thus for the counter flow exchanger, the above two set equations show that the maximum
possible heat exchanger is determined in terms of the inlet parameters. The maximum possible
heat exchange may be determined (eq.8.6) by the fluid stream having low heat capacity rate;

(8.6)

The subscript ccf denotes counter current flow. The is for the fluid having lower

value of

In case of parallel flow, regardless of the relative sizes of the two stream the limiting heat
transfer condition is determine by the fact that the two fluid streams approach the same outlet
temperature. Thus,

Tho → Tco condition can be found out by the weighted average of the inlet stream.

Thus, the maximum possible heat transfer may be,

or,

(8.7)
 The subscript pf represents parallel flow (co-current). From the above discussion and qmax
equations (8.6 and 8.7) it can be calculated for a given inlet conditions the counter current flow
arrangement always has a better potential for heat transfer as compared to parallel flow
arrangement.

8.2.4 Why multi-pass exchangers?

The simplest type of heat exchangers is double pipe heat exchangers, which is inadequate for
flow rates that cannot readily be handled in a few tubes. If several double pipes are used in
parallel, the metal weight required for the outer tubes becomes so large that the shell and tube
construction, such as 1-1 exchanger will be helpful. In that one shell serves for many tubes, is
economical. The heat transfer coefficient of tube side and shell side fluid is very important and
the individual heat transfer coefficients must be high enough to attain high overall heat transfer
coefficient. As the shell would be quite large as compared to the tubes, the velocity and the
turbulence of the shell side fluid is important.

In contrast, the 1-1 exchanger has limitations also. When the tube side flow is divided evenly
among all the tubes, the velocity may be quite low, resulting in low heat transfer coefficient.
There it may be required to increase the area to have the desired heat exchange for this low heat
transfer coefficient. The area may be increased by increasing the length of the tube. However,
the tube length requirement may be impractical for a given situation. Thus the number of tubes
should be increased without increased the tube length. The increased number of tubes would
also provide the increased velocity in the shell side resulting in the higher heat transfer
coefficient. Therefore, multi-pass construction is needed, which would permit to use the practical
and standard tube lengths. However, the disadvantages are that,

1. The construction of the exchangers become complex.

2. Parallel flow cannot be avoided.
3. Additional friction losses may occur.

It should be noted that generally even number of tube passes are used in multi pass exchanger.

8.2.5 LMTD correction factor

In the earlier chapter, we have seen for co-current or counter current flow system. The average
driving force for heat transfer was defined by log mean temperature difference (LMTD). Thus the
LMTD can be used for 1-1 exchangers for co-current and counter current. However, for multi
pass exchangers (1-2, 2-4, etc.) the fluids are not always in co-current or counter current flow.
The deviation for co-current or counter current flow causes a change in the average driving
force. Therefore, in order to use true heat transfer driving force, a correction factor is required
into the LMTD. Thus, the heat transfer rate can be written as (eq.8.8),
 q = UdA(FTΔTm) (8.8)

where,

Ud = overall heat transfer coefficient including fouling/dirt

A = heat transfer area
FT ΔTm = true average temperature difference.
FT = LMTD correction factor

It is to be noted that the following assumption have been considered for developing LMTD,

1. The overall heat transfer coefficient is constant throughout the exchanger

2. In case any fluid undergoes for phase change (e.g., in condenser), the phase change occurs
throughout the heat exchanger and the constant fluid temperature prevails throughout the
exchanger.
3. The specific heat and mass flow rate and hence the heat capacity rate, of each fluid is constant.
4. No heat is lost in to the surroundings.
5. There is no conduction in the direction of flow neither in the fluids nor in the tube or shell walls.
6. Each of the fluids may be characterized by a single temperature, at any cross section in the heat
exchanger that is ideal transverse mixing in each fluid is presumed.

FT, the LMTD correction factor can be directly obtained from available charts in the literature.
These charts were prepared from the results obtained theoretically by solving the temperature
distribution in multi-pass heat exchangers.

Figures 8.12 and 8.13 show the two generally used heat exchangers and their corresponding
plots for finding FT. It may be noted that the given figures have the representative plots and any
standard book on heat transfer may be consulted for the accurate results.
Fig. 8.12: FT plot for 1-2 exchanger; t: cold fluid in the tube; T: hot fluid in the shell;
1: inlet; 2: outlet

Fig. 8.13: FT plot for 2-4 exchanger; t: cold fluid in the tube; T: hot fluid in the shell;
1: inlet; 2: outlet
It should be noted that in case of condensation or evaporation the correction factor becomes
unity (FT =1). While designing a heat exchanger, the rule of thumb is that the FT should not be
less than 0.8.

8.2.6 Individual heat transfer coefficient

In section 8.2.1, we have seen that the overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated provide
the parameters are known including individual heat transfer coefficients. In this, section we will
discuss how to find out the individual heat transfer coefficient, which is basically based on the
well-established correlations and discussed earlier also.

The heat transfer coefficient (hi) for the tube side fluid in a heat exchanger can be calculated
either by Sieder-Tate equation or by Colburn equation discussed in earlier chapter.

However, the shell side heat transfer coefficient (ho) cannot be so easily calculated because of
the parallel, counter as well as cross flow patterns of the fluid. Moreover, the fluid mass velocity
as well as cross sectional area of the fluid streams vary as the fluid crosses the tube bundle. The
leakages between baffles and shell, baffle and tubes, short circuit some of the shell fluid thus
reduces the effectiveness of the exchanger.

Generally, modified Donohue equation (eq.8.9) (suggested by D.Q. Kern) is used to predict the
ho,

(8.9)

where,

h0= shell side heat transfer coefficient

Dh= hydraulic diameter of the shell side
k0= thermal conductivity of the shell side fluid
Gs= mass flow rate of the shell side

The Dh and Gs can be easily calculated if the geometry of the tube arrangement in the shell is
known. The tubes may be generally arranged as a square or triangular pitch, as shown in figure
8.14.
 Fig.8.14: Tube arrangement in the shell (a) triangular pitch (b) square pitch

The hydraulic diameter (Dh) for tubes on square pitch

Dh For 60° triangular pitch=

where,

d0 = outer diameter of tube

p = tube pitch

where,

= flow rate of shell fluid

as = shell side flow area

Shell side flow area can be calculated using baffle information number of tubes in the shell and
tube arrangement. If 25% cut baffles are used, that means the shell side flow will be from this
25% area. However we have to reduce the area of the pipes which are accumulated in this
opening. So depending upon the information we may determine the shell side fluid flow area. It
may also be found out by the following way,
where,

C = tube clearance
B = baffle spacing
Ds= inside diameter of shell
p = pitch of the tube

8.2.7 Pressure drop in the heat exchanger

Pressure drop calculation is an important task in heat exchanger design. The pressure drops in
the tube side as well as shell side are very important and quite a few co-relations are available in
the literature. One such co-relation is given below in the subsequent subsection.

8.2.7.1 Correlation for tube side pressure drop (eq. 8.10)

(8.10)

where,

ΔPt,f = total pressure drop in the bundle of tube

f = friction factor (can be found out from Moody‟s chart)
Gt = mass velocity of the fluid in the tube
L = tube length
n = no of tube passes
g = gravitational acceleration
ρt = density of the tube fluid
di = inside diameter of the tube
m =0.14 for Re > 2100
0.25 for Re < 2100

The above correlation is for the pressure drop in the tubes owing to the frictional losses.
However in case of multi pass flow direction of the flow in the tube changes when flow is from 1-
pass to another pass and the pressure losses due to the change in direction is called return-loss.
The return-loss (ΔPt,r) is given by eq.8.11,

(8.11)

n = no of tube pass
vt = velocity of the tube fluid
ρt = density of the tube fluid

Therefore, the total tube side pressure drop will be,

Δpt = ΔPt,f + ΔPt,r

8.2.7.2 Correlation for shell side pressure drop

The following correlation (eq.8.12) may be used for an unbaffled shell,

(8.12)

The above equation can be modified to the following form (eq.8.13) for a baffled shell,

(8.13)

where

L = shell length
ns = no of shell pass
nb = no of baffles
ρs = shell side fluid density
Gs = shell side mass velocity
Dh = hydraulic diameter of the shell
Dsi = inside diameter of shell
fs = shell side friction factor

The hydraulic diameter (Dh) for the shell can be calculated by the following equation (eq. 8.14),

(8.14)

where,

nt = number of tubes in the shell

do = outer diameter of the tube

The friction factor (fs) can be obtained by the Moody‟s chart for the corresponding Reynolds

number

8.2.8. Heat transfer effectiveness and number of transfer units (NTU) The LMTD is
required to be calculated for the evaluation of heat exchanger performance. However, the LMTD
cannot be directly calculated unless all the four terminal temperatures (Tc,i, Tc,o, Th,i, Th,o) of both
the fluids are known.
Sometimes the estimation of the exchanger performance (q) is required to be calculated on the
given inlet conditions, and the outlet temperature are not known until q is determined. Thus the
problem depends on the iterative calculations. This type of problem may be taken care of using
performance equivalent in terms of heating effectiveness parameter (η), which is defined as the
ratio of the actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat transfer. Thus,

(8.15)

For an infinite transfer area the most heat would be transferred in counter-current flow and the
qmaxwill be dependent on the lower heat capacity fluid as such,

The actual heat transfer

The capacity ratio, which is the relative thermal size of the two fluid streams, is defined as,

On careful analysis, we can say that

U·A: Heat exchange capacities per unit temperature difference.

This thermal sizing (U·A) can be non-dimensionalised by dividing it to the storage capacity of

one of the fluid streams. Given limits the maximum heat transfers. The non-
dimensional term obtained is known as the number of transfer units (NTU)
It should be noted that

The actual determination of this function may be done using heat balances for the streams. For a
parallel flow exchanger the relation is shown below

The above relation is true for both the condition

Similarly the functional relationship for counter –current exchanger is

(8.16)

(8.17)

The previous relation (eq. 8.16 and 8.17) were for 1-1 exchanger. The relation for 1-2 exchanger
(counter current) is given by eq. 8.18, 8.19),

(8.18)

(8.19)

When the fluid streams are condensing in a 1-1 pass exchanger (fig. 8.15) as shown below,
 Fig.8.15: Condenser with the temperature nomenclature

the following relation arrives.

8.2.9 Calculation and designing of the heat exchanger

8.2.9.1 Double-pipe heat exchanger

The following steps may be used to design a double-pipe heat exchanger

1. Calculate LMTD from the known terminal temperatures.

2. Diameter of the inner and outer pipes may be selected from the standard pipes from the
literature (generally available with the vendor and given in the books). The selection thumb rule
is the consideration of higher fluid velocity and low pressure drop in the pipe.
3. Calculate the Reynolds number and evaluate the heat transfer coefficient, hi, using the co-
relations given in the chapter.
4. Similarly, calculate the Reynolds number of the fluid flowing through annulus. Calculation the
equivalent diameter of the annulus and find the outside heat transfer coefficient, ho.
5. Using hi and ho, calculate the overall heat transfer coefficients. Note that it will be a clean
overall heat transfer coefficient. In order to find design outside heat transfer coefficient using a
suitable dirt factor or fouling factor. The tube fouling factor is suggested by TEMA (table 8.1).

The calculations are based on trial and error. If the heat transfer coefficient comes out to be very
small or the pressure drop comes out to be very high, this procedure to be redone for different
set of diameters in the step1.

8.2.9.2 Shell and tube heat exchanger

The shell and tube heat exchanger also involves trial and error but it is not as simple as in case
of double pipe heat exchanger.

The design of shell and tube heat exchanger includes,

a: heat transfer required for the given heat duty
b: tube diameter, length, and number,
c: shell diameter,
d: no of shell and tube passes,
e: tube arrangement on the tube sheet and its layout, and
f: baffle size, number and spacing of the baffles.
 The calculation of LMTD can be done if the terminal temperatures are known. However, the
design heat transfer co-efficient (i.e., heat transfer co-efficient including fouling factor) and the
area are dependent on each other and thus challenges involve for the estimation. The also
depends upon Reynolds number, which depends upon the liquid flow rate, sizes and the number
of tubes. Therefore, is a function of diameter and the no of tubes and the parameter provides
the area.

Moreover, can also be calculated is based on shell side co-efficient but then it requires tube
number, diameters and pitch. Thus, the above discussion shows that and A are not fully explicit
and requires trial and error method of calculation.
The guideline for shell-and-tube calculation is shown in below,

1. energy balance and exchanger heat duty calculation,

2. find all the thermo-physical properties of the fluid,
3. take initial guess for shell-and-tube passes,
4. calculate LMTD and F , T

5. assume (or select) U , based on the outside tube area. Calculate corresponding heat transfer
dirty

area, A.
6. Select tube diameter, wall thickness and the tube length. Based on this values and heat transfer
area, find out the no of the tubes required.
7. Assume the tube pitch and assume diameter of the shell, which can accumulate the no of tube.
Now, select the tube-sheet layout.
8. Select the baffle design.
9. Estimate hi and ho, if the estimated shell-side heat transfer coefficient (ho) appears to be small;
the baffles at a close distance may be tried. If the tube side co-efficient (hi) is low, the number of
tube passes to be reconsidered such that the Reynolds number increases (for a reasonable Δp)
and henceforth hi.
10.Evaluate U clean on the outside tube area basis. Select a suitable fouling factor (Rd) and find Udirty
11.Compare U dirty and A values with the values assumed in step (5). If Acalculate ≥ Aassumed, it may be

acceptable. Otherwise a new configuration in terms of the size and no of the tubes and tube
passes, shell diameter is assumed and recalculation be done
12. Calculate the tube-side and shell side Δp. If Δp is more than the allowable limit, the re-calculate
after suitable adjustment has to be done.

Illustration
A heat transfer fluid is leaving a reactor at a rate of 167 kg/s at 85°C. The fluid is to
be cooled to 50°C before it can be recycled to the reactor. Water is available at 30°C
to cool the fluid in a 1-2 pass heat exchanger having heat transfer area of 15 m2. The
water, which is being used to cool the fluid, must not be heated to above 38°C at the
exit of the heat exchanger. The overall heat transfer co-efficient of 400 Kcal/hm2°C
can be used for the heat exchanger. The water flows through the shell and the oil
flows through the tubes. The specific heat of the fluid may be taken as 0.454
kcal/kg°C. Find out whether the heat exchanger would be suitable for the given heat
duty?

Solution:
It is given,

f : hot stream (fluid)

c : cold stream (water)

Energy balance across the heat exchanger will be,

Thus the minimum stream will be the hot stream.

Putting the values in the eq. 8.19,

The area 13.2 m2 found is less than the available area (15 m2). Therefore, the given heat
exchanger will perform the required heat duty.

Questions for Practice (Module 8)

Q.1 Under what conditions it is advantageous to use U-tube heat exchanger?

Q.2 What is the physical meaning of LMTD?

Q.3 Why correction factor for LMTD is required?

Q.4 If we have to process a corrosive liquid in a heat exchanger, where will you prefer to send
it, tube-side or shell-side of the heat exchanger. Support your answer with the reasoning.

Q.5 Show the temperature profile of a heat exchanger (condenser) where saturated
water vapour is condensing in the shell side and the cold liquid is flowing in the
tube side. It should be noted that the condensed water is not sub-cooled and the
tube-side water is not vaporized.

Q.6 What are the different types of tube arrangements in a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger? Explain the advantages and drawbacks of the arrangements.

Q.7 What is the basic difference between 1-1 and 2-4 heat exchanger? What is the
basis to choose a particular type (with respect to pass) of heat exchanger.

Q.8 Liquid ammonia feed is to be pre-heated from 30° C to 60° C before pumping to
the reactor. The liquid ammonia is heated with the help of another stream of hot
water at 90° C. The properties of the streams may be collected from the available
literatures.

Q.9 Bombay high crude oil is to be heated from 15° C to 55° C at the rate of 1,50
ton/h using a stream from the plant. The crude oil is pumped in to the tube and
the heating stream is pumped into the shell side of an available heat exchanger.
The heating stream enters in to the tube at 150° C and leaves the tube at 110°
C. The average properties of both the fluids are given below. The available heat
exchanger (1-2 pass) has shell diameter of 23¼ in. The shell has 324 tubes, ¾
in. OD, BWG 14 (wall thickness), 12 feet long arranged on 1 in. Square pitch and
supported by baffles with a 25% cut, spaced at 9 in interval. You need to find the
 suitability of this exchanger for the purpose. What will be the allowable fouling
factor?

Heating stream Crude oil

cp , J/g. ° C 2.2 2
µ, cP 5.2 2.9
ρ, kg/m3 866 822
k, W/m.° C 0.12 0.138
Q.10 Hot water enters a counterflow heat exchanger at 95°C. This hot water is used to
heat a cool stream of water from 8 to 40° C. The flow rate of the cool water is
1.2 kg/s, and the flow rate of the hot water is 2.7 kg/s. The overall heat-transfer
coefficient is 850 W/m2°C. What is the area of the heat exchanger and its
effectiveness?

Module 9: Evaporators

Evaporation is the vaporization of a liquid. Chemical process industries, in general, use

evaporator for the vaporization of a solvent from a solution. We have already discussed the heat
transfer for boiling liquids in early chapter. However the evaporation is so important operation in
chemical process industry that it is considered an individual operation. In this chapter we will
focus on the evaporation with an objective to concentrate a solution consisting of a non-volatile
solute and a volatile solvent. If we continue the evaporation process, the residual mater will be
solid, which is known as drying. However, our aim is not to dry but to concentrate the solution,
moreover, we will also not deal with the crystallization, in which the evaporation leads to
formation of crystal in the solution. It is suggested that reader should learn the difference
between evaporator, drying and crystallization.

As we will deal with the solution for the evaporation process, a few of the facts must be known
about the solution properties.

9.1 Solution properties

Knowledge of solution properties is important for the design of the equipment for evaporation.
Some of the important properties of the solution are given below,

9.1.1 Concentration
Initially, the solution may be quite dilute and the properties of the solution may be taken as the
properties of solvent. As the concentration increases, the solution becomes viscous and heat
transfer resistance increases. The crystal may grow on the heating coil or on the heating surface.
The boiling points of the solution also rise considerably. Solid or solute contact increases and the
 boiling temperature of the concentrated solution became higher than that of the solvent as the
same pressure (i.e. elevation in boiling point).

2.Foaming
Many of the materials like organic substance may foam during vaporization. If the foam is stable,
it may come out along the vapor known as entrainment. Heat transfer coefficient changes
abruptly for such systems.

3.Degradationdue to high temperature The products

of many chemical, food, pharmaceutical industries etc. are very temperature sensitive and they
may get damaged during evaporation. Thus special case or technique is required for
concentrating such solution.

4. Scaling
Many solution have tendency to deposit the scale on the heating surface, which may increase the
heat transfer resistance. These scales produce extra thermal resistance of significant value.
Therefore, scaling in the equipment should not be ignored thus de-scaling becomes an important
and routine matter.

5.Equipment material The material of the equipment must be

chosen considering the solution properties so that the solution should neither be contaminated
nor react with the equipment material.

9.2 Evaporator
Equipment, in which evaporation is performed, is known as evaporator. The evaporators used in
chemical process industries are heated by steam and have tubular surface. The solution is
circulated in the tube and the tubes are heated by steam. In general the steam is the saturated
steam and thus it condenses on the outer tube surface in order to heat the tube. The circulation
of the solution in the tube have reasonable velocity in order to increase the heat transfer
coefficient and remove of scales on the inner surface of the tube. The steam heated tubular
evaporators may be classified as natural and forced circulation evaporators.

9.2.1 Natural circulation evaporator

In this category the main evaporators are,

1. Calandria type or short tube evaporator

2. Long tube vertical evaporator

As the name indicates, the circulation of the solution is natural and the density difference derives
it. The solution gets heat up and partially vaporized as it flows up the tubes. The heated liquid
flows up because of the density difference. Vapor-liquid disengagement occurs above the tube.
Thick liquor comes down from this down comer and withdrawn from the bottom. The natural-
circulation evaporators may be used if the solution is quite dilute. In the dilute solution the
natural circulation will be at sufficient speed. It may also be used when the solution does not
have suspended solid particles. As the solution stays in the tube for larger time, the solution
should not be heat sensitive.

The Calandria type or short-tube evaporators have short tubes as compared to the long tube
evaporators. The short-tube evaporation uses circulation and solution flows many times in the
evaporators. However, in case of the long tube evaporator the flow is once through.

2.Forced circulation evaporator Natural circulation evaporators

have many limitations (as mentioned earlier) through they are economical as compared to forced
circulation evaporator. A forced circulation evaporator has a tubular exchanger for heating the
solution without boiling. The superheated solution flashes in the chamber, where the solution
gets concentrated. In forced circulation evaporator horizontal or vertical both type of design is in-
practice. The forced circulation evaporators are used for handling viscous or heat sensitive
solution.

3.Falling film evaporator Highly heat sensitive

materials are processed in falling film evaporators. They are generally once- through evaporator,
in which the liquid enters at the top, flows downstream inside the heater tubes as a film and
leaves from the bottom. The tubes are heated by condensing steam over the tube. As the liquid
flows down, the water evaporates and the liquid gets concentrated. To have a film inside of the
tube, the tube diameter is kept high whereas the height low to keep the residence time low for
the flowing liquid. Therefore, these evaporators, with non-circulation and short resistance time,
handle heat sensitive material, which are very difficult to process by other method. The main
problem in falling film evaporator is the distribution of the liquid uniformly as a thin film inside the
tube.

9.3 Performance of steam heated tubular evaporators

The performance of a steam heated tubular evaporator is evaluated by the capacity and the
economy.

9.3.1 Capacity and economy

Capacity is defined as the no of kilograms of water vaporized per hour. Economy is the number
of kg of water vaporized per kg of steam fed to the unit. Steam consumption is very important to
know, and can be estimated by the ratio of capacity divided by the economy. That is the steam
consumption (in kg/h) is

Steam Consumption = Capacity / Economy

9.3.2 Single and multiple effect evaporators

In single effect evaporator, as shown in fig. 9.1, the steam is fed to the evaporator which
condenses on the tube surface and the heat is transferred to the solution. The saturated vapor
comes out from the evaporator and this vapor either may be vented out or condensed. The
concentrated solution is taken out from the evaporator.

Now we can see if we want the further concentrate, the solution has to be sent into another
similar evaporator which will have the fresh steam to provide the necessary heat.

It may be noted that in this process the fresh steam is required for the second evaporator and at
the same time the vapor is not utilized. Therefore it can be said the single effect evaporator does
not utilized the steam efficiently. The economy of the single effect evaporator is thus less than
one. Moreover, the other reason for low economy is that in many of the cases the feed
temperature remains below the boiling temperature of the solution. Therefore, a part of the heat
is utilized to raise the feed temperature to its boiling point.
 Fig.9.1: Single effect evaporator

In order to increase the economy we may consider the arrangement of the two evaporators as
shown in the fig. 9.2.

The figure 9.2 shows that the two evaporators are connected in series. The saturated vapor
coming out from the evaporator-1 is used as steam in the second evaporator. Partially
concentrated solution works as a feed to the second evaporator. This arrangement is known as
double effect evaporator in forward feed scheme. A few of the important point that we have to
note for this scheme is that the vapour leaving evaporator-2 is at the boiling temperature of the
liquid leaving the first effect. In order to transfer this heat from the condensing vapor from the
evaporator-1 to the boiling liquid in evaporator-2, the liquid in evaporator-2 must boil at a
temperature considerable less than the condensation temperature of the vaporization, in order to
ensure reasonable driving force for heat transfer. A method of achieving this is to maintain a
suitable lower pressure in the second effect so that the liquid boils at a lower temperature.
Therefore, if the evaporator-1 operates at atmospheric pressure, the evaporator-2 should be
operated at same suitable vacuum.

Fig.9.2: Double effect evaporator with forward feed scheme

The benefit of the use of multiple effect evaporators is that in this arrangement multiple reuse of
heat supplied to the first effect is possible and results in improved steam economy.

9.3.3 Boiling point elevation

The evaporators produce concentrated solution having substantially higher boiling point than
that of the solvent (of the solution) at the prevailing pressure. The increase in boiling point over
that of water is known as boiling point elevation (BPE) of the solution. As the concentration
increases the boiling point of the solution also increases. Therefore, in order to get the real
temperature difference (or driving force) between the steam temperature and the solution
temperature, the BPE must be subtracted from the temperature drop. The BPE may be predicted
from the steam table (in case water is a solvent).

An empirical rule known as Dühring rule is suitable for estimating the BPE of strong solution. The
Dühring rule states that the boiling point of a given solution is a linear function of the boiling
point of the pure water at the same pressure. Therefore, if the boiling point of the solution is
plotted against that of the water at the same pressure, a straight line results. Different lines are
obtained at different concentrations. The fig. 9.3 shows representative Dühring plots for a
solution (non-volatile solute in water).

Fig.9.3: Representative Dühring lines for a system (non-volatile solute in water) mole
fraction of solute in the solution (a) 0.1 (b) 0.2 (c) 0.25 (d) 0.39 (e) 0.35 (f) 0.45 (g)
0.5 (h) 0.6 (i) 0.7
The fig.9.3 helps to find out the boiling point of solution at moderate pressure. For example if a
solution having „x‟ mole fractions of solute have a pressure over it such that water boils at T° C,
by reading up from the x-axis at T °C to the line for the x mole fraction solution and then moving
horizontally to the y-axis, the boiling point of the solution can be found at that pressure.

4. Temperature profile in an evaporator

Let us consider the case of long-tube vertical evaporator heated by steam. After boiling and
flashing of the superheated liquid, the disengagement of the vapor and liquid occur in vapor
space of the evaporator and the recycled liquid flows down the external pipe. A part of this
concentrated liquid is withdrawn as a product and the remaining part get mixed with a feed and
again enter the evaporator tube. If TBP is the boiling of the liquid in the evaporator as the
prevailing pressure, then the temperature of the liquid in the tube will be TBP. The temperature of
the recycled stream entering the tubes will then also be TBP, if the feed is sufficiently hot. Now,
we will imagine how the temperature is changing in the tube. Let us see that when the liquid
flows up in the tube, its temperature rises because at the bottom of the tube the pressure is
higher (vapor chamber pressure + hydrostatic pressure + frictional loss) as compared to the top
of the tube. Therefore, a liquid starts boiling at a level when its temperature rises to its
saturation temperature at the pressure at that point. After the boiling in between the tube, as
liquid goes up in the tube, the local temperature drops because of the reduction in the local
pressure. It may also be mentioned that as the liquid moves up it gets concentrated and thus
the boiling point of the solution also increases as the liquid traversed up in the tube. The liquid
temperature profile in the tube is shown in the fig.9.4 for low (plot i) and high (plot ii) liquid
velocity. The liquid temperature in the tubes increases up to certain height and then the
temperature decreases due to the loss of superheat. At higher velocity the temperature raise is
less and the liquid boils near the top of the tube. The plot (iii) shows the shell side temperature
profile where steam is heating the tube. As can be seen, the slightly superheated steam enters
the shell and soon the temperature of the steam losses its sensible heat and then condenses on
the tubes and provide the latent heat of condensation (at temperature Tsteam) to the tube and
before boiling from the shell may get slightly sub-cooled. The plot (iv) is the boiling temperature
of the water (Tw) at the pressure in the vapor chamber. Thus, the BPE=TBP-Tw and the true
temperature during force is the difference between the plot (iii) and the plot (i) or (ii).

It can be understood with the help of the discussion and fig.9.4 that the temperature changes all
along the length of the tube. Thus, the real temperature driving force will be the difference in
steam temperature and liquid temperature always the high. However, it is practically not easy to
determine the temperature profile in the tube. Therefore, the driving force can be taken as (Tsteam
- TBP) for the design purpose.

5. Heat transfer coefficient

The correlation used in the boiling and condensation may be used here. If the evaporator
operates at very high liquid velocity so that the boiling occurs at the top end of the tube, the
following correlation (eq. 9.1) may be used,

(9.1)

where, D is the inner diameter of the tube, k is the thermal conductivity of the liquid or solution.

Fig.9.4: Temperature profiles in an evaporator

Fouling is a concern in the evaporator; therefore the following equation (eq.9.2) may be used for
the overall heat transfer coefficient with time,

(9.2)

where, t is the time for where the evaporator is the operation, α is a constant for a particular
liquid, Udirty and Uclean all the overall heat transfer coefficient of the dirty and clean evaporator.
9.6 Method of feeding: Multiple effect evaporators

The fig.9.5, 9.6, 9.7, and 9.8 show the four different feeding arrangement of feed to the
evaporators. In the fig.9.5 the liquid feed is pumped into the first effect and the partially
concentrated solution is sent to the second effect and so on. The heating steam is also sent
through the first effect to another effect. This particular strategy is known as forward feed. In the
forward feed the concentration of the liquid increases from first effect to the subsequent effects
till the last effect. It may be noted that the first effect is that in which the fresh steam is fed,
whereas the vapour generated in the first effect is fed to the next evaporator (connected in
series with the first effect) is known as second effect and so on.

The forward feed requires a pump for feeding dilute solution to the first effect. The first effect is
generally at atmospheric pressure and the subsequent effects are in decreasing pressure. Thus,
the liquid may move without the pump from one effect to another effect in the direction of
decreasing pressure. However, to take out the concentrated liquid from the last effect may need
a pump.

The backward feed arrangement is very common arrangement. A triple-effect evaporator in

backward arrangement is shown in the fig.9.6. In this arrangement the dilute liquid is fed to the
last effect and then pumped through the successive effects to the first effect. The method
requires additional pumps (generally one pump in between two effects) as shown in the fig. 9.6.
Backward feed is advantageous and gives higher capacity than the forward feed when the
concentrated liquid is viscous, because the viscous fluid is at higher temperature being in the first
effect. However, this arrangement provides lower economy as compared to forward feed
arrangement.

The combination of forward-feed and backward-feed is known as mixed feed arrangement. In

mixed feed the dilute liquid enters in between effects, flows in forward feed to the end of the
effect and then pumped back to the first effect for final concentration. Figure 9.7 shows triple
effect mixed feed arrangement. This mixed feed arrangement eliminates the need of a few of the
pumps. Moreover, it still passes the most concentrated liquid through the first effect, which is
having higher temperature among all the effect (being at highest pressure compared to other
effects).

Another common evaporator arrangements, which is more common in crystallization is parallel

feed where feed is admitted individually to all the effects. Figure 9.7 shows such arrangement.
Fig.9.5: Forward feed arrangement in triple-effect evaporator (dotted line: recycle
stream)
Fig.9.6: Backward feed arrangement in triple-effect evaporator (dotted line: recycle
stream)
Fig.9.7: Mixed feed arrangement in triple-effect evaporator (dotted line: recycle
stream)
 Fig.9.8: Parallel feed arrangement in triple-effect evaporator

9.7 Enthalpy Balance

9.7.1 Single effect evaporator
The latent heat of condensation of the steam is transferred to the boiling solution through the
heating surface in order to vaporize the water. Thus, two enthalpy balances are required one for
the liquid and another for the steam.

The following assumptions are required, in order to make the enthalpy balance,

1. Flow of non-condensable is negligible

2. The superheat and sub-cooling (see fig. 9.4) of the condensable steam is negligible
3. No solid precipitates out from the concentrating solution

The enthalpy balance for the steam side is,

Where,

rate of heat transfer through heating surface from steam

= flow rate of steam
λs = latent heat of condensation of steam
hs = specific enthalpy of steam
hc = specific enthalpy of condensate

Enthalpy balance for the liquid side is (eq.9.3),

(9.3)

Where,

rate of heat transfer from heating surface to the liquid

hv = specific enthalpy of vapour
hcl = specific enthalpy of concentrated liquid
hfl = specific enthalpy of liquid feed
flow rate of liquid feed

flow rate of concentrated liquid

The enthalpy balance at steam side and liquid side will be same in the absence of any heat loss
(eq.9.4). Thus,

(9.4)

The area of heat transfer A can be calculated from

When ΔT = (Tb - Tc);

Tb = Saturated temperature of steam in the shell
Ts = Boiling point of the solution at the prevailing pressure
UD = Overall coefficient (dirty)

9.7.2 Effect of heat of dilution

Most of the solutions when mixed or diluted at constant temperature do not give significant heat
effect. It is generally true for organic solutions (like sugar). However, many of the inorganic
solutions (like sulfuric acid, potassium hydroxide, calcium carbonate etc.) evolve significant heat
on dilution. Therefore, an equivalent amount of heat is required (in addition to the latent heat of
vaporization), when dilute solutions of these inorganic chemicals are concentrated. Enthalpy-
concentration diagram are helpful in order to find the enthalpy of the solution at different
concentration of these chemicals in the solution.

9.7.3 Multiple effect evaporators

The steam goes into I-effect and heat the solution by the latent heat of condensation. If the heat
required to boil the feed is negligible, it follows that practically all this heat

must appear as latent heat in the vapor that leaves the I-effect and enter into II-effect as steam.
The temperature of the condensate leaving the II-effect will be very near the temperature T1 of
the vapors from the boiling liquid in the I-effect. Thus, in steady state operation all the heat that
was expanded in creating vapor in the I-effect must be given by when this same vapor
condenses in the II-effect and so on.

The heat delivered into the II-effect will be,

The
Similarly, for III-effect

(9.5)

It can be seen (eq. 9.5) that the temperature drops in a multiple effect evaporator is
approximately inversely proportional to the heat-transfer coefficient.

The total available temperature drop will be given by eq.9.6,

(9.6)

where,
Ts : Steam temp. (I-effect); Tv3 : Vapor temperature leaving III-effect
BPE : boiling point elevation in the solution in various effects
 Illustration
A triple effect forward feed evaporator is used to concentrate a liquid which has marginal
elevation in boiling point. The temperature of the stream to the first effect is 105°C, and the
boiling point of the solution within third effect is 45°C. The overall heat transfer coefficients are,

2,200 W/m2: in the Ι-effect,

1,800 W/m2: in the ΙΙ-effect,
1,500 W/m2: in the ΙΙΙ-effect.

Find out at what temperatures the fluid boils in the Ι and ΙΙ effects.
Solution:
Assumptions
1. We may assume that there is no elevation in boiling point in the evaporators.
2. Area of all the three evaporators are same (AΙ = AΙI = AΙII = A)
Total temperature drop = (105-45) °C = 60 °C
Using eq. 9.5, the temperature drop across Ι-effect,

Similarly, the temperature drop across ΙΙ-effect,

And the temperature drop across ΙΙΙ-effect,

Therefore, the boiling point in the first effect will be = (105 – 15.2) °C = 89.8 °C
Similarly, the boiling point in the second effect will be = (89.8 – 18.6)°C = 71.2 °C.
Questions for Practice (Module 9)

Q.1 What are the main differences among evaporation drying, and distillation?

Q.2 Define capacity and economy for evaporators.

Q.3 What is the difference between natural and forced evaporator?

Q.4 Why boiling point elevation is important in evaporators?

Q.5 When and why do we prefer to use backward-feed evaporator?

Q.6 Single effect evaporator has low heat economy but still we use it in the industries,
why?

Q.7 Explain Dühring rule.

Q.8 A forced circulation evaporator is to concentrate 50,000 kg/h of 40% KOH to

70% KOH using steam at 3 bar pressure. The feed temperature and the
condensing temperature are both at 45oC. The density of the feed solution is 1.5
gm/cm3. If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 2 kW/m2 oC, calculate the
following,
i. the steam requirement,

ii. the heat transfer area required.

Q.9 A triple effect evaporator is to be used to produce a 60% KOH solution from a
feed containing 30% KOH. The available steam is at 160oC, and the vapour from
the last stage is condensed at 50oC. Backward feed is used.

If equal amounts of water are removed in each effect, what will be the
concentrations in the intermediate effects, the boiling-point elevation in each
effect, and the net temperature differences available for heat transfer?

Q.10 In the problem number 9, what will be the maximum number of effects that could
be used with the same terminal temperatures and more than three effects?