BOILER & TURBINE

EFFICIENCY
Presented By
Rohit Verma
Dy.Director
NPTI, Faridabad
COAL TO ELECTRICITY PROCESS
STEAM CYCLE FOR 210 MW UNIT
 EFFECT OF STEAM PARAMETERS
P1 P2 P1
P3 P1 P2
T2
T1 T3
T2
T1
H
T1
H H

S S
S

Effect of Increasing Effect of Increasing Effect of Increasing

Pressure on Available Steam Temperature Steam Pressure &
Energy On Available Energy Temperature Both on
Available Energy
 EFFECT OF STEAM PARAMETERS

H
H

S S

Effect of Changing Reheat Pressure Effect of Changing Reheat Temp.

THERMAL PROCESS LOSSES
 EFFECT OF INSTRUMENTATION ON ENERGY
AUDITS
A. Plant on-line instruments with few audit instruments Accuracy
around 3.0%.

B. Accurate calibrated instruments as per ASME-PTC-6 for steam

turbine& ASME-PTC-4-1 for Boilers.
Accuracy around 0.5 %

ERROR OF PROCEDURE OF ENERGY AUDIT OTHER THAN

ASME-PTC-6 for steam turbines and ASME – PTC-4.1 for boiler

– Error in Boiler Energy Audit – around 2.0%

– Error in steam turbine Energy Audit – around 3.0%

Total error because of Instrumentation & Procedure 6.0%

Contd….
 IMPORTANCE OF ACCURACY IN ENERGY
AUDITS

– 1.0% Deviation in Heat Rate means 25000 tons of coal

loss/annum for 200 MW Unit or approx Rs. 5 crores /
year (4000Kcal coal GCV & Rs.2000/ton coal cost)

– Difference in cost of Energy Audit between B & A is 12

to 14 lacs as against 6 to 8 lacs.
 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF INEFFICIENT MACHINES
(210 MW UNIT)

SHORT FALL LOSS IN

CRORES PER
ANNUM

TURBINE CYCLE HEAT RATE 1.0 % 5.0

TG OUTPUT 1.0% 5.0

BOILER EFFICIENCY 1.0% 1.75
AUX. POWER CONSUMPTION 5.0 % 2.5

NOTE:
 TG CYCLE HEAT RATE IS TAKEN AS 2000 KCAL / KWh
 COAL CV IS TAKEN AS 4000 KCAL / Kg
 PRICE OF COAL TAKEN AS Rs. 2000 / t
 LOSS INCREASES WITH MACHINE SIZE
 Impact of Turbine Cylinder Efficiency on
HR/Output

Description Effect on Effect on

TG HR KW

1% HPT Efficiency 0.16% 0.3%

1% IPT Efficiency 0.16% 0.16%

1% LPT Efficiency 0.5 % 0.5 %

Output Sharing by Turbine Cylinders are around

HPT 28%
IPT 23%
LPT 49%
 HP/IP Turbine Efficiency
Instrument Inaccuracy / lack of corrections

Main Steam HPT Exhaust

Pressure Temp Pressure Temp
Kg/cm2 Deg C Kg/cm2 Deg C

HPT 1 1 1 1
Efficiency
0.6 % 0.6 % 2.0 % 0.7 %

IPT Inlet IPT Exhaust

Pressure Temp Pressure Temp
Kg/cm2 Deg C Kg/cm2 Deg C

1 1 1 1
IPT
Efficiency 1.2 % 0.3 % 6.0 % 0.4 %
Effect of Condenser Vacuum on Heat
Rate

10 MM HG IMPROVEMENT IN
CONDENSER VACUUM
LEADS TO 20 Kcal/kwh (1%)
IMPROVEMENT IN HEAT RATE FOR A
210 MW UNIT
 EFFECT ON HEAT RATE FOR PARAMETER
DEVIATION (500MW UNIT)
DEVIATION IN PARAMETER EFFECT ON HEAT
RATE (KCAL/KWH)
1. HPT inlet press. by 5.0 ata 6.25
2. HPT inlet temperature by 10.0 6.0
deg C
3. IPT inlet temperature by 10.0 deg 5.6
C
4. Condenser pressure by 10.0 mm 9.0
of Hg
5. Re spray water quantity by 1.0% 4.0
6. HPT Cylinder efficiency by 1.0% 3.5
7. IPT Cylinder efficiency by 1.0% 4.0
CONFORMITY FOR ENERGY AUDITS

FOLLOW TEST CODES

• ASME PTC - 6 For Steam Turbines

ASME PTC - 4.1 or BS- 845: 1987 for Boilers

CALIBRATION LAB
• Govt. Accredited i.e. NABL Labs
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF BOILER
Water cycle
Fuel cycle
Air & flue gas cycle
Steam cycle
Ash/ rejects cycle
TYPICAL BOILER LOSSES
 Boiler efficiency calculation
•Dry Flue Gas Loss:
This is the heat loss from the boiler in the dry
components of gases to the stack. Flue gas mass from
the stack and its temperature at exit of APH
determine the order of this loss which may be of the
order of 5% in typical boiler.
DFL=W x Cp x (T – t)
Where
T=Air heater gas outlet temperature
t=Air temperature at FD fan inlet
Cp=Specific heat of flue gas in KJ/Kg Mol
BOILER SPECIFICATION
 STUDY OF VARIOUS BOILER ASPECTS

Coal quality - composition and calorific value

Coal milling aspects
Combustion and excess air
Reheaters
Heat recovery units – Economisers, air
preheaters, etc
Insulation aspects
 STUDY OF VARIOUS BOILER ASPECTS

Operation and maintenance features which

affect the energy efficiency
Boiler blow down aspects
Soot blowing aspects
Condition & status of boiler and their internals
Feed water system aspects
Air and flue gas system aspect
STEPS INVOLVED IN BOILER ENERGY AUDIT

 Data collection
 Observations and Analysis
 Exploration for energy conservation
measures
 Report preparation
DATA COLLECTION- BOILER
DATA COLLECTION- BOILER contd…
DATA COLLECTION- AIR PREHEATER (APH)
Particulars
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE PROFILE

Temperature location
 COAL PARAMETERS

HEAT BALANCE OF BOILER

(Flue gas)
 OTHER INFORMATION COLLECTION

 Collect recommended feed water & boiler

water limits
 Mills and Burners Performance

 Mill specifications

 Design coal parameter

 Collect the information of soot blowers

 INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED
 Power Analyser: Used for measuring electrical
parameters such as kW, kVA, pf, V, A and Hz
 Temperature Indicator & Probe
 Stroboscope: To measure the speed of the
driven equipment and motor
 Sling hygrometer or digital hygrometer
 Anemometer
 Available On line instruments at the site
( Calibrated )
 INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED contd…
 Digital Manometer of suitable range and
appropriate probes for measurement of
pressure head and velocity head
 Additional pressure gauges with appropriate
range of measurement and calibrated before
audit
 Flue gas analyzers / orsat apparatus
 Infrared pyrometers
 Pressure gauges
 Steam trap tester / Ultra sonic leak detectors
MEASUREMENTS & OBSERVATIONS TO
BE MADE
(DURING AUDIT PERIOD)
analysis

Fans, Pumps

- Fly ash & bottom ash

 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS
System familiarization and operational details:
Availability factor, PLF, Coal consumption (tons and kg/kWh),
Oil consumption in ml/kWh, Boiler efficiency & Others
Plant observation & past data:
 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS
Operating efficiency of the boiler:
The test method employed is based on the abbreviated efficiency by the
loss method (or indirect method) test, which neglects the minor losses
and heat credits, which are covered in full text version. The major losses
covered are:
 Heat loss due to dry flue gas losses
 Heat loss due to moisture in fuel
 Heat loss due to hydrogen (moisture of burning hydrogen)
 Heat loss due to combustibles in refuse

 Heat loss due to radiation

 Un accounted losses as per the contract with the Boiler Supplier
Indirect method is also called as heat loss method. The efficiency can
be arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100. The
standards do not include blow-down loss in the efficiency determination
process
OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS
 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS

Measurement Locations:

( O2, CO2, CO )
OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS

(Time)
 OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS

Coal Ultimate Analysis

OBSERVATIONS AND ANALYSIS
 COMPUTATION OF BOILER LOSSES
1. Dry flue gas loss:

Where C%BA – % of carbon in bottom

ash
FGT – flue gas temperature at APH outlet in 0 C
C%FA - % of carbon in fly ash
ABT – Ambient temperature in C
Bash – Bottom ash qunatiity in kg
Cp= specific heat of fuel in Kcal/kg C = 0.23
Fash – Fly ash quantity in kg
 COMPUTATION OF BOILER LOSSES
2. Loss due to unburnt carbon in ash:
Loss due to unburnt carbon in ash, Luca 

 (C % FA  FAsh)  (C % BA  BAsh )

Calorific value of carbon in kcal / kg
GCV of fuel, GCV

3. Loss due to moisture in fuel:

 (0.45  ( FGT  ABT )  584 
M 100
Loss due to moisture in fuel, Lmf 
GCV
4. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel:
9  H2
 (0.45  ( FGT  ABT )  584 
100
Loss due to hydrogen in fuel, Lhf 
GCV
Where H2 – kg of H2 in 1 kg of fuel
 COMPUTATION OF BOILER LOSSES
5. Loss due to moisture in air:
100
Loss due to in moisture in air , Lma  AAS  humidity  0.45  ( FGT  ABT ) 
GCV

Where AAS=Actual mass of air supplied

Humidity = humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air

6. Loss due to CO in flue gas:

Loss due to carbon monoxide, L co
100
 CO in ppm  106  fuel consumptio n in kg / h  28 5744 
GCV
CO%  C 5744  100
Loss due to carbonmono xide, Lco  
CO%  CO2 % GCV
 TYPICAL BOILER HEAT BALANCE

5.5%
Heat loss due to dry flue gas
4.2% Dry Flue Gas Loss
Heat loss due to wet flue gas
1%
Heat 100% Heat loss due to moisture in fuel
from BOILER
0.3% Heat loss due to moisture in air
Fuel
1% Heat loss due to unburnts in residue
1%
Heat loss due to radiation & other
unaccounted loss
87%

Boiler Efficiency (Heat in Steam)

BOILER EFFICIENCY EVALUATION

CO
CO
 COMBUSTION CONTROL, EXCESS AIR
AND COLD AIR INGRESS
While conducting the study, the following need to be verified:
Present excess air and comparison with PG test or design value
Combustion control systems installed and status of operation,
calibration systems
Monitoring and controlling mechanism for oxygen, excess air and
reporting systems in place
Effect of excess air on boiler performance
Excess air with respect to boiler load variation
Cold air infiltration in to the system – observe the present method
of measurement, estimation, frequency of measurement for
estimating the losses and control mechanisms initiated. The air
ingress also increases load on the ID fan and hinders the capacity of
the boiler
 PERFORMANCE OF AIR PREHEATERS
Air leakage estimation in APH:
The following gives the air leakage in to the (APH) system if
the Oxygen % is measured at the entry and exit of the APH

Alternatively, if the CO2% is measured in the exhaust gases then the air
leakage is estimated by
 PERFORMANCE OF AIR PREHEATERS
Gas side efficiency: The gas side efficiency is defined as the ratio of the
temperature drop, corrected for leakage, to the temperature head and
expressed as percentage.
Temperature drop is obtained by subtracting the corrected gas outlet
temperature from the inlet. Temperature head is obtained by subtracting air
inlet temperature from gas inlet temperature.
 PERFORMANCE OF AIR PREHEATERS

Theoretical

Total air = PA+ SA+ Seal air tph

EXPLORATION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION
OPPORTUNITIES
Boilers:
Steam and water parameters ( flow, pressure and temperature )
 Air and gas parameters ( flow, pressure and temperature )
 Burners operation
 Primary and secondary air ratios and temperatures
 Air infiltration in to boilers
 Unburnt loss reduction
 Combustion control – boiler excess air, O2 Measurement inaccuracy
or unbalance
 Dry flue gas loss
 Insulation
 Air infiltration to flue gases
Water quality, Blow down and its control
EXPLORATION OF ENERGY CONSERVATION
OPPORTUNITIES
Coal quality and performance of coal mills
 Super heater and reheater performance
 Super heater temperature, slagging of furnace water walls and
tubes
 Fouling on the pendant and horizontal convection tubes, soot
blowers performance
 Boiler control systems
 Limitation on Performance of associated equipments (pumps,
fans, heaters, soot blowers, mills, etc) affecting boiler loading and
efficiency
 Loading on ID, FD and PA fans
 Operation of dampers /inlet guide vanes / speed controllers of fans
 Fouling of boiler heating surfaces
 Installation of energy saving retrofits
 DM water consumption
TURBINE ENERGY AUDIT
210 MW KWU STEAM TURBINE STEAM & WATER CYCLE
TURBINE CYCLE LOSSES
STEPS INVOLVED IN CONDUCTING THE
TURBINE ENERGY AUDIT

Data collection
Observations and Analysis
Exploration for energy conservation
measures
Report preparation
 DATA COLLECTION
Design Specification of turbine and associated equipment:

 Type of the turbine, make and model

 Number of cylinders
 No of stages (for HP, IP and LP)
 No of main and reheat valves
 Construction details of HP, IP LP
 Turbine extraction systems
 Control systems
 Type of governing
 Type of sealing
 Year of installation
 Major modifications carried out during the recent past
 DATA COLLECTION

Turbine Cycle Heat Rate Kcal/kwh

DATA COLLECTION
 INSTRUMENTS REQUIRED

 Temperature Indicator & Probe

 Pressure gauges
 Flow measuring instrument (steam and
water)
 Ultrasonic leak detector
 MEASUREMENTS & OBSERVATIONS TO BE MADE

 Feed water at Inlet & Outlet of Heaters

Main steam parameters
Pressure
 HP turbine extraction
Temperature
 Hot reheat steam, Cold reheat Steam
Flow
 IP extraction
 IP Exhaust
 Condenser back pressure
 Cooling water flow and temperatures
 Generator output
 Barometric pressure
 Reheater spray (flow)
 Superheater spray (flow)
 Feed water (flow)
 MEASUREMENTS & OBSERVATIONS TO BE MADE
 Past performance trends on turbine loading,
operation, PLF
 Major constraint in achieving the high PLF, load or
efficiency
 Major renovation and modifications carried out in the
recent past
 Operational failures leading to inefficient operation
 Tripping
 Performance of associated equipment (condenser,
boiler, etc)
 Plant side initiatives to improve the performance and
efficiency of the Turbine
TURBINE HR EVALUATION AND EFFICIENCY
 Turbine heat rate is defined as the heat input (Kcal) required
to generate one unit of Electrical output (KWh). The trials are
to establish heat rate (Kcal/kWh) and turbine efficiency under,
as run conditions have to be carried out
 The efficiency method given in this procedure is the
enthalpy drop efficiency method. This method determines the
ratio of actual enthalpy drop across turbine section to the
isentropic enthalpy drop
 This method provides a good measure for monitoring
purposes. Each section of the turbine must be considered as
a separated turbine
 Each section should be tested and results are trended
separately. While conducting the tests, it has to be ensured
that, it is conducted over normal operating load range
TURBINE HR EVALUATION AND EFFICIENCY

860 Kw
Thermal Efficiency  x 100%
Heat Rate K Cal/hr
TURBINE HR EVALUATION AND EFFICIENCY

Actual
Process
1-2-3-4-5

Comparison of Actual Expansion Actual Expansion in HP, IP & LP

with Isentropic Expansion in Turbine Cylinder
TURBINE HR EVALUATION AND EFFICIENCY

Variation of Heat Rate with Load Heat Rate Characteristics with

Condenser Exhaust Pressure
TURBINE EFFICIENCY EVALUATION DATA

Kcal/kg/oK
Effect of Condenser Vacuum on
Heat Rate

10 MM HG IMPROVEMENT IN
CONDENSER VACUUM
LEADS TO 20 Kcal/kwh (1%)
IMPROVEMENT IN HEAT RATE FOR A
210 MW UNIT
 EFFECT ON HEAT RATE FOR PARAMETER
DEVIATION (500 MW UNIT)
DEVIATION IN PARAMETER EFFECT ON HEAT
RATE (KCAL/KWH)
1. HPT inlet press. by 5.0 ata 6.25
2. HPT inlet temperature by 10.0 deg C 6.0

3. IPT inlet temperature by 10.0 deg C 5.6

4. Condenser pressure by 10.0 mm of Hg 9.0

5. Re spray water quantity by 1.0% 4.0
6. HPT Cylinder efficiency by 1.0% 3.5
7. IPT Cylinder efficiency by 1.0% 4.0
IDENTIFYING FACTORS FOR HR DEVIATION
After evaluating the turbine heat rate and efficiency, check
for the deviation from the design and identify the factors
contributing for the deviations. The major factors to be
looked into are:
 Main steam and reheat steam inlet parameters
 Turbine exhaust steam parameters
 Reheater and super heater spray
 Passing of high energy draining
 Loading on the turbine
 Boiler loading and boiler performance
 Operations and maintenance constraints
IDENTIFYING FACTORS FOR HR DEVIATION

 Condenser performance and cooling water parameters

 Silica deposition and its impact on the turbine efficiency
 Inter stage sealing, balance drum and gland sealing
 Sealing fins clearances
 Nozzle blocks
 Turbine blade erosion
 Functioning of the valves
 Operational status of HP heaters
 Performance of reheaters
FEED WATER HEATERS PERFORMANCE

inlet

inlet

outlet

0C
 FEED WATER HEATERS PERFORMANCE
While collecting the heater wise parameters, collect
the following data:
 Unit load MW
 Main steam pressure, temperature & flow
 Feed water flow
 Super heater & Reheater attemperation flow
 Boiler feed pump discharge pressure
 HP Heater levels
 Condenser vacuum, Barometric pressure
 FEED WATER HEATERS PERFORMANCE
After the collecting the above data, evaluate the following
 Terminal temperature difference – TTD
 Heater drain cooler approach temperature difference – DCA
 Feed water temperature rise across heater – TR

TTD = t sat – t fw outlet

FEED WATER HEATERS PERFORMANCE
DCA = t drains – t fw inlet

TR = t outlet – t fw inlet
 HEATER PERFORMANCE DEVIATION
Check following if TTD, DCA, TR are deviating from the
design and actual rise in feed water temperature is low:
High terminal temperature difference, TTD
 Excessive venting (worn vents, altered set point, vent
malfunctioning)
 Excessive make up
 High water level (tube leaks, improper setting)
 Header partition leaks
 Non condensable gases on shell side
 Excessive tube bundle pressure drop (excessive number of
tubes plugged, tubes folded internally)
 HEATER PERFORMANCE DEVIATION
High drain cooler approach temperature, DCA
 Drain cooler inlet not submerged
 Low drain water level (improper setting, excessive FW
heater drain bypass – bypass valve left open - bypass valve
malfunctioning / leaking)
 Excessive tube bundle pressure drop (excessive number
of tubes plugged / tubes folded internally)
 Feed water heater bypassed
 FW heater bypass valve leaking

Note: Similar approach shall be followed for LP Heaters

 ADDITIONAL LOAD ON ECONOMIZER

economizer

Based on the above, if the HP heaters performance is poor,

then additional load on economizer can be estimated by using
the data sheet