CHAPTER

4
Film Processing

KEY TERMS
agitation flood replenishment oxidation/reduction reaction
archival quality hyporetention synergism
developer latent image volume replenishment
fixer manifest image

OBJECTIVES
At the completion of this chapter the reader should be able to do the following:
• Describe the main differences between manual and Occupational Safety and Health Administration
automatic film processing (OSHA)
• List the main components of the developer and fixer • Describe the basic tests for determining the archival
solutions and state the function of each component quality of processed images
• Explain the proper mixing procedure for developer and • List the six main systems of automatic film processors
fixer concentrate solutions and state the function of each system
• State the chemical safety procedures for the safe • Describe the methods of installing film processors in a
handling of processing chemicals as described by the darkroom

OUTLINE
Manual and Automatic Film Automatic Processor Main Electrical System 61
Processing 50 Systems 57 Types of Automatic
Manual Processing 50 Transport System 57 Processors 61
Procedure 50 Roller Subsystem 57 Processor Size 61
Automatic Processing 50 Transport Rack Floor-Size Processor 62
Processing Chemicals 50 Subsystem 58 Intermediate-Size
Developer 50 Drive Subsystem 58 Processor 62
Developer Components 50 Temperature Control System 59 Tabletop-Size Processor 62
Developer Activity 52 Water-Controlled System 59 Processor Location 62
Developer Mixing Thermostatically Controlled Totally Inside 62
Procedure 54 System 59 Bulk Inside 62
Fixer 54 Circulation System 60 Bulk Outside 62
Fixer Ingredients 54 Replenishment System 60 Daylight Processing Systems
Fixer Mixing Procedure 55 Volume Replenishment 60 and Processors 62
Washing 55 Flood Replenishment 60 Summary 62
Chemical Safety 56 Dryer System 61

After a film has been exposed to radiation, the image that it or reduced, state (Ag ), in which the silver turns black. This
contains is still invisible to the human eye and is called a requires the film to be processed by various solutions that
latent image. For the film to be converted into a visible convert the latent image into a visible one and also preserve
image, or manifest image, the silver contained in the film the image for permanent storage. The two basic methods of
must be changed from an ionized state (Agþ) into a neutral, film processing are manual and automatic.

49
50 CHAPTER 4 Film Processing

MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC FILM with hyporetention can be found in Chapter 10. This
PROCESSING step may take up to 20 minutes.
6. Drying. Drying prepares the film for viewing and stor-
Manual Processing age and can be accomplished either by an electric dryer,
which works in less than a minute, or by exposure to
In the manual processing method, film is moved from
room air while the film is mounted on a special hanger,
one solution to the next manually until processing is
which may require an hour or more.
complete. This method requires more labor and time
and is more prone to variations than automatic proces-
sing. For this reason, manual processing is seldom used Automatic Processing
in diagnostic imaging today. For film to be processed
Automatic processing requires an electromechanical device
manually, several steps are required after the films are
called an automatic film processor, which transports the
hung on special hangers.
film from one solution to the next without any manual labor
except for placing the film into the device. This shortens the
Procedure overall processing time, increases the number of films that
can be processed in a given period, and ensures less variabil-
1. Wetting agent. The wetting agent is a chemical that ity of overall film quality than manually processed films
loosens the emulsion so that subsequent solutions because the processing time, solution temperature, and
can reach all parts of the emulsion uniformly, which chemical replenishment are automatically controlled. The
reduces development time. This step is optional disadvantages of automatic processing include higher capi-
because developer ingredients also soften the emul- tal and maintenance costs, increased chemical fog due to
sion. If a wetting agent is used, the film should higher processing temperatures, and transport problems
remain in the solution for about 15 seconds. that can damage or destroy images during processing. In a
2. Developer. The developer solution converts the latent diagnostic imaging department that has not converted to
image into the visible image; therefore, this is the digital imaging, the advantages far outweigh the disadvan-
most important processing chemical. The film tages and automatic film processing is virtually exclusive.
remains in the developer for 3 to 5 minutes depend-
ing on the temperature of the solution. PROCESSING CHEMICALS
3. Stop bath or water rinse. The stop bath or water rinse
step stops the development process and removes excess Developer
developer from the film. A stop bath is a 1% solution of
acetic acid that chemically neutralizes the developer As previously mentioned, the developer is the most impor-
(because it is an alkaline solution) and requires only tant processing solution; it converts the latent image into a
5 to 10 seconds of film immersion time. A water rinse manifest image. This is accomplished by the developer
relies on water to remove the excess developer and solution carrying out an oxidation/reduction reaction,
requires about 30 seconds of film immersion. or redox. When a chemical is oxidized (broken down),
4. Fixer. The fixer solution removes the unexposed and it releases electrons. These electrons are then available
undeveloped silver halide crystals from the film emul- to convert another compound into a more simplified,
sion and also hardens the emulsion so that the film or reduced, state (hence the term oxidation/reduction
can be permanently stored. The time of fixation var- reaction). During film processing, the developer solution
ies with solution temperature, but the general rule for ingredients are oxidized and the silver halide crystal is
manual fixation is use of the following equation reduced to black metallic silver. This chemical reaction
can be summarized by the following equations:
Fixing time ¼ Clearing time þ Hardening time During exposure to radiation:
The clearing time is the time necessary for the fixer
Agþ Br þ radiation ! Ag þ Br þ Ag
to clear away the unexposed and undeveloped silver
(5 atoms latent image)
halide crystals, which should be accomplished within
5 minutes. The hardening time is the time it takes the During immersion in developer:
emulsion to properly harden and is usually equal to
the clearing time; therefore, a film that requires 5 min- Agþ þ developer þ Ag ð5 atoms latent imageÞ !
Ag ð108 atoms visible imageÞ þ oxidized developer
utes to clear requires another 5 minutes to harden,
leaving a total fixing time of 10 minutes. Developer Components. Developer is composed of
5. Washing. Excess fixer must be removed from film developing or reducing agents, preservatives, accelera-
before it is allowed to dry, or the fixer components tors or activators, restrainers, regulators, antifoggants
crystallize onto the film surface, a process known as or starters, hardeners, solvents, and sequestering agents;
hyporetention. This white, powdery residue can all act on the film.
impair the diagnostic quality of the final image and Developing or Reducing Agents. Developing or
must therefore be avoided. An example of an image reducing agents carry out the oxidation/reduction reaction
 CHAPTER 4 Film Processing 51

that converts the latent image into a manifest image. Two an alkaline medium for the reducing agents. The devel-
different reducing agents are used in standard developer oping agents must exist in an alkaline medium to have the
solutions: phenidone and hydroquinone. free electrons available to reduce the silver to Ag .
Phenidone (Elon or Metol in Manual Developer). An indicator known as pH is used to measure the
Phenidone is fast acting and produces the image optical alkalinity of a solution. Potential hydrogen (pH) refers
densities of up to about 1.2. It is responsible for the mini- to the exponential (p) value of hydrogen ions (Hþ) avail-
mum diameter (Dmin) and speed indicators used in sensito- able for a reaction. Those chemicals having a high
metric testing (described in Chapter 5). hydrogen potential (Hþ) are called acids, and those hav-
Hydroquinone. Because hydroquinone acts more ing a high alkaline or hydroxide potential (OH) (and
slowly than phenidone, the developmental process is com- therefore, a low hydrogen potential) are called bases.
pleted so that the image optical densities that are greater The pH scale ranges from 0 to 7 (acids) and 7 to 14
than 1.2 are visualized. Hydroquinone is responsible for (bases) (Fig. 4-2). This scale is based on the concentra-
the maximum diameter (Dmax) and contrast indicators tion of positively charged hydrogen ions (Hþ) in moles
used in sensitometric testing. These indicators are the first per liter. For example, a pH of 4 would mean that a par-
variables to show an indication of developer failure ticular solution contains one ten-thousandth (104) of a
because hydroquinone is the processing chemical most sen- mole of hydrogen ions per liter. For this value to be con-
sitive to changes in temperature, concentration, and pH verted to pH, the negative exponent (4) is changed to a
and to exposure to light and heavy metals. Hydroquinone positive number (4). A solution with a Hþ concentration
levels should be maintained in the range of 20 to 25 g/L. of one ten-millionth (107) moles per liter would then
The overall optical density is created by the synergistic have a pH of 7, and so on. Because the pH scale is loga-
action of the two reducing agents. Synergism means that rithmic in nature, a change of one whole number on the
the action of the two agents working together is greater pH scale can represent a tenfold change from the previ-
than the sum of each agent working independently. ous concentration. A pH of 1 denotes 10 times more Hþ
Synergism is also known as superadditivity (Fig. 4-1). ions than a pH of 2; a pH of 3 has 10 times fewer
Preservative. The preservative, or antioxidant, pro- Hþ ions than a pH of 2, and so on. Pure water is neutral
tects the hydroquinone from both aerial oxidation (chem- and has a pH of 7. Fixer is an acid solution; therefore,
ical reaction with air) and internal oxidation (chemical care must be taken not to introduce it into developer
reaction with other developer ingredients). If the hydro- solutions because only 0.1% contamination deteriorates
quinone is oxidized, there is a decrease in the Dmax and the developer activity enough to compromise image qual-
contrast indicators during a sensitometric test, along with ity. Chemicals that can be used as accelerators include
a loss of the shoulder on the H and D curve. Oxidized sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, potassium carbon-
developer causes the developer solution to turn from a ate, and potassium hydroxide.
clear, brown liquid into one that is dark and muddy. If
strongly oxidized, the solution also has the odor of ammo-
nia because this is a byproduct of the oxidation chemical 14 Strong alkali
reaction. Most developer replenishment tanks have a 13
floating lid inside the tank in addition to the main lid on
the outside, to minimize contact with the outside air. The A 12
chemicals sodium sulfite, potassium sulfite, and cycon L
K 11
can be used as developer solution preservatives. A Developing
Accelerator, Activator, or Buffering Agent. The L 10 (9.5-10.7)
solution
accelerator, activator, or buffering agent has two func- I
9
tions: to soften and swell the emulsion so that reducing
agents can work on all of the emulsion and to provide Sea water (8.3)
8
Blood (7.4)

Phenidone 7 Neutral (7)

A (4-5)
solution
C 4
I Grapefruit juice (3.3)
D 3

Hydroquinone 2
Phenidone Gastric juice (1.7)
1
Development time
0 Strong acid
FIGURE 4-1 Graph demonstrating superadditivity effect of
phenidone and hydroquinone. FIGURE 4-2 Potential hydrogen (pH) scale.