Spatstat

Concepts (O&U Ch.
3) Spatial Statistics
Centrographic Statistics (O&U Ch. 4 p. 77-81)
– single, summary measures of a spatial distribution
Point Pattern Analysis (O&U Ch 4 p. 81-114)
-- pattern analysis; points have no magnitude (“no variable”)
Quadrat Analysis
Nearest Neighbor Analysis
Spatial Autocorrelation (O&U Ch 7 pp. 180-205

– One variable
The Weights Matrix
Join Count Statistic
Moran’s I (O&U pp 196-201)
Geary’s C Ratio (O&U pp 201)
General G
LISA
Correlation and Regression

–Two variables
Standard 1
Spatial
Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007
Description versus Inference
• Description and descriptive statistics
– Concerned with obtaining summary measures to
describe a set of data
• Inference and inferential statistics
– Concerned with making inferences from samples about
populations
– Concerned with making legitimate inferences about
underlying processes from observed patterns
We will be looking at both!

Classic Descriptive Statistics: Univariate
Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion
• Central Tendency: single Formulae for mean

summary measure for one
variable:
– mean (average)
– median (middle value)
– mode (most frequently occurring)
• Dispersion: measure of spread
Formulae for variance
or variability
 
n
– Variance i =1
( Xi- X)
2 n
Xi - [( X )2 / N ]
2
= i =1
– Standard deviation N N
(square root of variance)
These may be obtained in ArcGIS by:

--opening a table, right clicking on column heading, and selecting Statistics
--going to ArcToolbox>Analysis>Statistics>Summary Statistics
3

Classic Descriptive Statistics: Univariate
Frequency distributions
A counting of the frequency with which values occur on a variable
• Most easily understood for a categorical variable (e.g. ethnicity)
• For a continuous variable, frequency can be:
– calculated by dividing the variable into categories or “bins”
(e.g income groups)
– represented by the proportion of the area
under a frequency curve
2.5% 2.5%
-1.96 0 1.96
In ArcGIS, you may obtain frequency counts on a categorical variable via:

--ArcToolbox>Analysis>Statistics>Frequency

Classic Descriptive Statistics: Bivariate
Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (r)
• Measures the degree of association or strength of the
relationship between two continuous variables
• Varies on a scale from –1 thru 0 to +1
-1 implies perfect negative association
• As values on one variable rise, those on the other fall (price and
quantity purchased)
0 implies no association X
+1 implies perfect positive association

• As values rise on one they also rise on the other (house price and
income of occupants)
Where Sx and Sy are the standard
 - -
deviations of X and Y, and X and Y
n
( xi X )( yi Y ) are the means.
r= i =1
n SxSy
 
n
n
i-
(Y Y ) 2
SX= i=1 (Xi - X)2
Sy= i=1
N N
5

Classic Descriptive Statistics: Bivariate
Calculation Formulae for
Correlation Coefficient
example using
“calculation formulae”
As we explore spatial
statistics, we will see
many analogies to the
mean, the variance,
and the correlation
coefficient, and their
There is an example of calculation later in
various formulae this presentation. 6

Inferential Statistics: Are differences real?
• Frequently, we lack data for an entire population (all possible
occurrences) so most measures (statistics) are estimated based on
sample data
– Statistics are measures calculated from samples which are estimates of
population parameters
• the question must always be asked if an observed difference (say
between two statistics) could have arisen due to chance associated
with the sampling process, or reflects a real difference in the
underlying population(s)
• Answers to this question involve the concepts of statistical
inference and statistical hypothesis testing
• Although we do not have time to go into this in detail, it is always
important to explore before any firm conclusions are drawn.
• However, never forget: statistical significance does not always
equate to scientific (or substantive) significance
– With a big enough sample size (and data sets are often large in GIS),
statistical significance is often easily achievable
– See O&U pp 108-109 for more detail 7

Statistical Hypothesis Testing: Classic Approach
Statistical hypothesis testing usually involves 2 values; don’t confuse them!
• A measure(s) or index(s) derived from samples (e.g. the mean center or the
Nearest Neighbor Index)
– We may have two sample measures (e.g. one for males and another for females), or
a single sample measure which we compare to “spatial randomness”
• A test statistic, derived from the measure or index, whose probability
distribution is known when repeated samples are made,
– this is used to test the statistical significance of the measure/index
We proceed from the null hypothesis (Ho ) that, in the population, there is “no
difference” between the two sample statistics, or from spatial randomness*
– If the test statistic we obtain is very unlikely to have occurred (less than 5% chance)
if the null hypothesis was true, the null hypothesis is rejected
If the test statistic is beyond +/- 1.96
(assuming a Normal distribution),
we reject the null hypothesis (of no
difference) and assume a
2.5% 2.5%
statistically significant difference at
-1.96
0 1.96 at least the 0.05 significance level.
8
*O’Sullivan and Unwin use the term IRP/CSR: independent random process/complete spatial randomness
Statistical Hypothesis Testing: Simulation Approach
• Because of the complexity inherent in spatial processes, it is
sometime difficult to derive a legitimate test statistic whose
probability distribution is known
• An alternative approach is to use the computer to simulate multiple
random spatial patterns (or samples)--say 100, the spatial statistic
(e.g. NNI or LISA) is calculated for each, and then displayed as a
frequency distribution.
– This simulated sampling distribution
can then be used to assess the
probability of obtaining our observed
value for the Index if the pattern had
been random.
Our observed value:
--highly unlikely to have
occurred if the process Empirical frequency distribution
was random from 499 random patterns
--conclude that process is (“samples”)
not random
This approach is used in Anselin’s GeoDA software

Is it Spatially Random? Tougher than it looks to decide!
• Fact: It is observed that about twice
as many people sit catty/corner rather
than opposite at tables in a restaurant
– Conclusion: psychological preference for
nearness
• In actuality: an outcome to be
expected from a random
process: two ways to sit
opposite, but four ways to sit
catty/corner
From O’Sullivan and Unwin p.69

10

Why Processes differ from Random
Processes differ from random in two fundamental ways
• Variation in the receptiveness of the study area to
receive a point
– Diseases cluster because people cluster (e.g. cancer)
– Cancer cases cluster ‘cos chemical plants cluster
– First order effect
• Interdependence of the points themselves
– Diseases cluster ‘cos people catch them from others who
have the disease (colds)
– Second order effects
In practice, it is very difficult to disentangle these two
effects merely by the analysis of spatial data
11

What do we mean by spatially random?
RANDOM UNIFORM/ CLUSTERED

• Types of Distributions DISPERSED
– Random: any point is equally likely to occur at any location, and the position of any
point is not affected by the position of any other point.
– Uniform: every point is as far from all of its neighbors as possible: “unlikely to be close”
– Clustered: many points are concentrated close together, and there are large areas that
contain very few, if any, points: “unlikely to be distant”
Centrographic Statistics
• Basic descriptors for spatial point distributions (O&U pp 77-81)
Measures of Centrality Measures of Dispersion
– Mean Center -- Standard Distance
– Centroid -- Standard Deviational Ellipse
– Weighted mean center
– Center of Minimum Distance
• Two dimensional (spatial) equivalents of standard descriptive
statistics for a single-variable distribution
• May be applied to polygons by first obtaining the centroid of
each polygon
• Best used in a comparative context to compare one distribution
(say in 1990, or for males) with another (say in 2000, or for
females)
This is a repeat of material from GIS Fundamentals. To save time,
we will not go over it again here. Go to Slide # 25
13

Mean Center
• Simply the mean of the X and the Y coordinates
for a set of points
• Also called center of gravity or centroid
• Sum of differences between the mean X and all
other X is zero (same for Y)
• Minimizes sum of squared distances

2
between itself and all points min diC
Distant points have large effect.
Provides a single point summary measure

for the location of distribution.
14

Centroid
• The equivalent for polygons of the mean center for a point
distribution
• The center of gravity or balancing point of a polygon
• if polygon is composed of straight line segments between
nodes, centroid again given “average X, average Y” of
nodes
• Calculation sometimes approximated as center of bounding
box
– Not good
• By calculating the centroids for a set of polygons can apply
Centrographic Statistics to polygons
15

Weighted Mean Center
• Produced by weighting each X and Y
coordinate by another variable (Wi)
• Centroids derived from polygons can be
weighted by any characteristic of the polygon
i=1 wixi
n

n
X = Y= i =1
wiyi
i=1 wi
n

n
i =1
wi
16

10 Calculating the centroid of a
polygon or the mean center of
4,7
7,7
a set of points.
(same example data as
1 2 3 for area of polygon)
5
2 4 7
3 7 7
4 7 3 n n
2,3
7,3 5 6 2
 Xi Y i
sum 26 22
X= i =1
,Y = i =1
6,2 n n
Centroid/MC 5.2 4.4
0
0 5 10
10
Calculating the weighted mean

center. Note how it is pulled
4,7
7,7 toward the high weight point.
i X Y weight wX wY
5
1 2 3 3,000 6,000 9,000 n n
7,3
2
3
4
7
7
7
500
400
2,000
2,800
3,500
2,800
wX i wY i i i
X= i =1
,Y = i =1
w w
2,3 4 7 3 100 700 300
i i
5 6 2 300 1,800 600
6,2
sum 26 22 4,300 13,300 16,200
0
w MC 3.09 3.77
0 5 10
17

Center of Minimum Distance or Median Center
• Also called point of minimum aggregate travel
• That point (MD) which minimizes
sum of distances between itself
and all other points (i)
min diMD 
• No direct solution. Can only be derived by approximation
• Not a determinate solution. Multiple points may meet this
criteria—see next bullet.
• Same as Median center:
– Intersection of two orthogonal lines
(at right angles to each other),
such that each line has half of the points
to its left and half to its right
– Because the orientation of the axis for these
lines is arbitrary, multiple points may
meet this criteria. 18
Source: Neft, 1966
Median and Mean
Centers for US Population
Median Center:
Intersection of a north/south and an
east/west line drawn so half of
population lives above and half
below the e/w line, and half lives to
the left and half to the right of the n/s
line
Mean Center:
Balancing point of a weightless map,
if equal weights placed on it at the
residence of every person on census
day.
Source: US Statistical Abstract 200319

Standard Distance Deviation
Formulae for standard
• Represents the standard deviation of the deviation of single variable
distance of each point from the mean center

n 2
i =1
( X i- X)
• Is the two dimensional equivalent of N
standard deviation for a single variable
• Given by:
Or, with weights
i =1 i=1
n n
( Xi - Xc ) 2
 (Yi - Yc ) 2
i=1 wi( Xi - Xc)2  i=1 wi(Yi - Yc)2
n n
i=1 wi
n
N
which by Pythagoras
i =1
n 2
d iC
reduces to:
N
---essentially the average distance of points from the center
Provides a single unit measure of the spread or dispersion of a
distribution.
We can also calculate a weighted standard distance analogous to the 20
weighted mean center. Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007
Standard Distance Deviation Example
10
Circle with radii=SDD=2.9
4,7
7,7
5
7,3
2,3
i X Y (X - Xc)2 (Y - Yc)2
6,2
1 2 3 10.2 2.0
0
2 4 7 1.4 6.8
3 7 7 3.2 6.8
0 5 10
4 7 3 3.2 2.0
i X Y (X - Xc)2 (Y - Yc)2
5 6 2 0.6 5.8
1 2 3 10.2 2.0
sum 26 22 18.8 23.2 2 4 7 1.4 6.8
Centroid 5.2 4.4 3 7 7 3.2 6.8
sum 42.00 4 7 3 3.2 2.0
divide N 8.40 5 6 2 0.6 5.8
sq rt 2.90
sum 26 22 18.8 23.2
Centroid 5.2 4.4
sum of sums 42
divide N 8.4
sq rt 2.90
 ( Xi - Xc ) 2  i =1 (Yi - Yc ) 2
n n
sdd = i =1
N 21

Standard Deviational Ellipse: concept
• Standard distance deviation is a good single measure
of the dispersion of the incidents around the mean
center, but it does not capture any directional bias
– doesn’t capture the shape of the distribution.
• The standard deviation ellipse gives dispersion in two
dimensions
• Defined by 3 parameters
– Angle of rotation
– Dispersion along major axis
– Dispersion along minor axis
The major axis defines the
direction of maximum spread
of the distribution
The minor axis is perpendicular to it
and defines the minimum spread 22

Standard Deviational Ellipse: calculation
• Formulae for calculation may be found in references
cited at end. For example
– Lee and Wong pp. 48-49
– Levine, Chapter 4, pp.125-128
• Basic concept is to:
– Find the axis going through maximum dispersion (thus derive
angle of rotation)
– Calculate standard deviation of the points along this axis (thus
derive the length (radii) of major axis)
– Calculate standard deviation of points along the axis
perpendicular to major axis (thus derive the length (radii) of
minor axis)
23

Mean Center & Standard Deviational Ellipse:
example
There appears to be no
major difference
between the location of
the software and the
telecommunications
industry in North
Texas.
24

Point Pattern Analysis
Analysis of spatial properties of the entire
body of points rather than the derivation of
single summary measures
Two primary approaches:
• Point Density approach using Quadrat Analysis based
on observing the frequency distribution or density of
points within a set of grid squares.
– Variance/mean ratio approach
– Frequency distribution comparison approach
• Point interaction approach using Nearest Neighbor
Analysis based on distances of points one from another
Although the above would suggest that the first approach
examines first order effects and the second approach
examines second order effects, in practice the two cannot
be separated. See O&U pp. 81-88
25

Exhaustive census Random sampling
--used for secondary --useful in field work
(e.g census) data
Frequency counts by
Quadrat would be:
Census Q = 64 Sampling Q = 38
Number
of points
in
Quadrat Count Proportion Count Proportion
0 51 0.797 29 0.763
Multiple ways to create quadrats 1
2
11
2
0.172
0.031
8
1
0.211
0.026
--and results can differ accordingly! 3 0 0.000 0 0.000
Q = # of quadarts
P = # of points = 15
Quadrats don’t have to be square 26

--and their size has a big influence Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007
Quadrat Analysis: Variance/Mean Ratio (VMR)
• Apply uniform or random grid over Where:
2* A A = area of region
area (A) with width of square given by: P P = # of points
• Treat each cell as an observation and count the number of points

within it, to create the variable X
• Calculate variance and mean of X, and create the variance to mean
ratio: variance / mean
• For an uniform distribution, the variance is zero.
– Therefore, we expect a variance-mean ratio close to 0
• For a random distribution, the variance and mean are the same.
– Therefore, we expect a variance-mean ratio around 1
• For a clustered distribution, the variance is relatively large
– Therefore, we expect a variance-mean ratio above 1
27
See following slide for example. See O&U p 98-100 for another example
3 1 2 2 0 0
5 0 2 2 0 0
2 1 2 2 10 10
1 3 2 2 0 0
3 1 2 2 0 0
x
x Number x
RANDOM Number of of Points Number of
Quadrat Points Per Quadrat Per Quadrat Points Per
# Quadrat x^2 # Quadrat x^2 # Quadrat x^2
1 3 9 1 2 4 1 0 0
2 1 1 2 2 4 2 0 0
3 5 25 3 2 4 3 0 0
4 0 0 4 2 4 4 0 0
5 2 4 5 2 4 5 10 100
UNIFORM/ 6 1 1 6 2 4 6 10 100
DISPERSED 7 1 1 7 2 4 7 0 0
8 3 9 8 2 4 8 0 0
9 3 9 9 2 4 9 0 0
10 1 1 10 2 4 10 0 0
20 60 20 40 20 200
Variance 2.222 Variance 0.000 Variance 17.778

Mean 2.000 Mean 2.000 Mean 2.000
CLUSTERED Var/Mean 1.111 Var/Mean 0.000 Var/Mean 8.889
random uniform Clustered
Formulae for variance
Note:
i =1
n

2
( X i - X )
=
n
i =1
Xi2- [(  X )2 / N ] N = number of Quadrats = 10
N -1 N -1 Ratio = Variance/mean 28
Significance Test for VMR
• A significance test can be conducted based upon the chi-square frequency
• The test statistic is given by: (sum of squared differences)/Mean
=
• The test will ascertain if a pattern is significantly more clustered than would be
expected by chance (but does not test for a uniformity)
• The values of the test statistics in our cases would be:
random uniform clustered
60-(202)/10 = 10 40-(202)/10 = 0 200-(202)/10 = 80
2 2 2
• For degrees of freedom: N - 1 = 10 - 1 = 9, the value of chi-square at the 1% level is
21.666.
• Thus, there is only a 1% chance of obtaining a value of 21.666 or greater if the points
had been allocated randomly. Since our test statistic for the clustered pattern is 80, we
conclude that there is (considerably) less than a 1% chance that the clustered pattern
could have resulted from a random process
29
(See O&U p 98-100)
Quadrat Analysis: Frequency Distribution Comparison
• Rather than base conclusion on variance/mean ratio, we can

compare observed frequencies in the quadrats (Q= number of
quadrats) with expected frequencies that would be generated by
– a random process (modeled by the Poisson frequency distribution)
– a clustered process (e.g. one cell with P points, Q-1 cells with 0 points)
– a uniform process (e.g. each cell has P/Q points)
• The standard Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for comparing two
frequency distributions can then be applied – see next slide
• See Lee and Wong pp. 62-68 for another example and further
discussion.
30

Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) Test
• The test statistic “D” is simply given by:
D = max [ Cum Obser. Freq – Cum Expect. Freq]
The largest difference (irrespective of sign) between observed cumulative
frequency and expected cumulative frequency
• The critical value at the 5% level is given by:
D (at 5%) = 1.36 where Q is the number of quadrats
Q
• Expected frequencies for a random spatial distribution are derived from the
Poisson frequency distribution and can be calculated with:
λ
p(0) = e- = 1 / (2.71828P/Q) and p(x) = p(x - 1) * λ /x
Where x = number of points in a quadrat and p(x) = the probability of x points
P = total number of points Q = number of quadrats
λ = P/Q (the average number of points per quadrat)
See next slide for worked example for cluster case
Calculation of Poisson Frequencies for Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
CLUSTERED pattern as used in lecture
A B C D E F G H
=ColA * ColB=Col B / q !Col E - Col G
Number of Observed Cumulative Cumulative Absolute

Points in Quadrat Total Observed Observed Poisson Poisson Difference
quadrat Count Point Probability Probability Probability Probability
0 8 0 0.8000 0.8000 0.1353 0.1353 0.6647 Row 10
1 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.2707 0.4060 0.3940
2 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.2707 0.6767 0.1233
3 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.1804 0.8571 0.0571
4 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.0902 0.9473 0.1473 The spreadsheet
5 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.0361 0.9834 0.1834
6 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.0120 0.9955 0.1955 spatstat.xls contains
7 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.0034 0.9989 0.1989
8 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.0009 0.9998 0.1998 worked examples for the
9 0 0 0.0000 0.8000 0.0002 1.0000 0.2000
10 2 20 0.2000 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 Uniform/ Clustered/
Random data previously
used, as well as for Lee
and Wong’s data
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov D test statistic is the largest Absolute Difference

= largest value in Column h 0.6647
Critical Value at 5% for one sample given by: 1.36/sqrt(Q) 0.4301 Significant
Critical Value at 5% for two sample given by: 1.36*sqrt((Q1+Q2)/Q1*Q2))
number of quadrats Q 10 (sum of column B)

number of points P 20 (sum of Col C)
number of points in a quadrat x
poisson probability p(x) = p(x-1)*(P/Q)/x (Col E, Row 11 onwards)

if x=0 then p(x) = p(0)=2.71828^P/Q (Col E, Row 10)
Euler's constant 2.7183

Weakness of Quadrat Analysis
• Results may depend on quadrat size and orientation
(Modifiable areal unit problem)
– test different sizes (or orientations) to determine the effects of each test
on the results
• Is a measure of dispersion, and not really pattern, because it is
based primarily on the density of points, and not their
arrangement in relation to one another
For example, quadrat analysis cannot distinguish
between these two, obviously different, patterns
• Results in a single measure for the entire distribution, so

variations within the region are not recognized (could have
clustering locally in some areas, but not overall)
For example, overall pattern here is dispersed, but

there are some local clusters
33

Nearest-Neighbor Index (NNI) (O&U p. 100)
• uses distances between points as its basis.
• Compares the mean of the distance observed between each point
and its nearest neighbor with the expected mean distance that
would occur if the distribution were random:
NNI=Observed Aver. Dist / Expected Aver. Dist
For random pattern, NNI = 1
For clustered pattern, NNI = 0
For dispersed pattern, NNI = 2.149
• We can calculate a Z statistic to test if observed pattern is
significantly different from random:
• Z = Av. Dist Obs - Av. Dist. Exp.
Standard Error
if Z is below –1.96 or above +1.96, we are 95% confident that the distribution is
not randomly distributed. (If the observed pattern was random, there are less
than 5 chances in 100 we would have observed a z value this large.)
(in the example that follows, the fact that the NNI for uniform is 1.96 is coincidence!)
Nearest Neighbor Formulae
Index
Where:
Significance test
(Standard error)
0.26136
=
n2 / A
35

RANDOM CLUSTERED UNIFORM
Nearest Nearest Nearest

Point Neighbor Distance Point Neighbor Distance Point Neighbor Distance
1 2 1 1 2 0.1 1 3 2.2
2 3 0.1 2 3 0.1 2 4 2.2
3 2 0.1 3 2 0.1 3 4 2.2
4 5 1 4 5 0.1 4 5 2.2
5 4 1 5 4 0.1 5 7 2.2
6 5 2 6 5 0.1 6 7 2.2
7 6 2.7 7 6 0.1 7 8 2.2
8 10 1 8 9 0.1 8 9 2.2
9 10 1 9 10 0.1 9 10 2.2
10 9 1 10 9 0.1 10 9 2.2
10.9 1 22
Meanrdistance Mean
r distance 0.1 Mean
r distance 2.2
1.09
Area of Area of Area of
Region 50 Region 50 Region 50
Density 0.2 Density 0.2 Density 0.2
Expected Expected Expected
Mean 1.118034 Mean 1.118034 Mean 1.118034
R 0.974926 RNNI 0.089443 RNNI 1.96774
NNI
Z = -0.1515 Z = 5.508 Z = 5.855
Source: Lembro
Evaluating the Nearest Neighbor Index
• Advantages
– NNI takes into account distance
– No quadrat size problem to be concerned with
• However, NNI not as good as might appear
– Index highly dependent on the boundary for the area
• its size and its shape (perimeter)
– Fundamentally based on only the mean distance
– Doesn’t incorporate local variations (could have clustering locally in some areas,
but not overall)
– Based on point location only and doesn’t incorporate magnitude of phenomena at
that point
• An “adjustment for edge effects” available but does not solve all the problems
• Some alternatives to the NNI are the G and F functions, based on the entire
frequency distribution of nearest neighbor distances, and the K function based
on all interpoint distances.
– See O and U pp. 89-95 for more detail.
– Note: the G Function and the General/Local G statistic (to be discussed later) are
related but not identical to each other
37

Spatial Autocorrelation
The instantiation of Tobler’s first law of geography
Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than
distant things.
Correlation of a variable with itself through space.
The correlation between an observation’s value on a variable and
the value of close-by observations on the same variable
The degree to which characteristics at one location are similar (or
dissimilar) to those nearby.
Measure of the extent to which the occurrence of an event in an
areal unit constrains, or makes more probable, the occurrence
of a similar event in a neighboring areal unit.
Several measures available:
Join Count Statistic
Moran’s I
These measures may be “global” or “local”
Geary’s C ratio
General (Getis-Ord) G
Anselin’s Local Index of Spatial Autocorrelation (LISA)
Spatial
Autocorrelation
Positive: similar values cluster together on a map
Auto:
self
Correlation:
degree of
relative
correspondence
Source: Dr Dan Griffith, with

modification
39
Negative: dissimilar values cluster together on a map
Why Spatial Autocorrelation Matters
• Spatial autocorrelation is of interest in its own right because
it suggests the operation of a spatial process
• Additionally, most statistical analyses are based on the
assumption that the values of observations in each sample are
independent of one another
– Positive spatial autocorrelation violates this, because samples taken from
nearby areas are related to each other and are not independent
• In ordinary least squares regression (OLS), for example, the
correlation coefficients will be biased and their precision
exaggerated
– Bias implies correlation coefficients may be higher than they really are
• They are biased because the areas with higher concentrations of events will
have a greater impact on the model estimate
– Exaggerated precision (lower standard error) implies they are more likely
to be found “statistically significant”
• they will overestimate precision because, since events tend to be concentrated,
there are actually a fewer number of independent observations than is being
assumed. 40

Measuring Relative Spatial Location
• How do we measure the relative location or distance apart of the points or
polygons? Seems obvious but its not!
• Calculation of Wij, the spatial weights matrix, indexing the relative location
of all points i and j, is the big issue for all spatial autocorrelation measures
• Different methods of calculation potentially result in different values for the
measures of autocorrelation and different conclusions from statistical
significance tests on these measures
• Weights based on Contiguity
– If zone j is adjacent to zone i, the interaction receives a weight of 1,
otherwise it receives a weight of 0 and is essentially excluded
– But what constitutes contiguity? Not as easy as it seems!
• Weights based on Distance
– Uses a measure of the actual distance between points or between polygon
centroids
– But what measure, and distance to what points -- All? Some?
• Often, GIS is used to calculate the spatial weights matrix, which
is then inserted into other software for the statistical calculations
41

Weights Based on Contiguity
For Regular Polygons
rook case or queen case
For Irregular polygons

• All polygons that share a common border
• All polygons that share a common border or have a centroid
within the circle defined by the average distance to (or the
“convex hull” for) centroids of polygons that share a common
border
X
For points
• The closest point (nearest neighbor)
--select the contiguity criteria
--construct n x n weights matrix with 1 if contiguous, 0 otherwise
An archive of contiguity matrices for US states and counties is at:
http://sal.uiuc.edu/weights/index.html (note: the .gal format is weird!!!) 42

Weights based on Lagged Contiguity
• We can also use adjacency matrices which
are based on lagged adjacency
– Base contiguity measures on “next nearest”
neighbor, not on immediate neighbor
• In fact, can define a range of contiguity
matrices:
– 1st nearest, 2nd nearest, 3rd nearest, etc.
43

Queens Case
Full Contiguity
Matrix for US
States
• 0s omitted for
clarity
• Column
headings (same
as rows) omitted
for clarity
• Principal
diagonal has 0s
(blanks)
• Can be very
large, thus
inefficient to use.
Sparse Contiguity Matrix for US States -- obtained from Anselin's web site (see powerpoint for link)
Name Fips Ncount N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8
Alabama
Arizona
1
4
4
5
28
35
13
8
12
49
47
6 32
Queens Case
Arkansas
California
Colorado
5
6
8
6
3
7
22
4
35
28
32
4
48
41
20
47
40
40
31
29
49 56
Sparse Contiguity
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
9
10
11
3
3
2
44
24
51
36
42
24
25
34 Matrix for US
Florida
Georgia
12
13
2
5
13
12
1
45 37 1 47 States
Idaho 16 6 32 41 56 49 30 53
Illinois
Indiana
17
18
5
4
29
26
21
21
18
17
55
39
19
•Ncount is the
Iowa 19 6 29 31 17 55 27 46
Kansas
Kentucky
20
21
4
7
40
47
29
29
31
18
8
39 54 51 17
number of
Louisiana 22 3 28 48 5
Maine
Maryland
23
24
1
5
33
51 10 54 42 11
neighbors for each
Massachusetts 25 5 44 9 36 50 33
Michigan
Minnesota
26
27
3
4
18
19
39
55
55
46 38
state
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
28
29
30
4
8
4
22
5
16
5
40
56
1
17
38
47
21
46
47 20 19 31 •Max is 8 (Missouri
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
31
32
33
6
5
3
29
6
25
20
4
23
8
49
50
19
16
56
41
46
and Tennessee)
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
34
35
36
3
5
5
10
48
34
36
40
9
42
8
42
4
50
49
25
•Sum of Ncount is
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
37
38
39
4
3
5
45
46
26
13
27
21
47
30
54
51
42 18
218
Oklahoma
Oregon
40
41
6
4
5
6
35
32
48
16
29
53
20 8
•Number of
Pennsylvania 42 6 24 54 10 39 36 34
Rhode Island
South Carolina
44
45
2
2
25
13
9
37 common borders
South Dakota 46 6 56 27 19 31 38 30
Tennessee
Texas
47
48
8
4
5
22
28
5
1
35
37
40
13 51 21 29
(joins)
 ncount / 2 = 109
Utah 49 6 4 8 35 56 32 16
Vermont 50 3 36 25 33
Virginia 51 6 47 37 24 54 11 21
Washington
West Virginia
53
54
2
5
41
51
16
21 24 39 42 •N1, N2… FIPS codes
Wisconsin 55 4 26 17 19 27
Wyoming 56 6 49 16 31 8 46 30 for neighbors
Weights Based on Distance (see O&U p 202)
• Most common choice is the inverse (reciprocal) of the distance
between locations i and j (wij = 1/dij)
– Linear distance?
– Distance through a network?
• Other functional forms may be equally valid, such as inverse of
squared distance (wij =1/dij2), or negative exponential (e-d or e-d2)
• Can use length of shared boundary: wij= length (ij)/length(i)
• Inclusion of distance to all points may make it impossible to solve
necessary equations, or may not make theoretical sense (effects
may only be ‘local’)
– Include distance to only the “nth” nearest neighbors
– Include distances to locations only within a buffer distance
• For polygons, distances usually measured centroid to centroid, but
– could be measured from perimeter of one to centroid of other
– For irregular polygons, could be measured between the two closest boundary
points (an adjustment is then necessary for contiguous polygons since
46
distance for these would be zero)
A Note on Sampling Assumptions
• Another factor which influences results from these tests is the
assumption made regarding the type of sampling involved:
– Free (or normality) sampling assumes that the probability of a polygon
having a particular value is not affected by the number or arrangement of
the polygons
• Analogous to sampling with replacement
– Non-free (or randomization) sampling assumes that the probability of a
polygon having a particular value is affected by the number or arrangement
of the polygons (or points), usually because there is only a fixed number of
polygons (e.g. if n = 20, once I have sampling 19, the 20th is determined)
• Analogous to sampling without replacement
• The formulae used to calculate the various statistics (particularly
the standard deviation/standard error) differ depending on which
assumption is made
– Generally, the formulae are substantially more complex for randomization
sampling—unfortunately, it is also the more common situation!
– Usually, assuming normality sampling requires knowledge about larger
trends from outside the region or access to additional information within
the region in order to estimate parameters.
Joins (or joint or join) Count Statistic
• For binary (1,0) data only (or
ratio data converted to binary)
– Shown here as B/W
(black/white)
Small proportion (or count)
of BW joins • Requires a contiguity matrix for
Large proportion of BB and polygons
WW joins • Based upon the proportion of
“joins” between categories e.g.
– Total of 60 for Rook Case
– Total of 110 for Queen Case
Dissimilar proportions (or • The “no correlation” case is
counts) of BW, BB and simply generated by tossing a
WW joins coin for each cell
• See O&U pp. 186-192
Lee and Wong pp. 147-156
Large proportion (or count)
of BW joins
48
Small proportion of BB and
WW joins Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007
Join Count Statistic Formulae for Calculation
• Test Statistic given by: Z= Observed - Expected
SD of Expected
Expected given by: Standard Deviation of Expected given by:
Where: k is the total number of joins (neighbors)

pB is the expected proportion Black
pW is the expected proportion White
m is calculated from k according to:
Note: the formulae given here are for free (normality) sampling. Those for non-free
(randomization) sampling are substantially more complex. See Wong and Lee p. 151 49
compared to p. 155
Gore/Bush 2000 by State
Is there evidence of clustering?
50

Join Count Statistic for Gore/Bush 2000 by State
• See spatstat.xls (JC-%vote tab) for data (assumes free or normality sampling)
– The JC-%state tab uses % of states won, calculated using the same formulae
– Probably not legitimate: need to use randomization formulae
• Note: K = total number of joins = sum of neighbors/2 = number of 1s in full contiguity
matrix
Number of Joins
% of Votes
Expected Stan Dev Actual Z-score
Jbb 27.125 8.667 60 3.7930
Bush % (Pb) 0.49885
Gore % (Pg) 0.50115 Jgg 27.375 8.704 21 -0.7325
Jbg 54.500 5.220 28 -5.0763
• There are far more Bush/Bush joins (actual = 60) than would be expected (27)
– Since test score (3.79) is greater than the critical value (2.54 at 1%) result is
statistically significant at the 99% confidence level (p <= 0.01)
– Strong evidence of spatial autocorrelation—clustering
• There are far fewer Bush/Gore joins (actual = 28) than would be expected (54)
– Since test score (-5.07) is greater than the critical value (2.54 at 1%) result is
statistically significant at 99% confidence level (p <= 0.01)
– Again, strong evidence of spatial autocorrelation—clustering
51

Moran’s I n n
N  w ij (x i - x)(x j - x)
i =1 j=1
• Where N is the number of cases I= n n n
X is the mean of the variable
Xi is the variable value at a particular location
( w ij ) (x i - x) 2
i =1 j=1 i =1
Xj is the variable value at another location
Wij is a weight indexing location of i relative to j
• Applied to a continuous variable for polygons or points
• Similar to correlation coefficient: varies between –1.0 and + 1.0
– 0 indicates no spatial autocorrelation [approximate: technically it’s –1/(n-1)]
– When autocorrelation is high, the I coefficient is close to 1 or -1
– Negative/positive values indicate negative/positive autocorrelation
• Can also use Moran as index for dispersion/random/cluster patterns
– Indices close to zero [technically, close to -1/(n-1)], indicate random pattern
– Indices above -1/(n-1) (toward +1) indicate a tendency toward clustering
– Indices below -1/(n-1) (toward -1) indicate a tendency toward dispersion/uniform
• Differences from correlation coefficient are:
– Involves one variable only, not two variables
– Incorporates weights (wij) which index relative location
– Think of it as “the correlation between neighboring values on a variable”
– More precisely, the correlation between variable, X, and the “spatial lag” of X
formed by averaging all the values of X for the neighboring polygons
• See O&U p. 196-201 for example using Bush/Gore 2000 data
n
1(yi - y)(x i - x)/n Correlation

i =1 Coefficient
n n
 (y
i =1
i - y) 2
 (x
i =1
i - x) 2
n n
n n n n
n n
N  w ij (x i - x)(x j - x)
i =1 j=1
w
i =1 j=1
ij (x i - x)(x j - x)/  w ij
i =1 j=1
n n n
( w ij ) (x i - x) 2
= n n
 i -  i -
i =1 j=1 i =1
2 2
(x x ) (x x)
Spatial i =1 i =1
auto-correlation n n 53

Adjustment for Short or Zero Distances
• If an inverse distance measure is used,
and distances are very short, then wij
becomes very large and distorts I.
• An adjustment for short distances can
be used, usually scaling the distance to
one mile.
• The units in the adjustment formula
are the number of data measurement
units in a mile
• In the example, the data is assumed to
be in feet.
• With this adjustment, the weights will
never exceed 1
• If a contiguity matrix is used (1or 0 54
only), this adjustment is unnecessary Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007
Statistical Significance Tests for Moran’s I
• Based on the normal frequency distribution with
I - E(I ) Where: I is the calculated value for Moran’s I from the sample
Z= E(I) is the expected value (mean)
Serror( I ) S is the standard error
E(I) = -1/(n-1)
• However, there are two different formulations for the
standard error calculation
– The randomization or nonfree sampling method
– The normality or free sampling method
The actual formulae for calculation are in Lee and Wong p. 82 and 160-1
• Consequently, two slightly different values for Z are
obtained. In either case, based on the normal frequency
distribution, a value ‘beyond’ +/- 1.96 indicates a statistically
significant result at the 95% confidence level (p <= 0.05)
55

Moran Scatter Plots
Moran’s I can be interpreted as the correlation between variable, X,
and the “spatial lag” of X formed by averaging all the values of
X for the neighboring polygons
We can then draw a scatter diagram between these two variables (in
standardized form): X and lag-X (or w_X)
Low/High High/High
negative SA positive SA
The slope of the regression line is
Moran’s I
Each quadrant corresponds to one of
the four different types of spatial
association (SA)
Low/Low High/Low
positive SA negative SA 56

Moran’s I for rate-based data
• Moran’s I is often calculated for rates, such as crime
rates (e.g. number of crimes per 1,000 population) or
death rates (e.g. SIDS rate: number of sudden infant
death syndrome deaths per 1,000 births)
• An adjustment should be made in these cases especially
if the denominator in the rate (population or number of
births) varies greatly (as it usually does)
• Adjustment is know as the EB adjustment:
– Assuncao-Reis Empirical Bayes standardization (see Statistics
in Medicine, 1999)
• Anselin’s GeoDA software includes an option for this
adjustment both for Moran’s I and for LISA
57

Geary’s C (Contiguity) Ratio
• Calculation is similar to Moran’s I,
– For Moran, the cross-product is based on the deviations from the mean
for the two location values
– For Geary, the cross-product uses the actual values themselves at each
location
• However, interpretation of these values is very different,

essentially the opposite!
Geary’s C varies on a scale from 0 to 2
– C of approximately 1 indicates no autocorrelation/random
– C of 0 indicates perfect positive autocorrelation/clustered
– C of 2 indicates perfect negative autocorrelation/dispersed
• Can convert to a -/+1 scale by: calculating C* = 1 - C
• Moran’s I is usually preferred over Geary’s C 58

Statistical Significance Tests for Geary’s C
• Similar to Moran
• Again, based on the normal frequency distribution with
C - E (C ) C is the calculated value for Moran’s I from the sample
Z= Where:
E(C) is the expected value (mean)
Serror( I )
S is the standard error
however, E(C) = 1
• Again, there are two different formulations for the standard
error calculation
– The randomization or nonfree sampling method
– The normality or free sampling method
The actual formulae for calculation are in Lee and Wong p. 81 and p. 162
• Consequently, two slightly different values for Z are obtained.
In either case, based on the normal frequency distribution, a
value ‘beyond’ +/- 1.96 indicates a statistically significant
result at the 95% confidence level (p <= 0.05) 59

General G-Statistic
• Moran’s I and Geary’s C will indicate clustering or positive spatial
autocorrelation if high values (e.g. neighborhoods with high crime rates)
cluster together (often called hot spots) and/or if low values cluster together
(cold spots) , but they cannot distinguish between these situations
• The General G statistic distinguishes between hot spots and cold spots. It
identifies spatial concentrations.
– G is relatively large if high values cluster together
– G is relatively low if low values cluster together
• The General G statistic is interpreted relative to its expected value (value for
which there is no spatial association)
– Larger than expected value  potential “hot spot”
– Smaller than expected value  potential “cold spot”
• A Z test statistic is used to test if the difference is sufficient to be statistically
significant
• Calculation of G must begin by identifying a neighborhood distance within
which cluster is expected to occur
• Note: O&U discuss General G on p. 203-204 as a “LISA,” statistic. This is
confusing since there is also a Local-G (see Lee and Wong pp.172-174). The
General G is “on the border” between local and global. See later. 60

Calculating General G
• Actual Value for G is given by: Where:
d is neighborhood distance
Wij weights matrix has only 1 or 0
1 if j is within d distance of i
0 if its beyond that distance
• Expected value (if no concentration) for G is given by:
W
E (G ) = where
n(n - 1)
• For the General G, the terms in the numerator (top) are calculated “within a
distance bound (d),” and are then expressed relative to totals for the entire
region under study.
– As with all of these measures, if adjacent x terms are both large with the
same sign (indicating positive spatial association), the numerator (top) will
be large
– If they are both large with different signs (indicating negative spatial
association), the numerator (top) will again be large, but negative
61

Testing General G
• The test statistic for G is normally distributed and is given by:
G - E (G) W
Z= with E (G ) =
Serror(G ) n(n - 1)
However, the calculation of the
standard error is complex. See Lee and
Wong pp 164-167 for formulae.
• As an example: Lee and Wong find the following values:
G(d) = 0.5557 E(G) = .5238.
Since G(d) is greater than E(G) this indicates potential “hot spots” (clusters of
high values)
However, the test statistic Z= 0.3463
Since this does not lie “beyond +/-1.96, our standard marker for a 0.05 significance
level, we conclude that the difference between G(d) and E(G) could have occurred by
chance.” There is no compelling evidence for a hot spot.
62

Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA)
• All measures discussed so far are global
– they apply to the entire study region.
– However, autocorrelation may exist in some parts of the region but not in
others, or is even positive in some areas and negative in others
• It is possible to calculate a local version of Moran’s I, Geary’s C,
and the General G statistic for each areal unit in the data
– For each polygon, the index is calculated based on neighboring polygons
with which it shares a border
– Since a measure is available for each polygon, these can be mapped to
indicate how spatial autocorrelation varies over the study region
– Since each index has an associated test statistic, we can also map which of
the polygons has a statistically significant relationship with its neighbors
Moran’s I is most commonly used for this purpose, and the localized version
is often referred to as Anselin’s LISA.
LISA is a direct extension of the Moran Scatter plot which is often viewed in
conjunction with LISA maps
• Actually, the idea of Local Indicators of Spatial Association is
essentially the same as calculating “neighborhood filters’ in raster
analysis and digital image processing
Examples of LISA for 7 Ohio counties: median income
Lake Ashtabula
Geauga
Cuyahoga
Trumbull
Summit Portage
Ashtabula has a statistically significant

Negative spatial autocorrelation ‘cos it is
a poor county surrounded by rich ones Source: Lee and Wong
(Geauga and Lake in particular)
Median
Income
(p< 0.10)
(p< 0.05)
64

LISA for Crime in Columbus, OH
High crime LISA map Significance map

clusters
(only significant (only significant
values plotted) values plotted)
For more detail on LISA, see:

Low crime Luc Anselin Local Indicators of Spatial Association-
clusters
LISA Geographical Analysis 27: 93-115 65

Relationships Between Variables
All measures so far have been univariate—
involving one variable only
We may be interested in the association
between two (or more) variables.
66

• Measures the degree of association or strength of the
relationship between two continuous variables
• Varies on a scale from –1 thru 0 to +1
-1 implies perfect negative association
• As values on one variable rise, those on the other fall
(price and quantity purchased)
0 implies no association X
+1 implies perfect positive association

• As values rise on one they also rise on the other (house price and
income of occupants)
Where Sx and Sy are the standard

n
( xi - X )( yi - Y ) deviations of X and Y and X and Y are
r= i =1
(n - 1) SxSy the means.
• Note the similarity of the numerator (top) to the various measures
of spatial association discussed earlier if we view Yi as being the67
Xi for the neighboring polygon
Correlation Coefficient
example using
“calculation formulae”
Scatter Diagram
68
Source: Lee and Wong
Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) Simple Linear Regression
• conceptually different but mathematically similar to correlation
• Concerned with “predicting” one variable (Y - the dependent
variable) from another variable (X - the independent variable)
a is the “intercept term”—the value of Y when X =0
Y = a +bY
b is the regression coefficient or slope of the line—the
change in Y for a unit change in x
• The coefficient of determination (r2) measures the proportion of
the variance in Y which can be predicted (“explained by”) X.
– It equals the correlation coefficient (r) squared.
The regression line
Yi minimizes the sum of the
Y squared deviations
Ŷi between actual Yi and
b predicted Ŷi
1 Min (Yi-Ŷi)2
a 69
0 X X
OLS and Spatial Autocorrelation:
Don’t forget why spatial autocorrelation matters!
• We said earlier:
In ordinary least squares regression (OLS), for example, the correlation
coefficients will be biased and their precision exaggerated
– Bias implies correlation coefficients may be higher than they really are
• They are biased because the areas with higher concentrations of events will have a
greater impact on the model estimate
– Exaggerated precision (lower standard error) implies they are more likely to be
found “statistically significant”
• they will overestimate precision because, since events tend to be concentrated, there
are actually a fewer number of independent observations than is being assumed.
• In other words, ordinary regression and correlation are
potentially deceiving in the presence of spatial autocorrelation
• We need to first adjust the data to remove the effects of spatial
autocorrelation, then run the regressions again
– But that’s for another course!
70

Bivariate LISA and Bivariate Moran Scatter Plots
• LISA and Moran’s I can be viewed as the correlation between a variable and
the same variable’s values in neighboring polygons
• We can extend this to look at the correlation between a variable and another
variable’s values in neighboring polygons
– Can view this as a “local” version of the correlation coefficient
– It shows how the nature & strength of the association between two variables varies
over the study region
– For example, how home values are associated with crime in surrounding areas
Classic Inner City: Gentrification?
Low value/ High value/
High crime High crime
Unique:
Low value/ Classic suburb:
Low crime high value/
low crime 71

Geographically Weighted Regression
• In fact, the idea of calculating Local Indicators can be applied to
any standard statistic (O&U p. 205)
• You simply calculate the statistic for every polygon and its
neighbors, then map the result
• Mathematically, this can be achieved by applying the weights
matrix to the standard formulae for the statistic of interest
• The recent idea of geographically weighted regression, simply
calculates a separate regression for each polygon and its
neighbors, then maps the parameters from the model, such as the
regression coefficient (b) or its significance value
• Again, that’s a topic for another course
• See Fotheringham, Brunsdon and Charlton Geographically
Weighted Regression Wiley, 2002
72

Software Sources for Spatial Statistics
• ArcGIS 9
– Spatial Statistics Tools now available with ArcGIS 9 for point and polygon analysis
– GeoStatistical Analyst Tools provide interpolation for surfaces
• ArcScripts may be written to provide additional capabilities.
– Go to http://support.esri.com and conduct search for existing scripts
• CrimeStat package downloadable from
http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/crimestat.html
– Standalone package, free for government and education use
– Calculates all values (plus many more) but does not provide GIS graphics
– Good free source of documentation/explanation of measures and concepts
• GeoDA, Geographic Data Analysis by Luc Anselin
– Currently (Sp ’05) Beta version (0.9.5i_6) available free (but may not stay free!)
– Has neat graphic capabilities, but you have to learn the user interface since its
standalone, not part of ArcGIS
– Download from: http://www.csiss.org/
• S-Plus statistical package has spatial statistics extension
– www.insightful.com
• R freeware version of S-Plus, commonly used for advanced applications
• Center for Spatially Integrated Social Science (at U of Illinois) acts as
clearinghouse for software of this type. Go to: http://www.csiss.org/
73

Software Availability at UTD
• Spatial Statistics toolset in ArcGIS 9
• The following independent packages are available to run in labs:
– CrimeStat III
– GeoDA
– R
• P:\data\ArcScripts contains:
– ArcScripts for spatial statistics downloaded from ESRI prior to version 9
release (most no longer needed given Spatial Statistics toolset in AG 9)
– CrimeStat II software and documentation
– GeoDA software and documentation
You may copy this software to install elsewhere
• You may be able to access some of the ArcScripts by loading the
custom ArcScripts toolbar
– “permission” problems may be encountered with your lab accounts
– See handout: ex7_custom.doc and/or ex8_spatstat.doc
74

Sources
• O’Sullivan and Unwin Geographic Information Analysis Wiley
2003
• Arthur J. Lembo at http://www.css.cornell.edu/courses/620/css620.html
• Jay Lee and David Wong Statistical Analysis with ArcView GIS
New York: Wiley, 2001 (all page references are to this book)
– The book itself is based on ArcView 3 and Avenue scripts
• Go to www.wiley.com/lee to download Avenue scripts
– A new edition Statistical Analysis of Geographic Information with
ArcView GIS and ArcGIS was published in late 2005 but it is still based
primarily on ArcView 3.X scripts written in Avenue! There is a brief
Appendix which discusses ArcGIS 9 implementations.
• Ned Levine and Associates CrimeStat II Washington: National
Institutes of Justice, 2002
– Available as pdf in p:\data\arcsripts
– or download from http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/NACJD/crimestat.html
75

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Concepts (O&U Ch.

Spatial Autocorrelation (O&U Ch 7 pp. 180-205

Correlation and Regression

We will be looking at both!

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

• Central Tendency: single Formulae for mean

These may be obtained in ArcGIS by:

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

In ArcGIS, you may obtain frequency counts on a categorical variable via:

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

+1 implies perfect positive association

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

This approach is used in Anselin’s GeoDA software

From O’Sullivan and Unwin p.69

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

RANDOM UNIFORM/ CLUSTERED

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Distant points have large effect.

Provides a single point summary measure

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Calculating the weighted mean

1 2 3 3,000 6,000 9,000 n n

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Source: US Statistical Abstract 200319

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Quadrats don’t have to be square 26

• Treat each cell as an observation and count the number of points

Variance 2.222 Variance 0.000 Variance 17.778

• Rather than base conclusion on variance/mean ratio, we can

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

=ColA * ColB=Col B / q !Col E - Col G

Number of Observed Cumulative Cumulative Absolute

The Kolmogorov-Smirnov D test statistic is the largest Absolute Difference

number of quadrats Q 10 (sum of column B)

poisson probability p(x) = p(x-1)*(P/Q)/x (Col E, Row 11 onwards)

Euler's constant 2.7183

• Results in a single measure for the entire distribution, so

For example, overall pattern here is dispersed, but

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Nearest Nearest Nearest

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Source: Dr Dan Griffith, with

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

For Irregular polygons

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007

Where: k is the total number of joins (neighbors)

Briggs UT-Dallas GISC 6382 Spring 2007