High Voltage Engineering
High Voltage Engineering
High Voltage Engineering
Unit III: Lightning and Switching Over Voltage and Protection Lightning
strokes to lines and towers; Mechanism, Characteristics and protection of
transmission lines from lightning; Lightning arrestors, Insulation co-ordination
of HV and EHV power system and substation.
Unit IV: High Voltage and Current Generation, Generation of high D.C, A.C
and impulse voltages, Standard impulse wave shapes, Switching surges,
and High impulse generator.
Unit VI: High Voltage Testing and E.H.V.Lines Design. Basic terminology,
Testing – Insulators, Bushings, Cables, Transformers, Surge diverters and
Isolators; Electric shock and threshold current, Capacitance of long objects,
Electromagnetic interference, E.H.V. line insulation design based upon
transient over voltage.
Objectives:
If the current in the normal glow is increased such that the discharge covers
the entire cathode surface, then it becomes abnormal glow.
Ionization Process
The additional electrons, then, themselves make 'ionizing collisions' and thus
the process repeats itself. This represents an increase in the electron current,
since the number of electrons reaching the anode per unit time is greater than
those liberated at the cathode. In addition, the positive ions also reach the
cathode and on bombardment on the cathode give rise to secondary electrons.
2. Photo-ionization
On the other hand, observations when the point is positive in air
showed that the corona current increases steadily with voltage. At
sufficiently high voltage, current amplification increases rapidly
with voltage, up to a current of about 10A, after which the current
becomes pulsed with repetition frequency of about 1 kHz
composed of small bursts. This form of corona is called burst
corona.
Electron Attachment Process
The types of collisions in which electrons may become attached to atoms or molecules
to form negative ions are called attachment collisions. Electron attachment process
depends on the energy of the electron and the nature of the gas and is a very important
process from the engineering point of view. All electrically insulating gases, such as
O2, CO2, Cl2, F2, C2 F6, C3 F8,C4 F10, CCl2 F2, and SF6 exhibit this property.
The energy liberated as a result of this process is the kinetic energy K plus the electron
affinity Ea. In the attaching or insulating gases, the atoms or molecules have vacancies
in their outermost shells and, therefore, have an affinity for electrons. The attachment
process plays a very important role in the removal of free electrons from an ionized
gas when arc interruption occurs in gas-insulated switchgear.
GASES AS INSULATING MEDIA
The simplest and the most commonly found dielectrics are gases. Most of the
electrical apparatus use air as the insulating medium, and in a few cases other
gases such as nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), freon (CC12F2) and sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) are also used.
A simple gas of this type is oxygen. Other gases are sulphur hexafluoride, Freon,
carbon dioxide, and fluorocarbons. In these gases, 'A’ is usually sulphur or carbon
atom, and 'B’ is oxygen atom or one of the halogen atoms or molecules.
let us assume that nₒ electrons are emitted from the cathode. When one electron
collides with a neutral particle, a positive ion and an electron are formed. This is
called an ionizing collision.
Let α be the average number of ionizing collisions made by an electron per
centimetre travel in the direction of the field (a depends on gas pressure p and E/p,
and is called the Town send's first ionization coefficient). At any distance x from
the cathode, let the number of electrons be nx. When these nx electrons travel a
further distance of dx they give rise to electrons.
.
Therefore, the average current in the gap, which is equal to the
number of electrons travelling per second will be
Secondly, the mechanism predicts time lags of the order of , while in actual
practice breakdown was observed to occur at very short times of the order of
.
The theories predict the development of a spark discharge directly from a single
avalanche in which the space charge developed by the avalanche itself is said to
transform the avalanche into a plasma streamer.
• A single electron starting at the cathode by ionization builds up an
avalanche that crosses the gap. The electrons in the avalanche move
very fast compared with the positive ions.
• By the time the electrons reach the anode the positive ions are virtually
in their original positions and form a positive space charge at the anode.
• This enhances the field, and the secondary avalanches are formed from
the few electrons produced due to photo-ionization in the space charge
region.
• This occurs first near the anode where the space charge is maximum.
This results in a further increase in the space charge. This process is very
fast and the positive space charge extends to the cathode very rapidly
resulting in the formation of a streamer. Comparatively narrow luminous
tracks occurring at breakdown at high pressures are called streamers.
• As soon as the streamer tip approaches the cathode, a cathode spot is
formed and a stream of electrons rush from the cathode to neutralize the
positive space charge in the streamer; the result is a spark, and the spark
breakdown has occurred.
• The three successive stages in the development of the streamer are
shown diagrammatically in Fig.
(a) shows the stage when avalanche has crossed the gap,
(b) shows that the streamer has crossed half the gap length, and
(c) shows that the gap has been bridged by a conducting channel.
PASCHEN'S LAW:
• This equation shows a relationship between V and pd, and implies that
the breakdown voltage varies as the product pd varies. Knowing the
nature of functions f1 and f2 we can rewrite Eq.
This equation is known as Paschen's law and has been experimentally
established for many gases, and it is a very important law in high
voltage engineering. The relationship between v & pd as shown in fig.
It shows is not linear.
However, in some gases Paschen's law is not strictly obeyed, and sparking
potentials at larger spacing for a given value of pd are higher than at lower
spacing for the same pd value. This is attributed to the loss of electrons
from the gap due to diffusion.