Lecture 6

Cooling Load Estimation

A/C Lecture 6
Objectives
The objective of this lecture is:
• To determine the different components of a cooling
load.
• To determine the cooling load for a single space in
single story building

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What is a space cooling load ?
• Space cooling load is the rate at which heat is
removed from the conditioned space to maintain a
constant space air temperature.
• Space heat gain is the rate at which heat enters a
space, or heat generated within a space during a
time interval.

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What are the different components
of a space cooling load ?

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What are the different components
of a space cooling load ?
• Conduction through roof, walls, windows and
skylights.
• Solar radiation through windows and skylights.
• Conduction through adjoining spaces, i.e. ceilling,
interior, partition walls, and floor.
• Internal heat gains due to people, lights,
appliances, and equipment in the space.
• Heat gain due to hot, humid air infiltrating into the
space from outdoors, through doors, windows, and
small cracks in the building envelope.

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What are the different components
of a cooling load ?
1- Internal cooling loads:
A- People
B- Electric Lighting
C- Power Equipment and Appliances

2- External Cooling Loads

A- Solar Heat Gain through Fenestration Areas.
B- Conduction Heat Gain through Fenestration Areas.
C- Conduction Heat Gain through Roofs and External
Walls.
D- Conduction Heat Gain through Interior Partitions,
Ceilings and Floors.

6 3- Loads from Infiltration

26/4/2010 and VentilationA/C Lecture 7
Why it is necessary to orderly, detailed
and well-documented load calculation?
• Because these form the basis for:
1- psychrometric analysis.
2- equipment selection,
3- duct and piping design and

A/C Lecture 6
The following data is available for designing an air-conditioning
system for a restaurant of 50 clients:

Inside design conditions 27oC DBT and 55%

RH
Out door condtions 35oC DBT and 26oC WBT
Total heat flow through the walls 6.2 kW
Solar heat gain through glass 2 kW
Equipment Sensible heat gain 2.9 kW
Equipment latent heat gain 3 kW
Sensible heat per person 0.15 kW
Latent heat per person 0.15 kW

determine:
Room load.
Amount of air delivered to the room in m3/h.
A/C Lecture 6
Room Load
Qs,r = 6.2 kW + 2 kW + 2.9 kW + 50 p x 0.15 kW/p= 18.6 kW
QL,r = 3 kW + 50 p x 0.15 kW/p= 10.5 kW
Qr=Qs,r+QL,r=18.6+10.5=29.1 kW

Amount of air delivered

S.H.F. = Qs,r/(Qr)=Qs,r/(Qs,r+QL,r)=18.6/(18.6+10.5) = 0.64

 m
Q   (h i  h s )
r
kJ
29.1
29.1kW s kg
29.1  m
  (59  34)  m
    1.164
kJ kJ s
(59  34) 25
kg kg

A/C Lecture 6
From the indoor conditions, i.e. 27oC DBT and 55% RH, hi=59 kJ/kg
From the indoor conditions and S.H.F.  hs=34 kJ/kg, vs=0.82
m3/kg

i
s

A/C Lecture 6
Rule-of-Thumb Calculations
• Every HVAC designer needs some handy empirical data
for use in approximating loads and equipment sizes during
the early conceptual stages of the design process.

• The values presented in the shown table will vary

with climate and application and are always tempered by
experience.

• These numbers can also be used as ‘‘check figures’’

during the detailed calculation procedure to alert the
designer to unusual conditions or computational errors.

A/C Lecture 6
 Rough-Estimate Values for
Cooling Loads
Building type Q” [m2/ton*] (3.5168 kW)

Residence 55-65
Class room 15-25
General office 30-35
Conference room 10-20
Hospital patient room 30-35

*One tons of refrigeration (T.R.) capacity can freeze one ton

A/C Lecture 6
of water at 0oC in 24 hours = 3.516 kW
Example 1:
Calculate the HP required to cool an office area of 6 m × 5 m if the COP of
the A/C is 3.

Solution:
A rough estimate of the cooling load of an average office is:
Q=Area / Q”
=6 m × 5 m / 30 (m2/T.R.) = 30 / 30 = 1 T.R. = 3.52 kW

Prequired = Q/C.O.P = 3.52 / 3 = 1.17 kW

HPrequired = 1.17 kW / 0.75 = 1.56 HP

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 Modes of heat transfer
Conduction, Convection & Thermal Radiation
 Conduction refers to the transport of energy in a medium due to
a temperature gradient.
 In contrast, the convection refers to heat transfer that occurs
between a surface and a fluid (at rest or in motion) when they
are at different temperatures.

 Thermal radiation refers

to the heat transfer that
occurs between two
surfaces at different
temperatures. It results
from the energy emitted
by any surface in the form
of electromagnetic waves.

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Conduction
 Conduction
 is the transfer of energy from the
more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of
interactions between the particles.
 Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases.
 In gases and liquids, conduction is
due to the collisions of the molecules
during their random motion.
 In solids, it is due to the combination
of vibrations of molecules in a lattice
and the energy transport by free
electrons.
 A cold canned drink in a warm room
eventually warms up to the room
temperature as a result of heat
transfer from the room to the drink
through the aluminum can by
conduction
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 Physical Mechanism of Conduction
 Temperature is a measure of the kinetic energies of the molecules.
 In a liquid or gas, the kinetic energy of the molecules is due to the
random motion of the molecules as well as the vibrational and
rotational motions.
 When two molecules possessing different kinetic energies collide,
part of the kinetic energy of the more energetic (higher
temperature) molecule is transferred to the less energetic (lower
temperature) particle,
 In solids, heat conduction is due to two effects: the lattice
vibrational waves induced by the vibrational motions of the
molecules positioned at relatively fixed position in a periodic manner
called a lattice, and the energy transported via the free flow of
electrons in the solid.
 The thermal conductivity of a solid is obtained by adding the lattice
and the electronic components.
 The thermal conductivity of pure metals is primarily due to the
electronic component, whereas the thermal conductivity of
nonmetals is primarily due to the lattice component.
 The lattice component of thermal conductivity strongly depends
on the way the molecules are arranged.
 For example, the thermal conductivity of diamond, which is a
highly ordered crystalline solid, is much higher than the thermal
conductivities of pure metals, as can be seen from Table 1-1.

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 Conduction
 It is observed that the rate of heat conduction
through a layer of constant thickness Δx is
proportional to the temperature difference ΔT
across the layer and the area A normal to the
direction of heat transfer, and is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the layer, Δx .

 where the constant of proportionality kt is the thermal conductivity

of the material, which is a measure of the ability of a material to
conduct heat (Table 1-1).
 Materials such as copper and silver, which are good electric
conductors, are also good heat conductors, and therefore have high
kt values.
 Materials such as rubber, wood, and styrofoam are poor conductors
of heat, and therefore have low kt values.
Heat Transfer depends on the
thermal conductivity of the material
 temperature
 In the limiting case of  x → 0, profile
the equation above reduces to dT
the differential form
dx
hot wall cold wall

 which is known as Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

 It indicates that the rate of heat conduction in a direction is
proportional to the temperature gradient in that direction.
 Heat is conducted in the direction of decreasing temperature,
and the temperature gradient becomes negative when
temperature decreases with increasing x. Therefore, a
negative sign is added in the Eq. to make heat transfer in the
positive x direction a positive quantity.

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Example:
 The Cost of Heat Loss through a Roof
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and
0.25 m thick, and is made of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal
conductivity is k 0.8 W/m · °C . The temperatures of the inner and
the outer surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be 25°C
and 0°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours.
Determine:
(a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and
(b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner per month if the
cost of electricity is $0.2/kWh.

0 oC

25 oC
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Solution:
(a) Noting that heat transfer through the roof is by conduction and
the area of the roof is:
A= 6 m×8 m=48 m2.
The steady rate of heat transfer through the roof is determined
to be
Q·=kA(T1-T2)/L= (0.8)(48 )(25-0)/0.25= 3840 W= 3.84 kW

(b) The amount of heat lost through the roof during a 10-hour
period and its cost are determined from
Q = Q·t =(3.84 kW)(10 h) = 38.4 kWh Why is the
Cost/day = (Amount of energy)(Unit cost of energy) bill so high?
= (38.4 kWh)($0.2/kWh) =$7.68
Cost/month = (cost/day)×(30day/month)= $7.68×30=$230.4
Convection

24
 Convection
 Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface
and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion, and it involves the
combined effects of conduction and fluid motion.
 The faster the fluid motion, the greater the convection heat
transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer
between a solid surface and the adjacent fluid is by pure
conduction.
 The presence of bulk motion of the fluid enhances the heat
transfer between the solid surface and the fluid, but it also
complicates the determination of heat transfer rates.
 Consider the cooling of a hot block by blowing of cool air over its
top surface. Energy is first transferred to the air layer adjacent
to the surface of the block by conduction. This energy is then
carried away from the surface by convection; that is, by the
combined effects of conduction within the air and the motion of
the air, which removes the heated air near the surface and
replaces it by the cooler air.

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Forced and Free Convection
 Convection is called forced convection if the
fluid is forced to flow in a tube or over a
surface by external means such as a fan,
pump, or the wind.
 In contrast, convection is called free (or
natural) convection if the fluid motion is
caused by buoyancy forces induced by density
differences due to the variation of
temperature in the fluid.
 For example, in the absence of a fan, heat
transfer from the surface of the hot egg will
be by natural convection since any motion in
the air in this case will be due to the rise of
the warmer (and thus lighter) air near the
surface and the fall of the cooler (and thus
heavier) air to fill its place.
26
Forced and Free Convection

The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection.

27
 Newton’s law of cooling
 The rate of heat transfer by convection is determined from
Newton’s law of cooling, expressed as

where h is the convection heat transfer coefficient,

A is the surface area through which heat transfer takes place,
Ts is the surface temperature, and
Tf is bulk fluid temperature away from the surface.
The convection heat transfer coefficient h is not a property of the
fluid.
It is an experimentally determined parameter whose value depends on
all the variables that influence convection such as the surface
geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and
the bulk fluid velocity.
A/C Lecture 6 28
Convection
 Typical values of h, in
W/m2·K, are in the range
of 2–25 W/m2·K for the
free convection of gases,
50–1000 W/m2·K for the
free convection of
liquids,
 25–250 W/m2·K for the
forced convection of
gases, 50–20,000
W/m2·K for the forced
convection of liquids,
 and 2500–100,000
W/m2·K for convection
in boiling and
condensation processes.

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 Radiation

Unlike conduction and convection, heat transfer by radiation can occur

between two bodies, even when they are separated by a medium colder
than both of them. 30
Radiation
 Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of
electromagnetic waves as a result of the changes in the
electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
 Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer of energy by
radiation does not require the presence of an intervening
medium. In fact, energy transfer by radiation is fastest (at the
speed of light) in a vacuum. This is exactly how the energy of
the sun reaches the earth.
 In heat transfer studies, we are interested in thermal radiation,
which is the form of radiation emitted by bodies because of
their temperature. It differs from other forms of
electromagnetic radiation such as X-rays, gamma rays,
microwaves, radio waves, and television waves that are not
related to temperature.
 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal
radiation.
31
 Radiation is a volumetric phenomenon, and all solids, liquids, and
gases emit, absorb, or transmit radiation of varying degrees.
However, radiation is usually considered to be a surface
phenomenon for solids that are opaque to thermal radiation such
as metals, wood, and rocks since the radiation emitted by the
interior regions of such material can never reach the surface,
and the radiation incident on such bodies is usually absorbed
within a few microns from the surface.
 The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a
surface at an absolute temperature Ts is given by the Stefan–
Boltzmann law as

 where A is the surface area and  = 5.67 * 10-8 W/m2 · K4 is the

Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
 The idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate
is called a blackbody, and the radiation emitted by a blackbody
is called blackbody radiation. 32
 Emissivity, 
 The radiation emitted by all real surfaces is less than the
radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperatures and
is expressed as

where  is the emissivity of the surface.

 The property emissivity, whose value is in the range 0    1, is
a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody
for which  = 1.

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Emissivity, 

34
 The difference between the rates of radiation emitted by the
surface and the radiation absorbed is the net radiation heat
transfer.
 If the rate of radiation absorption is greater than the rate of
radiation emission, the surface is said to be gaining energy by
radiation. Otherwise, the surface is said to be losing energy by
radiation.
 In general, the determination of the net rate of heat transfer
by radiation between two surfaces is a complicated matter since
it depends on the properties of the surfaces, their orientation
relative to each other, and the interaction of the medium
between the surfaces with radiation.

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 However, in the special case of a relatively small surface of
emissivity  and surface area A at absolute temperature Ts that
is completely enclosed by a much larger surface at absolute
temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does not
intervene with radiation (i.e., the amount of radiation emitted,
absorbed, or scattered by the medium is negligible), the net
rate of radiation heat transfer between these two surfaces is
determined from

 In this special case, the

emissivity and the surface
area of the surrounding
surface do not have any
effect on the net radiation
heat transfer.
36
 Example :
Consider a person standing in a breezy
room at 20°C. Determine the total rate of
heat transfer from this person if the
exposed surface area and the average
outer surface temperature of the person
are 1.6 m2 and 29°C, respectively, and the
convection heat transfer coefficient is 6
W/m2 · °C . Convection can be viewed as
combined conduction and fluid motion.

 Solution :
Heat is transfered from the person by convection and radiation. From
the above table the emissivity of human skin is 0.95,
· W
Q conv=hAs(Ts -T)= 6  1.6m2  (29  20 ) C  86.4W
m2  C
·
Q rad  εσA s (Ts4  Tsurr
4
)
8 W
 0.95  5.67  10  1.6m2  (302 4  393 4 )K 4  81 .7W
m2  K 4
 Thermal Resistance
Concept
 Heat conduction through a plane wall can
be rearranged as :

 T1  T2
Qcond , wall  kA (W )
L
Q cond 
1
T1  T2 ; Rcond 
L
Rcond kA
 From Newton’s law of cooling that
governs the heat convection:
Q°conv = hA (Ts-T∞),

 it is easy to show that:


Qconv 
1
Ts  T ; Rconv  1
Rconv hA
Thermal Resistance Network
 Now consider steady one-dimensional heat flow through a plane
wall of thickness L and thermal conductivity k that is exposed to
convection on both sides to fluids at temperatures T1 and T2
with heat transfer coefficients h1 and h2, respectively

Q

Conv.
Cond
Conv
 Thermal Resistance Network

Which is rearranged as:

Adding the numerators

and denominators yields
Example 1:
Heat Loss through a Single-Pane Window
 Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide
glass window with a thickness of 8 mm and
a thermal conductivity of k=0.78 W/m · °C.
Determine the steady rate of heat
transfer through this glass window and the
temperature of its inner surface for a day
during which the room is maintained at
20°C while the temperature of the
outdoors is -10°C. Take the heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer
surfaces of the window to be h1 =10 W/m2 ·
°C and h2 =40 W/m2 · °C, which includes the
effects of radiation.
Noting that all three resistances are in series, the total resistance:
Rtotal =Rconv,1+Rglass +Rconv,2=0.08333+0.00855+0.02083=0.1127°C/W
How much is the
inner surface
Then the steady rate of heat transfer through the window becomes
temperature
 Multilayer
Plane Wall
Q• Convection

Q• total
Steady Heat transfer Rate through
Composite Wall
 The total heat
transfer is such as:


Qtot 
1
T,1  T,4 
Req
where

Req   Ri
 Rconv, 1  RA  RB
 R C  Rconv, 2
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
 It is sometimes convenient to express heat transfer through a
medium in an analogous manner to Newton's law of cooling as
Q = UA T (W)
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient.
UA =1/Rtotal
 Therefore, for a unit area, the overall heat transfer coefficient
is equal to the inverse of the total thermal resistance.
 Note that we do not need to know the surface temperatures of
the wall in order to evaluate the rate of steady heat transfer
through it. All we need to know is the overal heat transfer
coefficients and the fluid temperatures on both sides of the wall.
 The surface temperature of the wall can be determined as
described above using the thermal resistance concept, but by
taking the surface at which the temperature is to be determined
as one of the terminal surfaces.
Example 2: Heat Loss through
Double-Pane Windows.
Consider a 0.8-m-high and 1.5-m-wide
double-pane window consisting of two 4-
mm-thick layers of glass (k=0.78
W/m·°C) separated by a 10-mm-wide
stagnant air space (k=0.026 W/m·°C).
Determine:
A- the steady rate of heat transfer
through this double-pane window and
B- the temperature of its inner surface
for a day during which the room is
maintained at 20°C while the
temperature of the outdoors is -10°C.
Take the convection heat transfer
coefficients on the inner and outer
surfaces of the window to be h1 =10
W/m2 · °C and h2= 40 W/m2 · °C, which
includes the effects of radiation.
Rtotal =Rconv,1 +Rglass,1 +Rair +Rglass,2 +Rconv, 2 = 0.4332°C/W
Then the steady rate of heat transfer through the window What do
becomes you think?

The inner surface

. temperature of the window in this case will be
T1 =T1 - Q Rconv,1 =20°C - (69.2 W)(0.08333°C/ W)=14.2°C
Thanks for your attention

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