Example 1

The Cost of Heat Loss through a Roof

The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m

wide, and 0.25 m thick, and is made of a flat layer of
concrete whose thermal conductivity is k=0.8 W/m · °C.
The temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of
the roof one night are measured to be 15°C and 4°C,
respectively, for a period of 10 hours. Determine;
a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night
b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if the
cost of electricity is $0.08/kWh.

  - kA dT (Fourier' s law of heat conduction)

Q
dx
15C - 4C 
 (0.8 W/m · C)6m  8m     1690 W  1.69 kW
 0. 25 m 
QQ  t  (1.69 kW)(10 h)  16.9 kWh
Cost  (Amount of energy)(Unit cost of energy)
 (16.9 kWh)($0.08/kWh)  $1.35
 Example 2
Measuring the Thermal Conductivity of a Material

A common way of measuring the thermal conductivity of

a material is to sandwich an electric thermofoil heater
between two identical samples of the material. The
thickness of the resistance heater, including its cover,
which is made of thin silicon rubber, is usually less than
0.5 mm. A circulating fluid such as tap water keeps the
exposed ends of the samples at constant temperature. The
lateral surfaces of the samples are well insulated to ensure
that heat transfer through the samples is one-dimensional.
Two thermocouples are embedded into each sample some
distance L apart, and a differential thermometer reads the
temperature drop T across this distance along each
sample. When steady operating conditions are reached,
the total rate of heat transfer through both samples
becomes equal to the electric power drawn by the heater,
which is determined by multiplying the electric current by
the voltage.
 Example 2 (cont.)
Measuring the Thermal Conductivity of a Material

In a certain experiment, cylindrical samples of diameter 5

cm and length 10 cm are used. The two thermocouples in
each sample are placed 3 cm apart. After initial transients,
the electric heater is observed to draw 0.4 A at 110 V, and
both differential thermometers read a temperature
difference of 15°C. Determine the thermal conductivity of
the sample.
Power  W   VI  (110 V)(0.4 A)  44 W
e

The rate of heat flow through each sample is

 1W
Q   1 (44 W)  22 W
e
2 2
D2 (0.05 m) 2
A    0.00196 m 2
4 4
T  x
Q (22 W)(0.03 m)

Q  kA k   22.4 W/m · C
x AT (0.00196 m 2 )(15C)
 Example 3
Measuring Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient

A 2-m-long, 0.3 cm diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15°C.

Heat is generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface
temperature of the wire is measured to be 152°C in steady operation. Also,
the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are measured to be 60V
and 1.5A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine
the convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer
surface of the wire and the air in the room.
  VI  (60 V)(1.5 A)  90 W
Q
A s  DL   (0.003 m)(2 m)  0.01885 m 2

Newton’ s law of cooling for convection heat transfer is expressed as


Q  hA (T - T )
conv s s 

Q 90 W
h conv
  34.9 W/m 2 · C
A s (Ts - T ) (0.01885 m )(152 - 15)C
2
 Example 4
Radiation Effect on Thermal Comfort

It is a common experience to feel “chilly” in winter and “warm”

in summer in our homes even when the thermostat setting is
kept the same. This is due to the so called “radiation effect”
resulting from radiation heat exchange between our bodies and
the surrounding surfaces of the walls and the ceiling.

Consider a person standing in a room maintained at 22°C at all

times. The inner surfaces of the walls, floors, and the ceiling of
the house are observed to be at an average temperature of 10°C
in winter and 25°C in summer. Determine the rate of radiation
heat transfer between this person and the surrounding surfaces
if the exposed surface area and the average outer surface
temperature of the person are 1.4 m2 and 30°C, respectively. The
emissivity of a person is 0.95.

rad, winter  A s (Ts - Tsurr, winter )
4 4
Q
 (0.95)(5.67  10 -8 W/m 2 · K 4 )(1.4 m 2 )  [(30  273) 4 - (10  273) 4 ] K 4  152W

Q  A (T 4 - T 4 )
rad, summer s s surr, summer

 (0.95)(5.67  10 -8 W/m 2 · K 4 )(1.4 m 2 )  [(30  273) 4 - (25  273) 4 ] K 4  40.9W

 Example 5
Heat Loss from a Person

Consider a person standing in a breezy room at 20°C.

Determine the total rate of heat transfer from this person if the
exposed surface area and the average outer surface
temperature of the person are 1.6 m2 and 29°C, respectively,
and the convection heat transfer coefficient is 6 W/m2·°C. The
emissivity of a person is 0.95

1. The person is completely surrounded by the interior

surfaces of the room.
2. The surrounding surfaces are at the same temperature as
the air in the room.
3. Heat conduction to the floor through the feet is negligible

The heat transfer between the person and the air in the room will be by convection (instead
of conduction) since it is conceivable that the air in the vicinity of the skin or clothing will
warm up and rise as a result of heat transfer from the body, initiating natural convection
currents. It appears that the experimentally determined value for the rate of convection heat
transfer in this case is 6 W per unit surface area (m2) per unit temperature difference (K or
°C) between the person and air away from the person. Thus, the rate of convection heat
transfer from the person to the air in the room is;
 Example 5
rad  A s T s - Tsurr 

Q 4 4

Q  hA (T - T )
conv s s 
 (0.95)(5.67  10 -8 W/m 2 · K 4 )(1.6 m 2 )
 (6 W/m · C)(1.6 m )(29 - 20)C
2 2

 [(29  273) 4 - (20  273) 4 ] K 4

 86.4 W
 81.7W
  
The person will also lose heat by radiation to the Q total  Q conv  Q rad  (86.4  81.7) W  168.1W
surrounding wall surfaces. We take the
temperature of the surfaces of the walls, ceiling,
Discussion
and floor to be equal to the air temperature in
this case for simplicity, but we recognize that
The heat transfer would be much higher if
this does not need to be the case. These surfaces
the person were undressed since the
may be at a higher or lower temperature than
exposed surface temperature would be
the average temperature of the room air,
higher. Thus, an important function of the
depending on the outdoor conditions and the
clothes is to serve as a barrier against heat
structure of the walls. Considering that air does
transfer.
not intervene with radiation and the person is
In these calculations, heat transfer through
completely enclosed by the surrounding
the feet to the floor by conduction, which is
surfaces, the net rate of radiation heat transfer
usually very small, is neglected. Heat
from the person to the surrounding walls,
transfer from the skin by perspiration,
ceiling, and floor is
which is the dominant mode of heat transfer
in hot environments, is not considered here.
 Example 6
Heat Transfer between Two Isothermal Plates

Consider steady heat transfer between two large

parallel plates at constant temperatures of T1=300K
and T2=200K that are L =1cm apart. Assuming the
surfaces to be black (emissivity, ε=1), determine the
rate of heat transfer between the plates per unit
surface area assuming the gap between the plates is
filled with atmospheric air
a) evacuated
b) filled with urethane insulation,
c) filled with superinsulation that has an apparent
thermal conductivity of 0.00002 W/m. °C.
Assumptions There are no natural convection currents in the air between the
plates. The surfaces are black and thus ε=1.
Properties The thermal conductivity at the average temperature of 250K is
k=0.0219 W/m · °C for air, 0.026 W/m · °C for urethane insulation, and 0.00002
W/m · °C for the superinsulation.
 Example 6
 T (300 - 200)C
Q cond  kA  (0.0219 W/m · C)(1 m 2 )  219 W
x 0.01 m


rad  A(T1 - T2 )  (1)(5.67 108 W/m ·K4)(1 m )[(300 K) - (200 K) ]  368 W
4 4 2 2 4 4
Q

Therefore,
 Q 
Q
Q total cond rad  219  368  587 W

The heat transfer rate in reality will be higher because of the natural
convection currents that are likely to occur in the air space between the
plates.

(b) When the air space between the plates is evacuated, there will be no
conduction or convection, and the only heat transfer between the plates will
be by radiation. Therefore,

 
Q total  0  Q rad  0  368  368 W
 Example 6
(c) An opaque solid material placed between two plates blocks direct radiation
heat transfer between the plates. Also, the thermal conductivity of an
insulating material accounts for the radiation heat transfer that may be
occurring through the voids in the insulating material. The rate of heat transfer
through the urethane insulation is the voids in the insulating material. The rate
of heat transfer through the urethane insulation is

  T 2 300 - 200 C

Q  Q  kA  (0.026 W/m · C)(1 m )  260 W
x
total cond
0.01m

Note that heat transfer through the urethane material is less than the heat
transfer through the air determined in (a), although the thermal conductivity
of the insulation is higher than that of air. This is because the insulation blocks
the radiation whereas air transmits it.

(d ) The layers of the superinsulation prevent any direct radiation heat transfer
between the plates. However, radiation heat transfer between the sheets of
superinsulation does occur, and the apparent thermal conductivity of the
superinsulation accounts for this effect. Therefore,
 Example 6
 T 2 300 - 200 C
Q  kA  (0.00002 W/m · C)(1 m )  0.2 W
x
total
0.01m

which is 1/1840 of the heat transfer through the vacuum.

Conduction, Radiation Conduction Conduction

Radiation