Thursday, October 13

• Read the article Beautiful Brains

▫ Outline the article as you read
• Write a summary of the article-1 page
• Answer the following questions about the article
Sensation and Perception
Chapter 4

AP Psychology
Forest Grove High School
Mr. Tusow
The Basics
• We do not actually experience the world directly, but
instead we experience it through a series of “filters” we
call senses.

• The study of these sense and their effect on our behavior

is called sensory psychology.
Sensation
• Sensation: The process by which a stimulated receptor
(eyes, ears…) creates a pattern of neural messages that
represent the stimulus in the brain, giving rise to our
initial experience of the stimulus.
Our Senses
• You will notice that all of our sense organs are very
much alike.
▫ They all transform physical stimulation (such as light
waves or sound waves) into the neural impulses what
give us sensations (such as light and dark).
Perception
• Perception: A mental process that elaborates
and assigns meaning to the incoming sensory
patterns.
▫ Perception creates an interpretation of sensation.

Do you see faces or vases?

Sensation and Perception
• Perception is essentially an interpretation and
elaboration of sensation. Therefore, sensation refers
to the initial steps in the processing of a stimulus.

These pictures
should look similar
The True Picture
The Famous Mona Lisa…Frown or Smile
The Famous Mona Lisa…Frown or Smile
Big Idea
• Although it seems the brain interacts
directly with the outside world, it does
not.

• The brain senses the world indirectly

because the sense organs convert
stimulation into the language of the
nervous system: neural messages.

▫ In short, the brain never receives

stimulation directly from the outside world.
Transduction: Changing Stimulus to Sensation
• In all the sense organs, it is
the job of sensory receptors
to convert incoming stimuli
information into
electrochemical signals— Transduction
neural activity. with Hearing

• Transduction: The
sensory process that
converts energy, such as
light or sound waves, into
the form of neural messages.
• The neural impulse carries a code of the sensory
event in a form that can be further processed by
the brain.

Light Waves

Neural Signals
The Process of Transduction
• Transduction begins with the detection by a sensory
neuron of a physical stimulus.

• When the appropriate stimulus reaches the sense

organ, it activates specialized neurons called
receptors.

• The receptors respond by converting their excitation

into a nerve signal.

▫ Think of this as the way a bar-code reader converts a

series of lines into an electrical signal that a computer
can match with a price.
A Simple Example
• Close both of your eyes. Press gently in the
corner of one eye. You should “see” a pattern
caused by pressure of your finger, not by light.

• These light sensations are phosphenes, or visual

images caused by fooling your visual system into
thinking it sees light.
Sensory Adaptation
• Sensation is critically influenced by change.
Thus, our sense organs are change detectors.

• Their receptors specialize in gathering

information about new and changing events.
Sensory Adaptation
• Sensory adaptation is the diminishing
responsiveness of our sensory systems to
prolonged stimulation.

• Unless it is quite intense or painful, stimulation

that persists without change in intensity usually
shifts to the background of our awareness.

▫ Until now, many of you are probably unaware that

your sense of touch had adapted to the pressure of
the chair against your legs.
Thresholds
• What is the weakest stimulus that an organ can
detect?

• Absolute threshold: The level of stimulus

necessary for a stimulus to be detected.
▫ Operational definition of absolute threshold: The
presence or absence of a stimulus is detected
correctly half the time over many trials.
• Because there is a fuzzy line between detection and
nondetection, a person’s absolute threshold is not
necessarily absolute.

• It varies continually with our mental alertness and

physical condition

Sense Modality Detection of Threshold

Light A candle flame at 30 miles on a dark, clear night.

Sound The tick of a mechanical watch under quiet conditions at

20 feet.
Taste One teaspoon of sugar in two gallons of water.

Smell One drop of perfume diffused into the entire volume of a

three-bedroom apartment.
Touch The wing of a bee falling on your cheek from a distance
of one centimeter.
Thresholds

• Difference thresholds: The smallest amount

by which a stimulus can be changed and the
difference be detected, half of the time.

• Think about when you are watching TV and a

commercial comes on. Can you tell a difference?
Just Noticeable Difference

• Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The

minimal amount of change in the signal that is
still recognizable.

• Just noticeable difference, JND and difference

threshold are used interchangeably.
Laws of Sensation

• Weber’s Law: to be perceived as different, two stimuli

must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather
than a consistent amount.

• Fechner’s Law: The size of JND is proportional to the

intensity of the stimulus; the JND is large when the
intensity of the stimulus is high.

• Steven’s Power Law: A law of magnitude that is more

accurate than Fechner’s law and covers a wider variety of
stimuli.
Signal Detection Theory

• Signal detection theory says that sensation

depends on the characteristics of the stimulus,
the background stimulation and the detector.

• This theory takes the observer’s characteristics

into account and says that stimulus judgment
often happens outside of consciousness.
Signal Detection Theory
• Signal detection theory recognizes that the
observer, whose physical and mental
characteristics are always in flux, must compare
a sensory experience with ever-changing
expectations and biological conditions.
Subliminal Persuasion
• Advertising executive James Vicary announced that he
had discovered an irresistible sales technique called
“subliminal advertisement.”

• He said he could present images so quickly that the

conscious mind would not perceive them, but the
unconscious mind would, and the images would work on
the viewer’s desires unnoticed.

• As to be expected, the public was outraged, but

fascinated. People began worrying that they were being
manipulated by powerful psychological forces.

▫ Lets try it now!!!!

A_ _OM_BI_E
 Do Subliminal Messages Work?
100 • Based on studies, some
people do respond to
stimuli below the absolute
75
threshold, under some
Percentage
circumstances.
of correct 50 ▫ The problem is people behave
detections different thresholds at
Subliminal different levels, so what could
stimuli be subliminal (or below the
25
threshold) for one person,
may be supraliminal (above
0 the threshold) for another
Low Medium person.
Absolute
threshold
Intensity of stimulus
Simplest Explanation
• The simplest explanation for reports of success with
subliminal persuasion lies in the purchaser's
expectations and in the need to prove they did not
spend their money foolishly.

The same reason we

read horoscopes!
College Students and Therapy Tapes
• Self-esteem and memory tapes were randomly
assigned to university students to listen to daily for 5
weeks.
• On half of the tapes they switched the labels.
▫ Some students thought they were hearing tapes about memory
when they were really hearing self-esteem tapes, others had the
reverse.

▫ Impact? Test showed there was no impact on the students self-

esteem or memory. But, in both cases the students thought they
were getting the benefits promised by the self-help tapes.
 (Greenwald, 1991)
Backmasking- More Subliminal Messaging?
Listing to Songs in Reverse

• There are legend about hidden messages in songs. Led

Zeppelin's Stairway to Heaven was one of the first songs
to have supposed hidden, satanic messages.

▫ http://jeffmilner.com/backmasking.htm

• Why does this seem to work?

How our Senses are Alike
• Vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, pain and
body position are all similar for three reasons.

▫ First, they all transduce stimulus energy into

neural impulses.

▫ Second, they are all more sensitive to change

than to constant stimulation.

▫ Third, they all provide us with information about

the environment we are in.
How Our Senses are Different
• With the exception of pain, all the senses taps a
different form of stimulus, and each sends the
information it gathers to a different part of the
brain.

• The senses all operate in much the same way,

but each extracts different information and
sends it to its own specialized processing region
of the brain.
See a bell or hear a bell?
• Different sensations occur because different areas of the
brain become activated. Whether you hear a bell or see a
bell depends ultimately on which part of the brain
receives stimulation.
Vision
• Vision is the most complex, best developed and most
important sense for humans and other highly mobile
creatures.
▫ Think of the eye as the brain’s camera.

• It gathers light, focuses it, converts it to a neural signal

and sends these signals on for further processing.
How the Eye Works
• The eye transduces the characteristics of light into neural
signals that the brain can process.

• This transduction happens in the retina, the light

sensitive layer of cells at the back of the eye.
How the Eye
Works
Photoreceptors
• Photoreceptors: Light-sensitive cells
(neurons) in the retina that convert light energy
into neural energy.

▫ Rods: Photoreceptors that are especially sensitive to dim

light, but not color. (125 mil/eye)

▫ Cones: Photoreceptors that are especially sensitive to

colors but not dim light. (7 mil/eye)
 Cones are responsible for our ability to “see” colors.
Photoreceptors: Rods, Cones
 The Fovea
• The fovea is the area of
sharpest vision.

• It has the highest

concentration of rods
and cones.
The Optic Nerve and The Blind Spot
• Optic Nerve: The bundle of neurons that carries
the visual information from the retina to the brain.
▫ This is where the stimulus, once changed into a neural
impulse, gets passed onto the brain.

• Blind Spot: The point where the optic nerve exits

the eye and where there are no photoreceptors.
▫ Any stimulus that falls on this area cannot be seen.
Example From the Book
• In your book, turn to page 122. Read the section titled “DO IT
YOURSELF!”

• Try both the demonstrations.

▫ Can you make the $ disappear?
▫ Can you make the line solid?

• This phenomenon is a result of our blind spots.

Vanishing Head Video
The Visual Cortex
• In the visual cortex, the brain begins working by
transforming neural impulses into visual sensations of
color, form, boundary and movement.

• This process is called parallel processing-the

simultaneous processing of several aspects of a problem
After Images
• Stare at the eye of the red parrot while you slowly count to 20, then
immediately look at one spot in the empty birdcage. The faint,
ghostly image of a blue-green bird should appear in the cage.
Explanation of Ghostly After Images
• The ghostly birds are called afterimages.
▫ As you stare at the red bird, light-sensitive cells at the back
of your eyes become less responsive to red light. This is
called the opponent processing theory.

 Opponent Processing Theory: there are some color

combinations that we never see, such as reddish-green or
yellowish-blue.
▫ Color perception is controlled by the activity of two opponent systems; a
blue-yellow mechanism and a red-green mechanism

 When you shift your gaze to the birdcage, your visual system
“subtracts” red light from the white light that’s being reflected
from the white background. White light minus red light is blue-
green light.
A Colorless World
• Despite the way the world appears, color does not
exist outside the brain, because color is a perception
that the brain creates based on the wavelength of
light striking our eyes.

▫ Color is created when the wavelength in a beam of

light is recorded by the photoreceptors in the form of
neural impulses.

▫ It is then sent to specific regions of the brain for

processing.
Color Blindness
• Not everyone sees color in the same way because some
people are born with a color deficiency.
• While some people can see no color at all, and are totally
color blind, it is rare.
▫ More common is color weakness, where people have a hard
time distinguishing between certain colors.
Various Types of
Color Blindness
 The Spectrum of
Electromagnetic
Energy

Humans can detect about

5 million different hues.

Shorter Longer
Wavelengths Wavelengths
Vision- Physical Properties of Waves

Short wavelength=high frequency Great amplitude

(bluish colors, high-pitched sounds) (bright colors, loud sounds)

Long wavelength=low frequency Small amplitude

(reddish colors, low-pitched sounds) (dull colors, soft sounds)
The Visual Pathway
Hearing
• The vibrational energy of vibrating objects, such
as guitar strings, transfer the surrounding
medium-air-as the vibrating objects push the
molecules of the medium back and forth.
▫ In space, there is no air, so the sound wave would have no
medium to push. Any explosion would be eerily without
sound.
Frequency and Amplitude
• There are two physical characteristics of sound:
frequency and amplitude.
▫ Frequency: The number of cycles completed by a wave in
a given amount of time-determines pitch.

▫ Amplitude: The physical strength of a wave-the “volume”

of the sound.
The Process of Hearing
• The middle ear transmits the eardrum’s
vibrations through a “piston” made of 3
small bones (the hammer, anvil and stirrup)
to the cochlea (snail shaped tube).

• The incoming vibrations cause the cochlea’s

membrane (oval window) to vibrate,
moving the fluid that fills the tube. This
motion causes ripples in the basilar
membrane (hair cells).

• The movement of cells triggers impulses in

the adjacent nerve fibers which form the
auditory nerve that connects via the
thalamus to the temporal lobe.
See pages 126-127
Audition
 Place Theory
 The theory that links the pitch we hear with the
place where the cochlea’s membrane is
stimulated.

 Frequency Theory
 The theory that the rate of nerve impulses
traveling up the auditory nerve matches the
frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense
its pitch.
How We Locate Sounds
If a tree falls in the forest…

• The question “If a tree falls in the forest and

there is no one around to hear it, does it still
make a sound?” can now be answered.

• No, it would make no sound.

▫ Sound is a purely psychological sensation that

requires an ear (and the rest of the auditory
system) to produce it.
Deafness
• There are generally two types of deafness.

▫ Conduction deafness is an inability to hear,

resulting from damage to the structures of the middle
or inner ear.

▫ Nerve deafness (Sensorineural Deafness) is an

inability to hear, linked to a deficit in the body’s ability
to transmit impulses from the cochlea to the brain.
Position and Movement
• There are two physical mechanisms that keep track of
body position.

• Vestibular sense: The sense of body orientation with

respect to gravity
▫ The receptors for this information are tiny hairs in the
semicircular canal of the inner ear.

Vestibular System
Position and Movement
• The kinesthetic sense keeps
track of body parts, relative to
each other.
▫ Kinesthesis provides constant
sensory feedback about what
the muscles in your body are
doing.

• Receptors for kinesthesis

reside in joints, muscles and
tendons. These receptors are
usually automatic, unless the
person is learning a new skill.
Smell
• The sense of smell is olfaction.

• Odors first interact with receptor

proteins associated with hairs in the
nose.

• The hairs convey information to the

brains olfactory bulbs, located on
the underside of the brain.

▫ In humans, olfaction has a close

connection with memory.
▫ Certain smells, such as a favorite
perfume, can evoke emotion-
laden memories.
Taste
• The sense of taste is gustation.

• Human taste has four main qualities: sweet,

sour, bitter and salty.

• Specialized nerves carry nothing but the taste

messages to the brain. There taste is realized on
a specialized region of the parietal lobe’s
somatosensory cortex.
Taste
• Taste receptors can be easily
damaged by alcohol, smoke,
acids or hot foods.

• Fortunately, gustatory
receptors are frequently
replaced.
The Skin Senses

• Skin senses are also connected to the somatosensory

cortex.

• The skin’s sensitivity to stimulation varies tremendously

over the body, depending on the number of receptors in
each area.
A Touch Sensation Experiment
• Touch localization demonstration, concentrate on
where the sensations of touch are felt:
• Touch two index fingers together, feel it in both
• Touch finger to bottom lip, light taps, felt mostly in lip
even though both are being stimulated
• Touch ankle, now its felt mostly in finger

• Touch localization depends on the relative lengths of

the pathways from the stimulated parts to the brain
Pain Receptors
• Gate-control theory: An
explanation for pain control
that proposes we have a neural
“gate” that can, under some
circumstances, block incoming
pain.

▫ Pain is sensed by two different

sensory pathways, one moving
very fast, one moving slower.

▫ The level of pain one feels results

from the combination of
information from both pathways.
Gate-Control Theory
• Ultimately, pain signals are routed to the anterior
cingulate cortex located along the fissure separating the
frontal lobes.
▫ Pain medication works by blocking the faster of the two
neural pathways.
Perception
Chapter 4
Perception
• Perception: A mental process that elaborates
and assigns meaning to the incoming sensory
patterns.

▫ Perception brings meaning to sensation. It

produces an interpretation of the world, but it isn’t
a perfect representation.

 We perceive the world not exactly as it is, but as it is

useful for us to perceive it.
Describe This Picture
The Forest Has Eyes by Bev Doolittle

•Bottom-Up: Lines, angles and colors…a guy riding a horse through the forest

•Top-Down: We consider the title and direct our attention to aspects that will give
meaning to it.
Bottom-Up and Top-Down
• Bottom-Up processing: Analysis that emphasizes
the characteristics of the stimuli rather than our
concepts and expectations.

• Top-Down perception: Analysis that emphasizes

the perceiver’s expectations, concept memories and
other cognitive factors, rather than individual
characteristics.
Feature Detectors

• Our brains have specialized cells whose job it is

to identify specific features of a stimuli.

• We do not know how the brain combines these

features to make a single percept. This problem
is known as the binding problem.
Perceptual Consistency
• The ability to recognize the same object as
remaining “constant” under changing conditions
is called perceptual consistency.

▫ There are three examples of perceptual consistency

including size (different distances), color (different lighting)
and shape (different angles).
Types of Blindness
• Inattentional Blindness: Failing to see visible
objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.
▫ Moon-walking Bear

• Change Blindness: Failing to notice change in the

environment around us.
▫ Card Trick

• Choice Blindness: Failing to notice a change in a

previously selected item
▫ Face Test
Illusions
• Sometimes your mind will play a trick on you and
interprets a stimulus incorrectly.

• When your mind interprets an image that is

demonstrably incorrect, it is called an illusion.

 Lets look at an illusion!

The Hermann Grid
• Stare at the center of grid. Note how dark fuzzy spots
appear at the intersections of the white bars.
• Now focus on the intersections, there are no spots.

Why does this

illusion exist?
While most cones have a
direct neural pathway to
the brain, rods do not and
have to share with many
other neurons. Not all can
send their information at
the same time, so we are
left with mini “blind spots.”
How the Illusion Works
• The reason for this illusion lies in the way the
receptor cells in your visual pathway interact
with each other.

• The firing of certain cells that are sensitive to

light-dark boundaries inhibits other cells that
would detect the white lines. This blocking
process makes you sense darker regions.
 Other Illusions at the Perceptual Level
Ebbinghaus Illusion

Poggendorf Illusion

Zollner
Illusion
Muller-Lyer
Illusion
More Illusions at the Perceptual Level
 Muller-Lyer Illusion
• One theory for why this illusion exists is that we
unconsciously interpret the lines as 3D images. We see
the ends as angles that point toward us or away from us.
Therefore, we judge the outside corner to be closer and
shorter.

• But what if you lived in a culture that had no square-

cornered buildings?

Muller-Lyer Illusion
The Zulus
• This questions was addressed in the 1970s when
scientists took this image to South Africa and the
Zulu people who live in a rounded culture.

• Almost exclusively, the Zulu perceived the lines

as being the same size.

▫ What does this lead us to conclude about

perception? (Hint: learned or inherited?)
The Gestalt Theory
• Gestalt Psychologists argue that the brain
forms a perceptual whole that is more than the
mere sum of its sensory parts.
Pre-wired
• Humans see a square as a single figure rather
than four lines.
• Psychologists argue that examples like this show
that humans organize sensory information into
meaningful patters. The most basic of these
patterns are pre-wired into our brains at birth.
Figure and Ground
• Gestalt Psychology divides perceptual
experience into figure and ground.
▫ Figure: The part of a pattern that commands
attention…stands out.
▫ Ground: The part of the pattern that does not command
attention…background.
Closure: Filling in the Blanks

• Our minds do a funny thing, they provide

closure. That is, they make us see incomplete
images as wholes by supplying the missing
segments or filling in gaps.

• Generally, humans have a natural tendency to

perceive stimuli as complete and balanced even
when the pieces are missing.
What shapes do you
see in each image?
Law of Perceptual Grouping

• Law of Similarity: The Gestalt principle that

we tend to group similar objects together in our
perceptions.

Do you see x o x o x
rows or x o x o x
columns? x o x o x
x o x o x
x o x o x
Law of Perceptual Grouping

• Law of Proximity: The Gestalt principle that

we tend to group objects together when they are
near each other.

Do you see 5 Xs and 5 Os, or 5 pairs of Xs and Os?

XO XO XO XO XO
Law of Perceptual Grouping

• Law of Continuity: The Gestalt principle that

we prefer percepts of connected and continuous
figures to disconnected and disjointed ones.
Are these two continuous lines, or do they have breaks?
Law of Perceptual Grouping
• Law of Common Fate: The Gestalt principle
that we tend to group similar objects together
that share a common motion or destination.
▫ Think a school of fish, a flock of seagulls, a murder of crows
Laws of Perceptual Grouping
• Law of Pragnanz: The Gestalt principle which
states that the simplest organization, requiring
the least cognitive effort, will emerge as the
figure.

What is wrong with

this image?
Context and Expectations
• Humans often use context to help interpret out
sensations. Once you identify a context, you
form expectations about what you are likely to
experience.

• Context is an enormously useful cue to identify ambiguous stimuli.

Perceptual Set
• Perceptual set is a readiness to detect a particular
stimulus in a given situation—think of when you
are afraid and staying home alone and you notice
every noise and think it is a threat.

• Here is another example. What is the last word in each line?

FOX; OWL; SNAKE; TURKEY; SWAN; D?CK

BOB; RAY; DAVE; BILL; TOM; D?CK
More Perceptual Sets
Which monster
is bigger?
Cultural Influences on Perception
• Look at the Ponzo Illusions below.
Which Line is longer? Which Elephant is Biggest?
Cultural Influences on Perception
• To most of us, like “A” looks longer. Psychologist says
this may be a result of the culture we have grown up in
which includes structures with long parallel lines that
seem to converge in the distance.

• People who live in cultures without these such lines, like

those in Guam see them as the same length. There are no
long, straight railroad tracks or roads in Guam.
Cultural Influences on Perception
• Research has supported the conclusion that people who
live in cultures without long, parallel figures are less
likely to report the top line being the longer figure.

• These results strongly support the argument that a

person’s experiences affect their perceptions.
A Music Experiment
• Now we will do an experiment based on music
and perception.

• For this experiment, all you have to do is sit back

and enjoy the music.
Good Music-Cultural Context
• Subway Concert

• Concert Show

• A description of the study

A Matter of Perception
• In January of 2007, the Washington Post did a social
experiment about perception. They had Joshua Bell, one of
the world top violinists, play during the morning commute at
a Washington subway station.

• Though over 1,000 people walked by, few stayed to listen. The
week prior Bell filled a concert hall in Boston with tickets
selling for over $100.
The End
• If you assume your senses give you an accurate
and undistorted picture of the world, you are
probably wrong. If you don’t believe me, try this.

• Silently read the backwards statement below.

Flip if over in your mind. What does it say?

.rat eht saw tac ehT

Answer
• How many people saw this:
The cat saw the rat.

• Look at it again:
.rat eht saw tac ehT

• How many people saw this:

The cat was the rat.

• Answer:
The cat was the tar.