CHAPTER FIVE

STREAM FLOW AND

RAINFALL RUNOFF
INTRODUCTION

 Rainfall has an effect on stream flow

and hydraulics tends to measure the
relationship between rainfall and
stream flow.

 The aim of measuring stream flow is

mainly in establishing a stage
discharge relationship.
STAGE-DISCHARGE
RELATIONSHIP

 5.2 STAGE MEASUREMENTS

 Stage measurements are mainly made with
gauges.
 5.2.1 Manual Gauges
 a) Sectioned Staff Gauges: A series of
posts each overlapping.
 The height above a certain datum is
measured.
 The stage is usually related to height above
mean sea level(msl)
Stage Measurements Contd.

 A certain datum level is on the bridge

and a string having a weight electrically
connected is lowered to the water
surface to get the depth of water
surface.
 Stage measurement can be inaccurate
if there is scouring.
 Rules Guiding Location of
Gauges
 a) Gauges should not be located in rivers
with scouring characteristics.
 b) The locations should stir clear of river
bends because the water surface is inclined
and there is turbulence making the stage
measurement inconsistent.
 c) The upstream of a natural control eg. a
rapid should be used, not downstream.
Calm area

Rapid
Rules Guiding Location of
Gauges Contd.

d) A uniform channel helps good stage

measurement. Irregular cross sections
should be avoided.

O.K. Avoid this irregular section

 Recording Gauges

 They have advantages over the manual

ones.
 a) Float Gauge: Float movement
fluctuates with change in stage and this
is recorded by a chart. In hydrologic
measurements, both the big and low
flows are measured within the chart.
 Float Gauge

Chart
Float
b) Digital Recorders
 They have clocks and used when for
example hourly measurements are
desired usually where stages do not
increase and decrease steeply.
 The recorder should be placed at a
height more than the expected peak
stage.
 To know the maximum stage expected,
an ordinary gauge can be used for
some time.
 c) Crest Gauges
 They only measure peak flows.
 It is a cylindrical tube sealed below
with only a few holes to allow the water
to enter the tube.
 A ground cork fixed in the tube floats
up and is held by surface tension when
stage increases.
 It stays at maximum stage until the
reading is taken and let loose.
Crest Gauge
DISCHARGE MEASUREMENTS

Current Meter: It has a propeller

which is rotated when water hits it
and is connected to magnets
which actuates recorders when the
propeller rotates.
The velocity of water increases the
propeller rotation.
Current Meter
Current Meter Contd.

The number of rotations are measured

and correlated to velocity using the
formula:
 V = a + bN where N is the rotation of
the propeller (revs per sec)
 a and b are coefficients determined by
calibration in an experimental flume.
 Current Meter Contd.

Surface Velocity
Velocity

b 0.6 D
1 D
Average Vel
a

Propeller Rotation, N
Current Meter Measurements Contd.

 Considering the velocity profile with depth,

average value of velocity can be obtained at
0.6 of the depth. i.e. V = average velocity
is at about 0.6 D.
 An alternative of using the 0.6 D velocity is to
take 0.2 and 0.8 velocities and obtain the
averages.
 The latter method is more accurate but in a
shallow cross-section, the velocity at 0.2 D
may be difficult to measure so use a single
value at 0.6 D.
Determination of Discharges

V 0.2D
D
V0.8D

Average Discharge = V x area of Segment

Measurement of Discharges Contd.

 First divide the cross-section of the stream

into vertical sections such that no section
carries more than 10 % of the total flow.
 Take soundings to determine various depths.
The sections are of a known width and so
the discharge can be calculated if the
velocities are taken along the 0.2 D and
0.8 D OR 0.6 D alone.
Discharge Measurements Contd.

 Flow in one segment, q = Average

velocity(V) x Area of segment.
 Area of each segment can be
calculated using the trapezoidal
formula.
 Total discharge, Q is equal to:
(average velocity x area of segments)
Discharge Measurements Using Floats

 Any floatable substance eg. a tennis ball is

placed at a point and the time(t) it takes it to
move a known distance is noted.
 d/t gives the average surface velocity of the
water.
 The surface velocity(Vs) is equal to
1.2(average Velocity, V) ie. Vs = 1.2V and V
= 0.8 Vs.
 The cross-sectional area of flow is then
multiplied by the average velocity to get the
flow rate.
STAGE-DISCHARGE RELATIONS

 Simultaneous measurements of stage and

discharge provide a calibration graph known
as stage-discharge relations or rating curve.
 Stage: Height of stream level measured
from an arbitrary datum.
 Depth: Measured from the bottom of the
channel.
 The datum can also be the mean sea level.
A plot of stage Vs discharge is made to
obtain a rating curve.
Rating Curve Contd.

 The essence of the rating curve is that when

the curve is established for a particular
stream, subsequent determinations of
discharges are merely obtained by dipping a
measuring stick to measure the stage.
 Discharge is then read from the rating
curve.
 The rating curve should be checked from
time to time for accurate measurements.
 Rating Curve Concluded

Stage
depth Rating Curve
stage

Datum
Discharge
 RAINFALL RUNOFF

 INTRODUCTION: Runoff results from

rainfall occurrence in a hydrologic
catchment. Rainfall-runoff relations are very
important in hydrology.
 Most work on the prediction of runoff
requires past records.
 The problem is that some streams are not
gauged.
 Also, non-recording gauges only gives the
volume of water and not intensities.
Rainfall Runoff Contd.

 There is the need to get records of stream

flow and recording gauge information to
predict runoff from rainfall.

 Some empirical methods are available for

predicting runoff in a catchment without the
stream flow and recording gauge
information.
 RUNOFF PREDICTION

 Aims
 a) To estimate the peak runoff flows(qp)

 b) To estimate runoff volume.

qp

Volume of runoff

Time
Definition of Time of Concentration

 This is the longest time it takes for a part of

the catchment to contribute water to the
outlet.
 It is the time it takes for all the parts of the
watershed to be contributing water to the
outlet.
 The divide or watershed divides the flow of
water along different slopes.
 All runoffs flow from the whole catchment to
the stream or outlet.
Catchment

The
One Other
Catchment

Catchment Area
Diagram Showing Two Catchments
Time of Concentration Contd.

 After rainfall, the time for water to move from

different areas of the catchment to the outlet
differs according to the different positions of
places.
 Time of concentration (Tc) refers to when all
the catchment areas are contributing runoff
to the outlet.
 It is the time taken for the most remote area
of the catchment to contribute water to the
outlet.
Time of Concentration Contd.

 Another name for Tc is gathering time.

Tc can be related to catchment area,
slope etc. using the Kirpich equation:
 Tc = 0.02 L 0.77 S – 0.385
 Tc is the time of concentration (min);
 L is the maximum length of flow (m);
 S is the watershed gradient (m/m).
 Time of Concentration Contd.

Et

L Eo

S = (Et - Eo)/L where Et is the elevation at top of the

watershed and Eo is the elevation at the outlet. Tc can
also be obtained from Table 3.1 of Hudson's Field
Engineering.
Time of Concentration Contd.

 With Tc obtained for the catchment, decide

on a return period.
 For small conservation works, return period
is assumed as 10 years.
 With the Tc and assumed return period, get
an intensity value from the Intensity-Duration
curve derived for the area described in
Chapter 4 of this course.
Time of Concentration Contd.

 From figure below, the highest runoff of a

catchment is obtained when rainfall duration
is equal to Tc.
 T will give lower intensity of rainfall so lower
runoff while T' will give higher intensity but
not all parts of the watershed are contributing
to runoff since Tc has not been reached.
 The worst case of runoff is then when rainfall
duration (D) is equal to Tc.
 Rainfall Intensity Duration Curve

Rainfall
Intensity

2 5 10 Return periods

T’ Tc T
Rainfall Duration (D)
 Runoff Prediction Methods

 There are different methods for predicting

peak flows of runoff and total volumes of
runoff.
 A. Methods of Estimating of Peak Flows
 Many methods have been developed for
estimating the probable maximum floods to
be expected from small agricultural
catchments. The major ones include:
a) The Rational Formula:

 It states that:
 qp = (CIA)/360
 where qp is the peak flow(m3 /s);
 C is dimensionless runoff coefficient; I is the
intensity of a storm of duration Tc (mm/hr) for
a given return period. This is the worst case
of runoff (see last section).
 A is the area of catchment(ha).
 Using the Rational Method
 i) Obtain area of catchment by surveying or from
maps or aerial photographs.
 ii) Estimate intensity using the curve in Hudson's
Field Engineering, page 42.
 iii) The runoff coefficient C is a measure of the rain
which becomes runoff. On a corrugated iron roof,
almost all the rain would runoff so C = 1, while in a
well drained soil, nine-tenths of the rain may soak in
and so C = 0.10. The table (see handout) from
Hudson's Field Engineering can be used to obtain C
value. Where the catchment has several different
kinds of characteristics, the different values should
be combined in proportion to the area of each.
Runoff Coefficient, C
b) Cook's Method:

 Three factors are considered:

 Vegetation,
 Soil permeability and
 Slope.
 These are the catchment characteristics.
 For each catchment, these are assessed
and compared with Table 3.4 of Hudson's
Field Engineering
Table 3.4: Hudson’s Field Eng’g
(CC)
 Example

 A catchment may be heavy grass (10) on

shallow soils with impeded drainage(30) and
moderate slope(10).
 Catchment characteristics (CC) is then the
sum of the three ie. 50.
 The area of the catchment is then measured,
and using the Area, A and the CC, the
maximum runoff can be read from Table 3.5
(Field Engineering, pp. 45).
Table 3.5: Hudson’s Field Eng’g
(Runoff Values)
 Cook’s Method Contd.

 This gives the runoff for a 10 yr return period. For

other return periods, other than 10 years, the
conversion factor is:
 Return Period (yrs): 2 5 10 25
50
 Conversion factor: 0.90 0.95 1.00 1.25
1.50

 Another factor to be considered is the shape of the
catchment.
 Table 3.5 gives the runoff for a catchment, which is
roughly square or round. For other catchment
shapes, the following conversion factors should be
used:
 ANALYSIS OF RAINFALL
RUNOFF
Components of the Hydrologic Cycle

Rainfall

Overland Flow

Interflow Channel Ppt.

Groundwater
Components of Runoff Contd.

 Hydrographs originate from rainfall. Some

rainfall infiltrate, others run off (overland
flow).
 Some rain fall direct to the channel (channel
precipitation).
 The overland flow varies according to the
roughness of soil and slope.
 There is then a time lag for it to reach the
outlet.
 Water can also move below the soil but re-
surface and join the channel (interflow).
Components of Runoff Contd.

 Some go direct to the groundwater and then

to the channel (outlet). A hydrograph
therefore has 4 components:
 a) Overland flow b) Interflow
 c) groundwater or base flow and
 d) channel precipitation.
 All these different routes contribute to runoff.
The pathway runoffs take influences the shape of
the hydrograph.
Techniques for Separation of
Components of Hydrographs

 There is the need to separate different forms

of flows especially separating base flow from
direct runoff.
 This is because direct runoff results from a
definite rainfall event of known intensity and
can be related to runoff directly.
 Hydrographs consist of direct surface runoff
(overland flow, channel precipitation and
interflow) and base flow (groundwater).
Some techniques exist for separation of the
two components.
Separation of Hydrographs
 UNIT HYDROGRAPH

 A standard hydrograph that relates to

different storms can be produced.
 The basis is a linear system.
 For rainfall of a given duration, t and
intensity, i , a hydrograph (A) can be
obtained.
 The principle of a linear system is that
another rainfall can be added to get a new
hydrograph(C).
 The single hydrograph (C) was obtained by
adding the ordinates of A and B.
Unit Hydrograph Contd.
Construction or Derivation of Unit
Hydrographs

a) Desirable factors for derivation: Uniform

intensity and short duration storms are
needed for the construction.
Ideally, the storms should be of equal
duration.
 b) Specific information for derivation:
 i) Duration of storm
 ii) Total hydrograph
 iii) Drainage area
 iv) Base flow or basis for obtaining it.
 Derivation Steps of Unit
Hydrographs

 i) Tabulate the total hydrograph with time

distribution
 ii) Tabulate the base flow if given or
separate with method of our choice.
 iii) Find the direct runoff hydrograph(DRH) by
subtracting the base flow from the total
hydrograph.
 iv) Find the volume of water under the DRH
Derivation Steps of Unit
Hydrographs Contd.

 v) Divide the volume of water(step iv)

by the drainage area to get effective
rainfall (runoff) per unit area.
 vi) Divide the ordinates of the DRH by
the cm of effective rainfall(step v).
 The result is a unit hydrograph(UHG)
for the duration of storm.
 Plot of the Total Hydrograph

12000

10000
Flow Rate (m 3/s)

8000

6000

4000

2000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time (hrs)
 Solution Contd.
 Total volume of flow = 59850 m3 /s x 2 hrs
= 59850 m3 /s x 2 x 3600 s
= 430.9 x 106 m3
 Area of catchment = 4300 km = 4300 x
100 ha = 4300 x 100 x 100002 m2
 = 4300 x 106 m2
 Effective rainfall per unit area = 0.1 m =10 cm

 To obtain 1 cm i.e. 1 unit hydrograph, divide

DRO column ordinates by 10. If 6 hr DRO
for 30 cm is required, multiply UHG ordinates
by 30
Conversion of Unit Hydrograph from
Shorter to Longer Duration (Multiple
Situation)

 It is possible to convert say a 2 hr. unit

hydrograph to 6 hr unit hydrograph.
 This is by lagging 2hrs, two times,
adding up ordinate values to get 6hr 30
mm hydrograph.
 Divide ordinates by 3 to obtain a 6 hr
unit hydrograph.
Non-Constant Storms