CHAPTER 4:

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
• Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
• Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
• Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?

Chapter 6- 1
 ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial

F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic

Chapter 6- 2
PLASTIC DEFORMATION (METALS)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

plastic
elastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic

plastic
Chapter 6- 3
 ENGINEERING STRESS
• Tensile stress, : • Shear stress, :
Ft Ft F

Area, A Area, A Fs

Fs
Ft Ft
 Fs F Ft

Ao Ao
original area
before loading Stress has units:
N/m2 or lb/in2
Chapter 6- 4
 COMMON STATES OF STRESS
• Simple tension: cable
F F
Ao = cross sectional
Area (when unloaded)
F
  
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
• Simple shear: drive shaft
M Fs Ao
Ac 
Fs
 
M Ao
2R
Note:  = M/AcR here.
Chapter 6- 5
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (1)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches  structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao ( < 0 here).

Chapter 6- 6
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (2)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
 > 0

z > 0  <
h 0

Chapter 6- 7
 ENGINEERING STRAIN
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
/2
L
   L 
Lo Lo wo
wo
/2
L /2 L /2
• Shear strain:
/2

 = tan Strain is always

dimensionless.
/2 - 

/2 /2
Chapter 6- 8
 STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
• Typical tensile specimen • Typical tensile
test machine
load cell
Adapted from Fig. 6.2,
Callister 6e.

specimen
extensometer

moving cross head

gauge (portion of sample with

=
length reduced cross section)
• Other types of Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e.
(Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
tests: Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties of
--compression: brittle Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and
materials (e.g., Sons, New York, 1965.)
concrete) Chapter 6- 9
 LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES
• Modulus of Elasticity, E: 
(also known as Young's modulus) E F
• Hooke's Law: 1 
=E Linear-
elastic
• Poisson's ratio, : L
   L

 F
metals:  ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25 - simple
polymers: ~0.40 1 tension
test
Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless
Chapter 6- 10
 OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES
 M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G:
G simple
1  torsion
=G test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K:
V V P P
P= -K Vo
Vo -K pressure
test: Init.
1 vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials: Vol chg.
E E = V
G K
2(1 ) 3(1 2)
Chapter 6- 11
 YOUNG’S MODULI: COMPARISON
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
1200
Semicond
E ceramics
1000 Diamond
800
600
400 Tungsten
Si carbide
Al oxide Carbon fibers only
>E metals
Molybdenum
>>Epolymers
Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
Si crystal
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold AFRE(|| fibers)*
60 Aluminum Glass -soda Glass fibers only Based on data in Table B2,
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister 6e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE *
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
Graphite GFRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers)*
6 AFRE( fibers)* aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester
4 PET
glass (GFRE)
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4

0.2 LDPE
Chapter 6- 12
 USEFUL LINEAR ELASTIC RELATIONS
• Simple tension: • Simple torsion:
2ML o
  FL o    Fw o  4
EA o
L
EA o r G
o
F M=moment
/2  =angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo
/2
L /2 L /2 2ro

• Material, geometric, and loading parameters all

contribute to deflection.
• Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
Chapter 6- 13
 PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION
(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

• Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
tensile stress,  at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

p engineering strain,

plastic strain

Chapter 6- 14
 YIELD STRENGTH, y
• Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress, 
y

engineering strain,
p = 0.002
Chapter 6- 15
 YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140)qt
y(ceramics)
>>y(metals)

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.
1000
Yield strength,y (MPa)

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a
700 W (pure) >>y(polymers)
600 Cu (71500)cw
500 Mo (pure)
Steel (4140)a
400
Steel (1020)cd

Hard to measure,
300
Al (6061)ag Room T values
Hard to measure,

200 Steel (1020)hr

¨
Ti (pure)a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500)hr Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
100 a = annealed
dry
70 PC hr = hot rolled
60 Al (6061)a Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 PET
PVC humid
cd = cold drawn
40 cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered

20

LDPE
Tin (pure) Chapter 6- 16
10
 TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
• Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.
TS
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 6e.
engineering
stress

Typical response of a metal

strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.
Chapter 6- 17
 TENSILE STRENGTH: COMPARISON Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
3000
Aramid fib
E-glass fib TS (ceram)
Tensile strength, TS(MPa)

2000 Steel (4140)qt

AFRE (|| fiber)
~TS (met)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE (|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140) CFRE (|| fiber) ~TS (comp)
Cu (71500)cw Si nitride
Cu (71500)hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061)ag
>>TS (poly)
Ti (pure)a
200 Ta (pure) Room T values
Al (6061)a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister 6e.
PVC GFRE ( fiber) a = annealed
40 Concrete PP
30 CFRE ( fiber)
AFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 6- 18
 DUCTILITY, %EL
L f  Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure:%EL  x100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering (brittle if %EL<5%)
tensile
stress,  Ao
larger %EL Lo Af Lf
(ductile if
%EL>5%)
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.

Engineering tensile strain,

Ao  A f
• Another ductility measure:%AR  x100
Ao
• Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material
volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.
Chapter 6- 19
 TOUGHNESS
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering smaller toughness (ceramics)
tensile larger toughness
stress,  (metals, PMCs)

smaller toughness-
unreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain,

Chapter 6- 20
 HARDNESS
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., (1 to 1000g) of indent after
10mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering
Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.) Chapter 6- 21
 HARDENING
• An increase in y due to plastic deformation.

large hardening
y
1
y small hardening
0
d
re load
unloa


• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
hardening exponent:

 
T  C T
n n=0.15 (some steels)
to n=0.5 (some copper)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(L/Lo)
Chapter 6- 22
 DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS
• Design uncertainties mean we do not push the
limit. Often N is
• Factor of safety, N  y between
 working  1.2 and 4
N

• Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does

not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5. d
y
 working  1045 plain
N carbon steel:
Lo
y=310MPa
220,000N
5 TS=565MPa
 
 d2 /4
 
F = 220,000N

Chapter 6- 23
 SUMMARY
• Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
• Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
• Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
• Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
• Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

Note: For materials selection cases related

to mechanical behavior, see slides 22-4 to
Chapter 6- 24
22-10.
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 6- 0