Crystal and Amorphous Structure in Materials

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Permission required for reproduction or display
CHAPTER
3
Crystal
and
Amorphous Structure
in Materials
Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, 5th Edn. Smith and Hashemi
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display
The Space Lattice and Unit Cells
• Atoms, arranged in repetitive 3-Dimensional pattern, in

long range order (LRO) give rise to crystal structure.
• Properties of solids depends upon crystal structure and
bonding force.
• An imaginary network of lines, with atoms at intersection
of lines, representing the arrangement of atoms is called
space lattice.
2
Unit cell
• Unit cell is that block of atoms which repeats itself

to form space lattice.
• Materials arranged in short range order
are called amorphous materials
Space Lattice
Unit Cell
3
Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattice
• Only seven different types of unit cells are

necessary to create all point lattices.
• According to Bravais (1811-1863) fourteen
standard unit cells can describe all possible
lattice networks.
• The four basic types of unit cells are
 Simple
 Body Centered
 Face Centered
 Base Centered
4
Types of Unit Cells
• Cubic Unit Cell

 a=b=c
 α = β = γ = 900
Simple Body Centered
Figure 3.2
Face centered
• Tetragonal
 a =b ≠ c
 α = β = γ = 900
Simple Body Centered

5
Types of Unit Cells (Cont..)
• Orthorhombic
 a≠ b≠ c
 α = β = γ = 900
Simple Base Centered
Body Centered
Face Centered
• Rhombohedral Figure 3.2
 a =b = c
 α = β = γ ≠ 900
Simple
6
Types of Unit Cells (Cont..)
• Hexagonal
 a≠ b≠ c
 α = β = γ = 900 Simple
• Monoclinic
 a≠ b≠ c
 α = β = γ = 900 Base
Centered
Simple
• Triclinic Figure 3.2
 a≠ b≠ c
 α = β = γ = 900
Simple
7
Principal Metallic Crystal Structures
• 90% of the metals have either Body Centered Cubic

(BCC), Face Centered Cubic (FCC) or Hexagonal Close
Packed (HCP) crystal structure.
• HCP is denser version of simple hexagonal crystal
structure.
BCC Structure FCC Structure HCP Structure

Figure 3.3
8
Simple Cubic Crystal Structure
• Please click on the image below to begin a short

tutorial on simple cubic crystal structure
(this file opens in a new window and

contains audio commentary)
9
Simple Cubic Crystal Structure

Animation
10
Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure
• Represented as one atom at each corner of cube and one at

the center of cube.
• Each atom has 8 nearest neighbors.
• Therefore, coordination number is 8.
• Examples :-
 Chromium (a=0.289 nm)
 Iron (a=0.287 nm)
 Sodium (a=0.429 nm)
11
BCC Crystal Structure (Cont..)
• Each unit cell has eight 1/8

atom at corners and 1
full atom at the center.
• Therefore each unit cell has
(8x1/8 ) + 1 = 2 atoms
• Atoms contact each

other at cube diagonal
Therefore, a = 4R
3
12
Atomic Packing Factor of BCC Structure
Volume of atoms in unit cell

Atomic Packing Factor =
Volume of unit cell
 4R 3 
Vatoms = 2.  = 8.373R3
 
 3 
3
 4R 
V unit cell = a3 =   = 12.32 R3
 
 3 
8.723 R3
Therefore APF = 12.32 R3 = 0.68
13
Body Centered Crystal Structure
• Please click on the image below to begin a short tutorial

on body centered crystal structure

14
Body Centered Structure-Summary

Animation
15
Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure
• FCC structure is represented as one atom each at the

corner of cube and at the center of each cube face.
• Coordination number for FCC structure is 12
• Atomic Packing Factor is 0.74
• Examples :-
 Aluminum (a = 0.405)
 Gold (a = 0.408)
16
FCC Crystal Structure (Cont..)
• Each unit cell has eight 1/8

atom at corners and six ½
atoms at the center of six
faces.
• Therefore each unit cell has
(8 x 1/8)+ (6 x ½) = 4 atoms
• Atoms contact each other

across cubic face diagonal
Therefore, lattice 4R
constant a =
2
17
Face centered crystal Structure

on body centered crystal structure

18
Face Centered Crystal Structure

Animation
19
Cubic Crystal Structures - Summary
Animation
20
3-20 Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, 5th Edn. Smith and Hashemi
Unit Cells - Example
Animation
21
Unit Cells - Example

Animation
22
Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure
• The HCP structure is represented as an atom at each of 12

corners of a hexagonal prism, 2 atoms at top and bottom
face and 3 atoms in between top and bottom face.
• Atoms attain higher APF by attaining HCP structure than
simple hexagonal structure.
• The coordination number is 12, APF = 0.74.
23
HCP Crystal Structure (Cont..)
• Each atom has six 1/6 atoms at each of top and bottom
layer, two half atoms at top and bottom layer and 3 full
atoms at the middle layer.
• Therefore each HCP unit cell has
(2 x 6 x 1/6) + (2 x ½) + 3 = 6 atoms
• Examples:-
 Zinc (a = 0.2665 nm, c/a = 1.85)
 Cobalt (a = 0.2507 nm, c.a = 1.62)
• Ideal c/a ratio is 1.633.
24
Crystal Structure, Tutorial

• Please click on the image below to begin a short tutorial on
the structure of crystalline solids.

25
Atom Positions in Cubic Unit Cells
• Cartesian coordinate system is use to locate atoms.

• In a cubic unit cell
 y axis is the direction to the right.
 x axis is the direction coming out of the paper.
 z axis is the direction towards top.
 Negative directions are to the opposite of positive directions.
• Atom positions are

located using unit
distances along the
axes.
26
Directions in Cubic Unit Cells
• In cubic crystals, Direction Indices are vector components

of directions resolved along each axes, resolved to smallest
integers.
• Direction indices are position coordinates of unit cell
where the direction vector emerges from cell surface,
converted to integers.
27
Procedure to Find Direction Indices

Produce the direction vector till it
z
emerges from surface of cubic cell
(1,1/2,1) (1,1/2,1) - (0,0,0)
Determine the coordinates of point = (1,1/2,1)
of emergence and origin y
(0,0,0) 2 x (1,1/2,1)
Subtract coordinates of point of x = (2,1,2)
Emergence by that of origin
The direction indices are [212]
Are all are NO Convert them to
integers? smallest possible
YES integer by multiplying
Are any of the direction by an integer.
vectors negative?
NO
YES
Represent the indices in a square
Represent the indices in a square
bracket without comas with a
bracket without comas (Eg: [212] )
over negative index (Eg: [121])
28
Direction Indices - Example
• Determine direction indices of the given vector.

Origin coordinates are (3/4 , 0 , 1/4).
Emergence coordinates are (1/4, 1/2, 1/2).
Subtracting origin coordinates

from emergence coordinates,
(3/4 , 0 , 1/4) - (1/4, 1/2, 1/2)
= (-1/2, 1/2, 1/4)
Multiply by 4 to convert all
fractions to integers
4 x (-1/2, 1/2, 1/4) = (-2, 2, 1)
Therefore, the direction indices are [ 2 2 1 ]
29
Crystallographic Directions, Tutorial

on crystallographic directions.
(this file opens in a new window)
30
Miller Indices
• Miller Indices are are used to refer to specific lattice

planes of atoms.
• They are reciprocals of the fractional intercepts (with
fractions cleared) that the plane makes with the
crystallographic x,y and z axes of three nonparallel edges
of the cubic unit cell.
z Miller Indices =(111)
x
31
Miller Indices - Procedure
Choose a plane that does not pass

through origin
Determine the x,y and z intercepts

of the plane
Find the reciprocals of the intercepts
Clear fractions by
Fractions? Yes multiplying by an integer
Place a ‘bar’ over the to determine smallest set
Negative indices of whole numbers
Enclose in parenthesis (hkl)where h,k,l

are miller indicesof cubic crystal plane
forx,y and z axes. Eg: (111)
32
Miller Indices - Examples
• Intercepts of the plane at x,y

z
& z axes are 1, ∞ and ∞
(100) • Taking reciprocals we get
y (1,0,0).
x • Miller indices are (100).
x *******************
• Intercepts are 1/3, 2/3 & 1.
• taking reciprocals we get (3,
3/2, 1).
• Multiplying by 2 to clear
fractions, we get (6,3,2).
• Miller indices are (632).
Miller Indices - Examples
• Plot the plane (101)

Taking reciprocals of the indices
we get (1 ∞ 1).
The intercepts of the plane are
x=1, y= ∞ (parallel to y) and z=1.
Figure EP3.7 a
******************************
• Plot the plane (2 2 1)
Taking reciprocals of the indices
we get (1/2 1/2 1).
The intercepts of the plane are
x=1/2, y= 1/2 and z=1.
Miller Indices - Example
• Plot the plane (110)

The reciprocals are (1,-1, ∞)
The intercepts are x=1, y=-1 and z= ∞ (parallel to z axis)
To show this plane in a
single unit cell, the (110) z
origin is moved along
the positive direction
of y axis by 1 unit. y
35
Miller Indices – Important Relationship
• Direction indices of a direction perpendicular to a crystal

plane are same as miller indices of the plane.
• Example:-
Figure EP3.7b
• Interplanar spacing between parallel closest planes with

same miller indices is given by
a
d hkl 
h k l
2 2 2
36
Cubic crystal Planes, Tutorial

• Please click on the image below to begin a short tutorial on
cubic crystal planes.

37
Planes and Directions in Hexagonal Unit Cells
• Four indices are used (hkil) called as Miller-

Bravais indices.
• Four axes are used (a1, a2, a3 and c).
• Reciprocal of the intercepts that a crystal
plane makes with the a1, a2, a3 and c axes give
the h,k,I and l indices respectively.
38
Hexagonal Unit Cell - Examples
• Basal Planes:-
Intercepts a1 = ∞
a2 = ∞
a3 = ∞
c=1
(hkli) = (0001)
• Prism Planes :- Figure 3.17 a&b
For plane ABCD,
Intercepts a1 = 1
a2 = ∞
a3 = -1
c=∞
(hkli) = (1010)
39
Directions in HCP Unit Cells
• Indicated by 4 indices [uvtw].

• u,v,t and w are lattice vectors in a1, a2, a3 and c directions
respectively.
• Example:-
For a1, a2, a3 directions, the direction indices are
[ 2 1 1 0], [1 2 1 0] and [ 1 1 2 0] respectively.
40
Comparison of FCC and HCP crystals
• Both FCC and HCP are close packed and have

APF 0.74.
• FCC crystal is close packed in (111) plane while
HCP is close packed in (0001) plane.
41
Structural Difference between HCP and FCC
Plane A
Consider a layer ‘a’ void
of atoms (Plane ‘A’) ‘b’ void
Another layer (plane ‘B’) Plane A

of atoms is placed in ‘a’ Plane B
Void of plane ‘A’ ‘a’ void
‘b’ void
Third layer of Atoms placed Third layer of Atoms placed
in ‘b’ Voids of plane ‘B’. (Identical in ‘a’ voids of plane ‘B’. Resulting
to plane ‘A’.) HCP crystal. In 3rd Plane C. FCC crystal.
Plane A Plane A
Plane B Plane B
Plane A Plane C
42
Volume Density
• Volume density of metal = v =

Mass/Unit cell
Volume/Unit cell
• Example:- Copper (FCC) has atomic mass of 63.54 g/mol

and atomic radius of 0.1278 nm.
4R 4  0.1278nm
a= = = 0.361 nm
2 2
Volume of unit cell = V= a3 = (0.361nm)3 = 4.7 x 10-29 m3
FCC unit cell has 4 atoms.
( 4atoms)( 63.54 g / mol )  10 6 Mg 
Mass of unit cell = m =   = 4.22 x 10-28 Mg
4.7  10 23 atmos / mol  g 

v 
m

4.22  10 28 Mg
 8.98
Mg
 8.98
g
V 4.7  10 29 m 3 m3 cm 3
43
Planar Atomic Density

Equivalent number of atoms whose
• Planar atomic density=  =
p
centers are intersected by selected area
Selected area
• Example:- In Iron (BCC, a=0.287), The (100) plane

intersects center of 5 atoms (Four ¼ and 1 full atom).
 Equivalent number of atoms = (4 x ¼ ) + 1 = 2 atoms
Area of 110 plane = 2a  a  2a 2

2
=
2 0.287
p 2
17.2atoms 1.72  1013

 
nm 2 mm 2
44
Linear Atomic Density

Number of atomic diameters
intersected by selected length
• Linear atomic density =  l
=
of line in direction of interest
Selected length of line
• Example:- For a FCC copper crystal (a=0.361), the [110]

direction intersects 2 half diameters and 1 full diameter.
 Therefore, it intersects ½ + ½ + 1 = 2 atomic diameters.
Length of line = 2  0.361nm
 l

2atoms

3.92atoms

3.92  106 atoms
2  0.361nm nm mm
45
Polymorphism or Allotropy
• Metals exist in more than one crystalline form. This is

caller polymorphism or allotropy.
• Temperature and pressure leads to change in crystalline
forms.
• Example:- Iron exists in both BCC and FCC form
depending on the temperature.
Liquid
Iron
-2730C 9120C 13940C 15390C
α Iron γ Iron δ Iron

BCC FCC BCC
46
Crystal Structure Analysis
• Information about crystal structure are obtained using X-

Rays.
• The X-rays used are about the same wavelength (0.05-
0.25 nm) as distance between crystal lattice planes.
35 KV
(Eg:
Molybdenum)
47
X-Ray Spectrum of Molybdenum
• X-Ray spectrum of Molybdenum is

obtained when Molybdenum is used
as target metal.
• Kα and Kβ are characteristic of an
element.
• For Molybdenum Kα occurs at
wave length of about 0.07nm.
• Electrons of n=1 shell of target
metal are knocked out by
bombarding electrons.
• Electrons of higher level drop
down by releasing energy to replace
lost electrons
48 Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, 5th Edn. Smith and Hashemi
X-Ray Diffraction
• Crystal planes of target metal act as mirrors reflecting X-

ray beam.
• If rays leaving a set of planes
are out of phase (as in case of
arbitrary angle of incidence)
no reinforced beam is
produced.
• If rays leaving are in phase,

reinforced beams are
produced.
49
X-Ray Diffraction (Cont..)
• For rays reflected from different planes to be in phase, the

extra distance traveled by a ray should be a integral
multiple of wave length λ .
nλ = MP + PN (n = 1,2…)
n is order of diffraction
If dhkl is interplanar distance,
Then MP = PN = dhkl.Sinθ
Therefore, λ = 2 dhkl.Sinθ
50 After A.G. Guy and J.J. Hren, “Elements of Physical Metallurgy,” 3d5thed.,
Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering, Edn.Addison-Wesley,
Smith and Hashemi1974, p.201.)
Interpreting Diffraction Data

a
• We know that d hkl

h2  k 2  l 2
Since   2dSin
2aSin
Substituting for d, 
h2  k 2  l 2
2 h 2  k 2  l 2
Therefore Sin  
2
4a 2
Note that the wavelength λ and lattice constant a are the same
For both incoming and outgoing radiation.
51
Interpreting Diffraction Data (Cont..)
• For planes ‘A’ and ‘B’ we get two equations

2 ( h A 2  k A 2  l A 2 ) (For plane ‘A’)
Sin 2 A 
4a 2
2 ( h B 2  k B 2  l B 2 )
Sin 2 B  (For plane ‘B’)
4a 2
Dividing each other, we get
Sin 2 A (hA  k A  l A )
2 2 2

Sin 2 B (hB  k B  l B )
2 2 2
52
X-Ray Diffraction Analysis
• Powdered specimen is used for X-ray diffraction analysis as the

random orientation facilitates different angle of incidence.
• Radiation counter detects angle and intensity of diffracted beam.
53
Diffraction Condition for Cubic Cells
• For BCC structure, diffraction occurs only on planes

whose miller indices when added together total to an even
number.
I.e. (h+k+l) = even Reflections present
(h+k+l) = odd Reflections absent
• For FCC structure, diffraction occurs only on planes

whose miller indices are either all even or all odd.
I.e. (h,k,l) all even Reflections present
(h,k,l) all odd Reflections present
(h,k,l) not all even or all odd Reflections absent.
54
Interpreting Experimental Data
• For BCC crystals, the first two sets of diffracting planes

are {110} and {200} planes.
Sin 2 A (12  12  0 2 )
Therefore   0.5
Sin 2 B (2 2  02  02 )
• For FCC crystals the first two sets of diffracting planes are
{111} and {200} planes
Sin 2 A (12  12  12 )
Therefore   0.75
Sin 2 B (2 2  02  02 )
55
Crystal Structure of Unknown Metal
Unknown
metal
Crystallographic
Analysis
Sin  A
2 Sin 2 A
 0.75  0 .5
Sin  B
2
Sin 2 B
FCC BCC
Crystal Crystal
Structure Structure
56
Amorphous Materials
• Random spatial positions of atoms

• Polymers: Secondary bonds do not allow
formation of parallel and tightly packed chains
during solidification.
 Polymers can be semicrystalline.
• Glass is a ceramic made up of SiO4 4- tetrahedron
subunits – limited mobility.
• Rapid cooling of metals (10 8 K/s) can give rise to
amorphous structure (metallic glass).
• Metallic glass has superior metallic properties.
57

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The Space Lattice and Unit Cells

• Atoms, arranged in repetitive 3-Dimensional pattern, in

• Unit cell is that block of atoms which repeats itself

Crystal Systems and Bravais Lattice

• Only seven different types of unit cells are

Types of Unit Cells

• Cubic Unit Cell

Simple Body Centered

Simple Body Centered

Types of Unit Cells (Cont..)

Types of Unit Cells (Cont..)

Principal Metallic Crystal Structures

• 90% of the metals have either Body Centered Cubic

BCC Structure FCC Structure HCP Structure

Simple Cubic Crystal Structure

• Please click on the image below to begin a short

(this file opens in a new window and

Simple Cubic Crystal Structure

Body Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure

• Represented as one atom at each corner of cube and one at

BCC Crystal Structure (Cont..)

• Each unit cell has eight 1/8

• Atoms contact each

Atomic Packing Factor of BCC Structure

Volume of atoms in unit cell

Body Centered Crystal Structure

• Please click on the image below to begin a short tutorial

(this file opens in a new window and

Body Centered Structure-Summary

Face Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal Structure

• FCC structure is represented as one atom each at the

FCC Crystal Structure (Cont..)

• Each unit cell has eight 1/8

• Atoms contact each other

Face centered crystal Structure

• Please click on the image below to begin a short tutorial

(this file opens in a new window and

Face Centered Crystal Structure

Cubic Crystal Structures - Summary

Unit Cells - Example

Unit Cells - Example

Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure

• The HCP structure is represented as an atom at each of 12

HCP Crystal Structure (Cont..)

• Ideal c/a ratio is 1.633.

Crystal Structure, Tutorial

(this file opens in a new window and

Atom Positions in Cubic Unit Cells

• Cartesian coordinate system is use to locate atoms.

• Atom positions are

Directions in Cubic Unit Cells

• In cubic crystals, Direction Indices are vector components

Procedure to Find Direction Indices

Direction Indices - Example

• Determine direction indices of the given vector.

Subtracting origin coordinates

Crystallographic Directions, Tutorial