Chapter 3: The Structure of Crystalline Solids

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

• How do atoms assemble into solid structures?

• How does the density of a material depend on

its structure?

• When do material properties vary with the

sample (i.e., part) orientation?

1
 Energy and Packing
• Non dense, random packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

• Dense, ordered packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

Dense, ordered packed structures tend to have

lower energies.
2
 Materials and Packing
Crystalline materials...
• atoms pack in periodic, 3D arrays
• typical of: -metals
-many ceramics
-some polymers crystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Si Oxygen
Noncrystalline materials...
• atoms have no periodic packing
• occurs for: -complex structures
-rapid cooling
"Amorphous" = Noncrystalline noncrystalline SiO2
Adapted from Fig. 3.23(b),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

3
Water vs. Ice

4
 A- Metallic Crystal Structures

• Atomic bonding is metallic.

• Tend to be densely packed.
• Reasons for dense packing:
– Typically, only one element is present, so all
atomic radii are the same.
– Metallic bonding is not directional => minimal
restrictions to number and position of nearest
neighbor.
– Nearest neighbor distances => small to lower
bond energy.
– Electron cloud shields cores from each other
• Have the simplest crystal structures.
5
 A- Metallic Crystal Structures
• How can we stack metal atoms to minimize
empty space?

vs.

Now stack these 2-D layers to make 3-D structures

to build `Close Packed Crystal` structures

6
 Representing Atomic Order
fig_03_01
Atomic Hard Sphere Model

Reduced sphere unit cell

Hard sphere unit cell
(visually easier representation)

Aggregate of hard spheres 7

 Close Packed Structures
(i) Simple Cubic Structure (SC)
• Rare due to low packing density (only Po has this structure)
• Close-packed directions are cube edges.

• Coordination # = 6
(# nearest neighbors)

Coordination number of a central atom in a molecule or crystal

is the number of its near neighbors. 8
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)

Volume of atoms in unit cell*

APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres
• APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52
volume
atoms atom
a 4
unit cell 1 p (0.5a) 3
3
R=0.5a APF =
a3 volume
close-packed directions
unit cell
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell
Adapted from Fig. 3.24,
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. 9
(ii) Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)

• Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals.

--Note: All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Cr, W, Fe (), Tantalum, Molybdenum

• Coordination # = 8

Adapted from Fig. 3.2,

Click once on image to start animation Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8
10
 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
• APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68
3a

2a

Close-packed directions:
Adapted from R length = 4R = 3 a
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
a
atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 p ( 3a/4) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell 11
(iii) Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)

• Atoms touch each other along face diagonals.

--Note: All atoms are identical; the face-centered atoms are shaded
differently only for ease of viewing.

ex: Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

• Coordination # = 12

Adapted from Fig. 3.1, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

Click once on image to start animation
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson) 4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8

12
 Atomic Packing Factor: FCC
• APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74
maximum achievable APF
Close-packed directions:
length = 4R = 2 a
2a
Unit cell contains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
= 4 atoms/unit cell
a
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
Callister & atoms volume
Rethwisch 8e. 4 3
unit cell 4 p ( 2a/4)
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell
13
14
 FCC Stacking Sequence
• ABCABC... Stacking Sequence
• 2D Projection
B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites

A
• FCC Unit Cell B
C

15
16
(iv) Hexagonal Close-Packed Structure
(HCP)
• ABAB... Stacking Sequence
• 3D Projection • 2D Projection

A sites Top layer

c
B sites Middle layer

A sites Bottom layer

a Adapted from Fig. 3.3(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

• Coordination # = 12 6 atoms/unit cell

• APF = 0.74 ex: Cd, Mg, Ti, Zn
• c/a = 1.633 17
18
 Non Metallic (Ceramic) Structures

• Composed of at least 2 or more

elements.
• Tend to be less densely packed
(atomic radii are the different).
• Factors determining ceramic
structures  Pauling’s Ruled

19
.

Pauling’s rules
• Five rules published by Linus Pauling in 1929 for
determining the crystal structures of complex ionic
crystals.

1. Radius Ratio Rule; Relative sizes of ions

2. Electrostatic valency rule; charge neutrality
3. Linkage of polyhedra – (a)
4. Linkage of polyhedra – (b)
5. Rule of parsimony
• The arrangement of atoms in a crystal structure not only
depends on the charge on the ion and type of bonding
between atoms, but also on the size of the atoms or ions.
For ceramics there is always min. 2 types of atoms.
.

Atomic and ionic radii

▪ Size of an atom / ion depends on size of nucleus and
number of electrons
▪ Atoms with larger number of electrons generally have a
larger size than atoms with smaller number of electrons
▪ Size of ion ≠ Size of atom since ions have gained or lost
electrons

▪ As charge on ion becomes more (+), there will be less electrons and
the ion will have a smaller radius.

▪ As the atomic number increases in any given column of the Periodic

Table, the number of protons and electrons increases and thus the
size of the atom or ion increases.
.

Atomic and ionic radii

• Atomic and ionic radii also depend on the type of bonding that takes
place between the constituents, and on the coordination number (also
spin state, and other variables).

• Ionic radius increases also with increasing

coordination number, the electron cloud is
drawn out by the presence of more surrounding ions.

• As the charge becomes more positive the

radius of the cation decreases. Because there
are fewer electrons in the outer shells of the ions.
.

Trends in Ionic Radii

.

Coordination of Ions
• Coordination number, C.N. depends on
the relative size of the ions.

• If all of the atoms in a crystal are the

same size, then there are two ways to
pack the atoms to form a crystal structure.
In this case, the maximum number of
atoms that be coordinated around any
individual is 12. We call this 12-fold
coordination.

• There are two ways that atoms can be

packed in 12-fold coordination…

• IF Rc/Ra=1
.

Coordination of Ions
• If we decrease the size of the cation in
such an arrangement, still allowing for the
surrounding anions to touch each other
and touch the cation, with decreasing size
of the cation, the coordination will first
result in 8 anions surrounding the cation.

• This is called 8-fold coordination or cubic

coordination because the shape of the
object constructed by drawing lines
through the centers of the larger ions is a
cube.

• If Rc/Ra < 1
.

Pauling’s First Rule

▪ A coordinated polyhedron of anions is formed about each
cation, the cation-anion distance determined by the sum of
ionic radii and the coordination
number by the radius ratio.
▪ Derived purely from geometric considerations of sphere
packing

Applying Pythagoras’
theorem, we get Rc/Ra
= 0.732,

i.e. in btw. 1 to 0.732 cubic

.

Pauling’s First Rule

• For Rc/Ra < 0.732 the cation will be too small or will rattle in
its site and the structure will have to change to 6-fold
coordination.

Applying geometry
again, we get Rc/Ra
= 0.414,

i.e. İn btw
0.732 to 0.414
Octahedral coordination
.

Pauling’s First Rule

• For Rc/Ra < 0.414 the structure goes into 4-fold
coordination, i.e. tetrahedral coordination.

The calculation to determine

the "no rattle" limit for
tetrahedral coordination is
Rc/Ra = 0.225.

That is the in btw. 0.414-0.225

it is 4-fold coordination
.

Pauling’s First Rule

• For triangular coordination, the coordination

number is three. The "no rattle" limit is
reached for triangular coordination when
CO3, NO3, and Rc/Ra will be in btw. 0.225-0.155.
BO3.
• At values of Rc/Ra < 0.155 the only way the
smaller ion can be coordinated by the larger
ions is to have 2 of the larger ions on either
side. This 2-fold coordination is termed
linear coordination.
.

Coordination and radius ratios

Radius ratio C.N. polyhedron

0.225 4 tetrahedron

0.414 6 octahedron
0.592 7 capped octahedron
0.645 8 square antiprism (anticube)

0.732 8 cube
0.732 9 triaugmented triangular prism
1 12 cuboctahedron

The calculation to determine the "no rattle" limit for tetrahedral

coordination
.

Pauling’s Second Rule: The electrostatic

valence rule
▪ a stable ionic structure must be arranged to preserve local
electroneutrality.
▪ Electrostatic valency is defined :

e.v = Charge on the ion/C.N.

Isodesmic

32
 Anisodesmic / mesodesmic

• What are these terms?

33
.

Pauling’s Third Rule

▪ The sharing of edges and particularly faces by two anion
polyhedra decreases the stability of an ionic structure.

• Sharing of corners does not decrease stability as much, so

(for example) octahedra may share corners with one
another.
▪ Effect is largest for cations with high charge and low C.N.
(especially when r+/r- approaches the lower limit of the
polyhedral stability).
.

Pauling’s Fourth Rule

• In a crystal containing different cations, those of
high valency and small coordination number
tend not to share polyhedron elements with one
another.
• Pauling’s fourth rule says that highly charged cations will
tend to be as far apart as possible to minimize
electrostatic repulsion.

• One of Pauling's examples is olivine, M2SiO4, where M is

a mixture of Mg2+ at some sites and Fe2+ at others. The
structure contains distinct SiO4 tetrahedra which do not
share any oxygens (at corners, edges or faces) with each
other. The lower-valence Mg2+ and Fe2+ cations are
surrounded by polyhedra which do share oxygens.

Rules 1 through 4 maximize the cation - anion attractions and minimize the anion-anion and cation-cation repulsions.
.

Pauling’s Fifth Rule: The rule of

parsimony
▪ The number of essentially different kinds
of constituents in a crystal tends to be
small.

▪ The repeating units will tend to be

identical because each atom in the
structure is most stable in a specific
environment.

▪ There may be two or three types of

polyhedra, such as tetrahedra or
octahedra, but there will not be many
different types.
 Densities of Material Classes
In general Metals/
Graphite/
Composites/
rmetals > rceramics > rpolymers Alloys
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
fibers
30
Why? Platinum
B ased on data in Table B1, Callister
*GFRE, CFRE, & AFRE are Glass,
20 Gold, W
Metals have... Tantalum Carbon, & Aramid Fiber-Reinforced
Epoxy composites (values based on
• close-packing 60% volume fraction of aligned fibers
10 Silver, Mo in an epoxy matrix).
(metallic bonding) Cu,Ni
Steels
• often large atomic masses Tin, Zinc
Zirconia

r (g/cm3 )
5
Ceramics have... 4
Titanium
Al oxide
Diamond
• less dense packing 3 Si nitride
Aluminum Glass -soda Glass fibers
• often lighter elements Concrete
Silicon PTFE GFRE*
2
Polymers have... Magnesium Graphite
Silicone
Carbon fibers
CFRE*
Aramid fibers
PVC
• low packing density PET
PC
AFRE*
1
(often amorphous) HDPE, PS
PP, LDPE
• lighter elements (C,H,O)
0.5
Composites have... 0.4
Wood

• intermediate values 0.3

Data from Table B.1, Callister & Rethwisch, 8e.
37
 Atomic Bonding in Ceramics
• Bonding:
-- Can be ionic and/or covalent in character.
-- % ionic character increases with difference in
electronegativity of atoms.
• Degree of ionic character may be large or small:
CaF2: large
SiC: small

38
 Covalent Ceramics
• Few compounds are 100% covalent or ionic.
• Covalent bonding – hardest, most refractory, and
toughest ceramics.
– Examples: BN, SiC, Si3N4, silicon oxynitrides (Si3N4+SiO2),
TiN, ZrN, AlN, diamond.
Compound % Covalent
B4C 94%
SiC 88%
BN 78%
Si3N4 70%
AlN 57%
TiN 57%
SiO2 49%
MgO, CaO, BaO, NaCl, <30%
39
KCl, LiF, NaF
 Single vs Polycrystals
• Single Crystals E (diagonal) = 273 GPa
-Properties vary with
direction: anisotropic.
-Example: the modulus
of elasticity (E) in BCC iron:
E (edge) = 125 GPa
• Polycrystals
-Properties may/may not 200 mm
vary with direction.
-If grains are randomly
oriented: isotropic.
(Epoly iron = 210 GPa)

-If grains are textured,

anisotropic.
40
 Polycrystals Anisotropic
• Most engineering materials are polycrystals.

1 mm

Isotropic
• Nb-Hf-W plate with an electron beam weld.
• Each "grain" is a single crystal.
• If grains are randomly oriented,
overall component properties are not directional.
• Grain sizes typically range from 1 nm to 2 cm
42
 Polymorphism
• Two or more distinct crystal structures for the same material
(allotropy (specific term for chemical elements) /
polymorphism(more general term for crystalline materials))

titanium iron system

, -Ti liquid
1538ºC
carbon BCC -Fe
diamond, graphite 1394ºC
FCC -Fe
912ºC
BCC -Fe

43
 Polymorphism
• Existence of substance into more than one crystalline forms is known as
"POLYMORPHISM".

• In other words: Under different conditions of temperature and pressure, a

substance can form more than one type of crystals. This phenomenon is
called Polymorphism and different crystalline forms are known as
‘POLYMORPHICS’

Example:
1) Mercuric iodide (HgI2) forms two types of crystals.
• a. Orthorhombic
• b. Trigonal
2) Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) exists in two types of crystalline forms.
• a. Orthorhombic (Aragonite)
• b. Trigonal
• Polymorphous substances have similar chemical properties but
different physical properties.
44
 ALLOTROPY
"Existence of an element into more than one physical forms is known as
ALLOTROPY "

Under different conditions of temperature and pressure an element can exist in more
than one

physical forms. This phenomenon is known as Allotropy and different forms are known
as "Allotropes"

Example:
Coal, lamp black, coke, Diamond, graphite etc. are all allotropic forms of carbon.

45
 ISOMOPHISM
• Existence of different substances in one crystalline form is known as
"ISOMORPHISM« or different substances may exist in identical
crystalline forms. This phenomenon is called as Isomorphism and these
substances are known as ‘Isomorphous’.
Examples:
• 1) Na2SO4 & Ag2SO4 both exist in Hexagonal crystalline form.

Properties of Isomorphic Substances

• 1) Isomorphic substances have same atomic ratio
• 2) Empirical formula of isomorphic substances is same
For example: CaCO3 NaNO3  1:1:3 1:1:3
• 3) They have different chemical & physical properties.
• 4) When their solutions are mixed, they form mixed type of crystals.
• 5) They show property over growth.

46
 Crystal Systems
Lattice : 3-D array of points (coinciding with atom positions) that
translates itself geometrically in space.
Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which
contains the complete lattice pattern of a crystal.
• There are FIVE 2-D lattices from which all minerals are built:
1.Square
2.Rectangle
3.Diamond
4.Rhombus
5.Parallelogram

• Bravais Space Lattice: 3-D array of points when the 2-D lattice is
combined with a second perpendicular oriented 2-D Lattice.
• 14 space lattices are geometrically possible.
• 7 of these systems are referred to as primitive into which all
minerals and regular solids can be classified.
47
 Crystal Systems
Unit cell: smallest repetitive volume which
contains the complete lattice pattern of a crystal.

7 crystal systems

14 crystal lattices

a, b, and c are the lattice constants

Fig. 3.4, Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

48
7 crystal systems

49
Body
Centered

50
 Point Coordinates
z
111 Point coordinates for unit cell
c center are
a/2, b/2, c/2 ½½½

000
y
a b
Point coordinates for unit cell
x  corner are 111
z 2c

Translation: integer multiple of
  lattice constants  identical
b y position in another unit cell

b
51
Point Coordinates
fig_03_05

P Coordinate:

qrs

q, r, s ≤ 1
No commas

52
Point Coordinates - Example
figun_03_p57

011
001
111

101
½½½

000 010

100 110

53
54
 Crystallographic Directions
z Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass
through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of
unit cell dimensions a, b, and c
y 3. Adjust to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas

x [uvw]

ex: 1, 0, ½ => 2, 0, 1 => [ 201 ]

-1, 1, 1 => [ 111 ] where overbar represents a
negative index
families of directions <uvw>
55
 HCP Crystallographic Directions
z
Algorithm
1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass

through origin.
a2 2. Read off projections in terms of unit
cell dimensions a1, a2, a3, and c
- 3. Adjust to smallest integer values
a3
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas
a2
a1 [uvtw]
Adapted from Fig. 3.8(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 8e. a2 -a3
2

ex: ½, ½, -1, 0 => [ 1120 ] a3

a1
2
dashed red lines indicate
projections onto a1 and a2 axes a1
56
57
 HCP Crystallographic Directions
• Hexagonal Crystals
– 4 parameter Miller-Bravais lattice coordinates are
related to the direction indices (i.e., u'v'w') as
follows.
z

[ u 'v 'w ' ] ® [ uvtw ]

1
u= (2 u ' - v ')
3
a2
1
v = (2 v ' - u ')
- 3
t = - ( u +v )
a3

a1
w = w'
Fig. 3.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

58
HCP Crystallographic Directions

1/3 of a

59
60
 Crystallographic Planes
• Miller Indices: Reciprocals of the (three) axial
intercepts for a plane, cleared of fractions &
common multiples. All parallel planes have
same Miller indices.

• Algorithm
1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in
terms of a, b, c
2. Take reciprocals of intercepts
3. Reduce to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in parentheses, no
commas i.e., (hkl)

61
 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1 1  c
2. Reciprocals 1/1 1/1 1/
1 1 0
3. Reduction 1 1 0 y
a b
4. Miller Indices (110)
x
z
example a b c
1. Intercepts 1/2   c
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/ 1/
2 0 0
3. Reduction 2 0 0
y
4. Miller Indices (200) a b
x
62
 Crystallographic Planes
z
example a b c c
1. Intercepts 1/2 1 3/4 
2. Reciprocals 1/½ 1/1 1/¾
2 1 4/3  y

3. Reduction 6 3 4 a b

4. Miller Indices (634) x

Family of Planes {hkl}

Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

63
 Crystallographic Planes

Adapted from Fig. 3.10,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
64
 Crystallographic Planes (HCP)
• In hexagonal unit cells the same idea is used
z

example a1 a2 a3 c
1. Intercepts 1  -1 1
2. Reciprocals 1 1/ -1 1
1 0 -1 1 a2

3. Reduction 1 0 -1 1
a3

4. Miller-Bravais Indices (1011) a1

Adapted from Fig. 3.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

65
66
 Some stuff is missing

• Where are families of directions and

planes?

67
 Atomic Packing of Crystallographic Planes
Linear & Planar Density

Number of atoms centered

on direction vector
• Linear Density of Atoms  LD =
Unit length of direction vector

Number of atoms centered

on a plane
• Planar Density of Atoms  PD =
Unit area of miller indice

68
 Linear Density
Number of atoms centered
on direction vector
• Linear Density of Atoms  LD = Unit length of direction vector

[110]
ex: linear density of Al in [110]
direction
a = 0.405 nm

# atoms
a 2
LD = = 3.5 nm-1
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),
length 2a
Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.

69
70
71
72
73
 Planar Density of (100) Iron
Solution: At T < 912ºC iron has the BCC structure.
2D repeat unit

(100) 4 3
a= R
3

Adapted from Fig. 3.2(c), Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Radius of iron R = 0.1241 nm
atoms
2D repeat unit 1
1 atoms atoms
Planar Density = = 2 = 12.1 = 1.2 x 10 19

area a2 4 3 nm 2
m2
R
2D repeat unit 3
74
 Example Problem
• We want to examine the atomic packing of
crystallographic planes for Fe below 900C.

a) Draw (100) and (111) crystallographic planes

for Fe.

b) Calculate the planar density for each of these

planes.

75
 Planar Density of (111) Iron
Solution (cont): (111) plane 1 atom in plane/ unit surface cell

2a atoms in plane
atoms above plane

ni t
atoms below plane

tu
ea
rep
3
h= a
2D 2
2
æ 4 3 ö 16 3 2
area = 2 ah = 3 a = 3 çç
2
R  = R
atoms è 3 ø 3
2D repeat unit 3*1/6
atoms = atoms
Planar Density = = 7.0 0.70 x 1019
area 8 3 2
nm
2
m2
R
2D repeat unit 3
76
 Theoretical Density, r

Mass of Atoms in Unit Cell

Density =  =
Total Volume of Unit Cell

nA
 =
VC NA

where n = number of atoms/unit cell

A = atomic weight
VC = Volume of unit cell = a3 for cubic
NA = Avogadro’s number
= 6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol

77
 Theoretical Density, r
• Ex: Cr (BCC)
A = 52.00 g/mol
R = 0.125 nm
n = 2 atoms/unit cell

R
Adapted from
a a = 4R/ 3 = 0.2887 nm
Fig. 3.2(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 8e.
atoms
g
unit cell 2 52.00 theoretical = 7.18 g/cm3
mol
= ractual = 7.19 g/cm3
a3 6.022 x 1023
volume atoms
unit cell mol 78
 Interference and Diffraction
Interference is the combination of two or more waves to form a composite
wave.

(a) Destructive interference (b) Constructive interference

Diffraction is the bending of waves as they pass by some objects or through an

aperture. The greatest diffraction happens when the gap (slit) size is about the
same size as the wavelength.

79
 X-Ray Diffraction

Diffraction gratings must have spacings comparable to

the wavelength of diffracted radiation.

80
 X-Rays to Determine Crystal Structure
• Incoming X-rays diffract from crystal
d planes. et
ec
to

”
r

“1
in ray
co s
X-
y s reflections must
ra
m
- be in phase for
in

”
“2
X
g
a detectable signal

“1
g

”
extra
oi
n l
“2
g Adapted from Fig. 3.20,
distance
q ut q
”
o Callister & Rethwisch 8e.
travelled
by wave “2” spacing
d between
planes

Measurement of X-ray
intensity nl
critical angle, qc, d=
(from 2 sin qc
allows computation of
detector)
planar spacing, d.
q
qc
81
d-spacing and Miller Indices hkl

For cubic crystals with lattice

constant a, the
spacing d between adjacent
(hkℓ) lattice planes is (from
above):

82
 Question
Determine the expected diffraction angle for the first-order
reflection from the (310) set of planes for BCC chromium
(R=0.1249) when monochromatic radiation of wavelength 0.0722
nm is used.

Find a
Find d
Find theta
Find 2theta

83
X-Rays to Determine Crystal Structure

84
X-Rays to Determine Crystal Structure

85
Structure Factor

86
87
 X-Ray Diffraction Pattern
z z z
c c c

y (110) y y
a b a b a b
Intensity (relative)

x x x (211)

(200)

Diffraction angle 2q

Diffraction pattern for polycrystalline a-iron (BCC)

Adapted from Fig. 3.22, Callister 8e.

88
89
What about HCP?

90
 SUMMARY
• Atoms may assemble into crystalline or
amorphous structures.
• Common metallic crystal structures are FCC, BCC, and

HCP. Coordination number and atomic packing factor

are the same for both FCC and HCP crystal structures.
• We can predict the density of a material, provided we
know the atomic weight, atomic radius, and crystal
geometry (e.g., FCC, BCC, HCP).
• Crystallographic points, directions and planes are
specified in terms of indexing schemes.
Crystallographic directions and planes are related
to atomic linear densities and planar densities.

91
 SUMMARY

• Materials can be single crystals or polycrystalline.

Material properties generally vary with single crystal
orientation (i.e., they are anisotropic), but are generally
non-directional (i.e., they are isotropic) in polycrystals
with randomly oriented grains.
• Some materials can have more than one crystal
structure. This is referred to as polymorphism (or
allotropy).
• X-ray diffraction is used for crystal structure and
interplanar spacing determinations.

92