Control of Posture & Movement

Dr. Debby Mirani Lubis

Physiology Department
 The Nervous System

Central Nervous Peripheral Nervous System

System (CNS) (PNS)

Brain Spinal Cord Motor Neurons Sensory

Neurons

Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System

• voluntary movements • organs, smooth muscles
via skeletal muscles

Sympathetic Parasympathetic
- “Fight-or-Flight” responses - maintenance
 Move a limb ?

The brain: plan a movement

arrange appropriate motion at many different joints at

the same time

adjust the motion by comparing plan with performance

The motor system "learns by doing" and

performance improves with repetition
 Control of voluntary movement

• The cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum work cooperatively

to plan movements.
• Movement executed by the cortex is relayed via the
corticospinal tracts and corticobulbar tracts to motor neurons.
• The cerebellum provides feedback to adjust and smooth
movement
• The movements are planned in the cortex as
well as in the basal ganglia and the lateral
portions of the cerebellar hemispheres
• The basal ganglia and cerebellum 
thalamuspremotor and motor cortex
• the motor cortex the corticospinal tracts to
the spinal cord and the corresponding
corticobulbar tracts to motor neurons in the
brain stem.
• collaterals from these pathways and a few
direct connections from the motor cortex end
on brain stem nuclei, which also project to
motor neurons in the brain stem and spinal
cord.
• Movement sets up alterations in sensory input
from the special senses and from muscles,
tendons, joints, and the skin.
• adjusts and smoothes movement  the
motor cortex and to the spinocerebellum.
• The spinocerebellum projects in turn to the
brain stem.
• The main brain stem pathways that are
concerned with posture and coordination are
the rubrospinal, reticulospinal, tectospinal,
and vestibulospinal tracts.
 The motor system
• divided into lower and upper motor neurons.
• Lower motor neurons refer to the spinal and
cranial motor neurons that directly innervate
skeletal muscles.
• Upper motor neurons are those in the cortex
and brain stem that activate the lower motor
neurons
 Control of Axial & Distal Muscles
• the brain stem and spinal cord
•  the trunk and proximal portions of the
limbs  located medially or ventrally,
•  the distal portions of the limbs are located
laterally.
• The axial muscles  postural adjustments and
gross movements,
• the distal limb muscles  fine, skilled
movements
• the ventral corticospinal tract and medial
descending brain stem pathways (tectospinal,
reticulospinal, and vestibulospinal tracts) 
adjustments of proximal muscles and posture,
• the lateral corticospinal and rubrospinal tracts
 distal limb muscles and skilled voluntary
movements
 Cortical Control of Voluntary
Movement
• Pyramidal Tracts
– Corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts
– Direct pathways from the primary motor cortex to the spinal
cord, called Corticospinal tracts
– Control small groups of muscles that contract independently of
each other
• Extrapyramidal Tracts
– Indirect connections between the brain and spinal cord
– Includes all motor control pathways outside the pyramidal
system
– Cortex, basal ganglia, medulla oblongata, mid brain, cerebellum
– Control large groups of muscles that contract together to
maintain posture and balance
 Pyramidal Tracts

• Axons of neurons in these tracts terminate in

the ventral horn of the spinal cord
– Called Upper Motor Neurons
• Axons of neurons in these tracts cross over to
the opposite side of the CNS in the area of the
medulla
– Called Medullary Pyramids
 Corticospinal & Corticobulbar Tracts
• corticospinal tracts  The axons of neurons
from the motor cortex  to spinal motor
neurons
• 80% of these fibers cross the midline in the
medullary pyramids  lateral corticospinal
tract
• 20%  ventral corticospinal tract,  does
not cross the midline until it reaches the level
of the spinal cord at which it terminates
 Corticospinal tracts
• 31% of the corticospinal tract neurons are from
the primary motor cortex (M1; Brodmann's area
4).
• 29% of the corticospinal tract neurons are from
The premotor cortex and supplementary motor
cortex (Brodmann's area 6)
• 40% of corticospinal tract neurons originate in
the parietal lobe (Brodmann's area 5, 7) and
primary somatosensory area (Brodmann's area
3, 1, 2) in the postcentral gyrus.
• A view of the human cerebral cortex, showing the
motor cortex (Brodmann's area 4) and other areas
concerned with control of voluntary movement
corticospinal
tracts
• The corticobulbar tract  the fibers that pass
from the motor cortex to motor neurons in the
trigeminal, facial, and hypoglossal nuclei.
• Corticobulbar neurons end  on the cranial
nerve nuclei or on their antecedent interneurons
within the brain stem.
• Their axons traverse through the genu of the
internal capsule, the cerebral peduncle (medial to
corticospinal tract neurons), to descend with
corticospinal tract fibers in the pons and medulla.
 For example:
– The brain has received and processed sensory
information that causes it to direct the biceps
muscles to contract to lift a weight
– The brain sends impulses down the corticospinal
tracts to the C5-C7 levels of the spinal cord to
synapse with the appropriate motor neurons
– The nerve impulse is propogated along the ventral
roots of the brachial plexus, to the
musculocutaneous nerve, which innervates the
biceps
– The biceps muscle contracts to lift the weight
 Extrapyramidal Tracts
• Motor control pathways outside of the
pyramidal system
• Indirect connections between the brain and
spinal cord
• Neurons in these tracts do NOT form synapses
with motor neurons
• Include two tracts
– Reticulospinal tracts
– Rubrospinal tracts
 Extrapyramidal Tracts
• Reticulospinal Tracts
• The Lateral, Anterior, and Medial Reticulospinal tracts are
motor (efferent, descending)
– Descend from the reticular formation, which is located in the pons and
medulla
– Elicits involuntary motor responses
• Functions:
– Facilitate extensor motor neurons (promotes muscle tone)
– Facilitate visceral motor function, and
– Control unskilled movements
 Extrapyramidal Tracts
• Rubrospinal tracts
– Motor (efferent, descending) tracts descending from the red nucleus
(rubro-) of the midbrain
– These tracts cross over in the brain stem
– Elicits involuntary motor responses
• Functions:
– Synapse with motor neurons that will transmit impulses to the
neuromuscular junction of the muscle that will contract
– Result in muscle contractions that maintain muscle tone in the flexor
muscles on the opposite side of the body
 1. Cerebrum
• Primary Motor Cortex
– Initiates voluntary movement
Motor homonculi:
Map of the cerebral cortex corresponding to the part
of the body served by a particular region
The size of the body part on the homunculus is
proportional to the amount of brain dedicated to
that body part
Motor homunculus.
• Subcortical Nuclei
– Regions of gray matter within the cerebrum
• Includes the Basal Nuclei (Basal Ganglia)
– Masses of gray matter scattered deep within the cerebral
hemispheres
– Components of the basal nuclei include:
• The caudate nucleus
• The putamen
• The globus pallidus
– Important role in modifying movement
 Basal ganglia
• Receive input from:
– The entire cerebral cortex
– Other subcortical nuclei
• Such as the subthalamic nucleus of the diencephalon, substantia
nigra, and the red nucleus
• No direct connections with the motor pathways
– Send information to the Primary Motor Cortex through the
thalamus
 Basal ganglia
• Complex role in motor control
– Important in starting, stopping, and monitoring movements
executed by the primary motor cortex
– It is particularly involved in slow, sustained, or stereotyped
movements
• Examples: arm swing during gait, riding a bicycle, or eating
• Inhibit antagonistic (unnecessary) movements
– Enhances the ability to perform several tasks at once
• Impairment results in:
– Disturbances in muscle tone and posture
– Tremors
– Abnormally slow movement
 2. Thalamus
• Referred to as the “gateway” to the cerebral
cortex
• Most afferent neurons synapse with at least
one of the thalamic nuclei
– a relay station for motor impulses from the
cerebellum and basal ganglia
•  The Ventral Lateral Nucleus
– Receives motor information from the basal nuclei
and cerebellum
– Relays information to the motor region of the
cerebral cortex
 3. Cerebellum

• Located inferior to the forebrain and posterior to

the brainstem
• Functions:
– Coordination of muscular activity
• Skilled movements, posture, and balance
– Regulate muscle tone
• The cerebellum has no direct connections with
muscles
 3. Cerebellum
Information about voluntary muscle activity from
the motor region of the cerebral cortex
• Integrates this information and determines how to
integrate the sensory information with the motor functions
to elicit a coordinated response
– Sends its coordination plan to the primary motor cortex
– The primary motor cortex then signals the muscles to elicit
the desired response
 4. Brain Stem
• Medial Brain Stem Pathways:
• The medial brain stem pathways the ventral
corticospinal tract  the pontine and medullary
reticulospinal, vestibulospinal, and tectospinal tracts
• The pontine and medullary reticulospinal tracts project
to all spinal levels.  maintenance of posture and in
modulating muscle tone, especially via an input to -
motor neurons.
• Pontine reticulospinal neurons are primarily excitatory
and medullary reticulospinal neurons are primarily
inhibitory.
• The tectospinal tract originates in the superior
colliculus of the midbrain.  to the contralateral
cervical spinal cord to control head and eye
movements
• Lateral Brain Stem Pathway
• neurons within the red nucleus of the midbrain
cross the midline and project to interneurons in
the dorsolateral part of the spinal ventral horn to
influence motor neurons that control distal limb
muscles.
• rubrospinal tract excites flexor motor neurons
and inhibits extensor motor neurons.
• it may play a role in the posture typical of
decorticate rigidity
• A) Medial pathways (reticulospinal,
vestibulospinal, and tectospinal) terminate in
ventromedial area of spinal gray matter and
control axial and proximal muscles.
• B) Lateral pathway (rubrospinal) terminates in
dorsolateral area of spinal gray matter and
controls distal muscles.
 Posture-Regulating Systems
• Integration:
• Animal experimentation  information  role of
cortical and brain stem mechanisms involved in
control of voluntary movement and posture
• When the neural axis is transected  the
activities integrated below the section are cut off,
or released, from the control of higher brain
centers and often appear to be accentuated.