BMS130

Physiological Sciences 2
School of Biomedical Sciences, Charles Sturt University

Topic: Nutrition and Metabolism 2

Reference: Saladin, CH 26 pp 1006-1018
Lecturer: Drs James Wickham & Chris Scott

1 Images provided by Saladin, K. (2012). Anatomy & Physiology: the unity of formSchool
and function
of Biomedical Sciences
 Learning Objectives

1. Carbohydrate metabolism; explain the processes in which

glucose is catabolised to produce ATP
2. Glycogen metabolism; describe the synthesis and breakdown
of glycogen within the body
3. Describe the processes of lipid catabolism and anabolism
4. Describe the processes of protein catabolism and anabolism
5. Define the absorptive state of metabolism and explain what
happens to the macronutrients in this state
6. Define the post-absorptive state of metabolism and explain
what happens to the macronutrients in this state
7. Describe the hormonal and nervous regulation of each state
8. Define basal metabolic rate and state factors that alter it

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1. Explain the processes in which glucose is catabolised to produce ATP
Carbohydrate Metabolism
Most dietary carbohydrate is burned as fuel within hours
of absorption. Carbohydrates are ultimately broken down
to glucose for metabolism (glucose catabolism)

C6H12O6 + 6O2  6CO2 + 6H2O (eventually)

 energy
Transfers energy from sugar to ATP in a series of small steps to
more efficiently transfer the energy to ATP (this reduces energy
lost as heat).

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1. Explain the processes in which glucose is catabolised to produce ATP
Glucose Catabolism
Three major pathways
glycolysis (yields 2 ATP)
• glucose (6C) split into
2 pyruvic acid molecules (3C)
• Occurs in cytoplasm of cell
• anearobic
aerobic respiration (34-36 ATP)
• completely oxidizes pyruvic acid to
CO2 and H2O (2)
anaerobic fermentation (no O2 avail.)
• pyruvic acid reduced to lactic acid (36-38)
• replenishes NAD+ so glycolysis can continue In the presence of oxygen

Catabolism = breakdown of large molecules to smaller ones

Anabolism is opposite process.

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 Glycolysis
3 fates for cellular glucose
10 step process

Glucose  2 pyruvate
2 ATP  2 ADP
2 NAD+  2 NADH + 2 H+
4 ADP  4 ATP

2 phases:
energy investment phase (steps 1 and 2)
energy recovery phase (5).

2 ATP spent  4 ATP gained

= 2 ATP net gain

At the end of the glycolysis process, the

pyruvic acid produced is then further
catabolised in one of two pathways,
depending on whether oxygen is present or
not
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1. Explain the processes in which glucose is catabolised to produce ATP
Oxygen present 
Aerobic Respiration
When oxygen is present ATP is
generated in mitochondria, and requires
oxygen as the final electron acceptor.
Principal steps:
1. matrix reactions (Krebs Cycle)
occur in fluids of mitochondria
• Pyruvic acid converted to acetyl-CoA and
enters citric acid cycle
• 3 NAD+ are converted to NADH per cycle
• 1 ATP produced per cycle

NAD = Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

Image: Wikimediacommons: NEUROtiker

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1. Explain the processes in which glucose is catabolised to produce ATP

2. membrane reactions
whose enzymes are
bound to the
mitochondrial
membrane (electron
Saladin, Figure 26.6
transport chain)
• Electrons transferred
along transport chain;
•Protons are pumped
into the
intermembrane space
• Oxygen is final
electron acceptor (
water molecule)

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1. Explain the processes in which glucose is catabolised to produce ATP

• Hydrogen ions are

only permeable
through inner
membrane via ATP
synthase enzyme

•Movement of
hydrogen ions
through enzyme
spins it thus creating
the energy needed
to form ATP from
ADP and Pi
Google images “ATP synthase”

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1. Explain the processes in which glucose is catabolised to produce ATP

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1. Explain the processes in which glucose is catabolised to produce ATP

ATP Generated by Oxidation of Glucose (overview)

Saladin, Figure 26.7

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1. Explain the processes in which glucose is catabolised to produce ATP
No Oxygen 
Anaerobic Fermentation
In an exercising muscle, if 2 ADP + 2 Pi 2 ATP
demand for ATP overcomes the
oxygen supply, ATP is produced
Glucose Glycolysis 2 Pyruvate
by anaerobic fermentation.
• glycolysis can not continue
without supply of NAD+ 2 NAD+ 2 NADH + H+
• NADH reduces pyruvic acid to
lactic acid, restoring NAD+
2 Lactate Regenerates NAD
Lactic acid travels to liver to be
oxidized back to pyruvate when
Fermentation is inefficient, and not
O2 is available (oxygen debt) favored by brain or heart. It is the
• then stored as glycogen or most likely source of ATP during
released as glucose intense exercise however.

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2. Describe the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen within the body
Glycogen is a large
polysaccharide molecule

Formed by joining glucose molecules together…

Image wikimedia commons: NEUROtiker

around a central glycogenin protein core

E. Meléndez-Hevia, R. Meléndez and E. I. Canela (2000)

The black dots are glycogen

granules in this liver cell
Image: chemistryland.com

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2. Describe the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen within the body
Glycogen Metabolism
• ATP is quickly used after formed --not a storage molecule
• extra glucose will not be oxidized, it will be stored as glycogen
• Glycogenesis -- synthesis of glycogen
• stimulated by insulin (average adult contains 450 g)
• Glycogenolysis – the breakdown of glycogen  glucose
• stimulated by glucagon, cortisol and epinephrine
• only liver cells can release glucose back into blood
• Muscle cells cannot convert glucose 6-phosphate into glucose
as they lack the enzyme phosphatase
• Gluconeogenesis -- synthesis of glucose from
noncarbohydrates, such as glycerol and amino acids
when carbohydrate stores are low
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2. Describe the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen within the body

Glucose Storage and Use

Saladin, Figure 26.8

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 3. Describe processes of lipid catabolism and anabolism
Lipids
Triglycerides are stored in adipocytes
• constant turnover of molecules every 3 weeks
• released into blood, transported and either oxidized or redeposited in
other fat cells
Lipogenesis = synthesizing fat from
other sources
amino acids and sugars are used to
make fatty acids and glycerol
Lipolysis = breaking down fat for
fuel
Glycerol enters glycolysis and the
fatty acids are broken down 2
carbons at a time to produce
acetyl-CoA (beta oxidation) Saladin, Figure 26.9

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 3. Describe processes of lipid catabolism and anabolism
Ketogenesis
Fatty acids catabolized into acetyl groups (by beta-oxidation in
mitochondrial matrix) may either enter citric acid cycle as acetyl-
CoA or undergo ketogenesis

•Acetyl-CoA is metabolized in the liver to

produce ketone bodies:
•acetoacetic acid
•-hydroxybutyric acid
•acetone

•rapid or incomplete oxidization of fats raises

blood ketone levels (ketosis) and may lead to a
pH imbalance (ketoacidosis)
Google images “ketogenesis”

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 4. Describe processes of protein catabolism and anabolism
Protein metabolism
Amino acid pool - dietary amino acids plus
100 g of tissue protein broken down each
day into free amino acids
May be used to synthesize new proteins or
can be converted to glucose and fat to be
used as fuel for energy production.
As fuel, amino acids must first be
deaminated (removal of NH2 amino group).
The resulting intermediates (keto acids) are
then converted to pyruvic acid, acetyl-CoA or
other citric acid cycle intermediates.
• the NH2 become ammonia (NH3) which is toxic
and which the liver converts to urea via the
ornithine cycle. Urea is then excreted via the
kidneys in urine.
Saladin, Figure 26.10

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 Learning Objectives

1. Carbohydrate metabolism; explain the

processes in which glucose is catabolised to
produce ATP
2. Glycogen metabolism; describe the
synthesis and breakdown of glycogen within
the body
3. Describe the processes of lipid catabolism
and anabolism
4. Describe the processes of protein
catabolism and anabolism
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 5. Define the absorptive state & fate of macronutrients in this state
Absorptive State
Lasts about 4 hours during and after a meal
• time of nutrient absorption and use for energy needs
Carbohydrates
• blood glucose is available to all cells for ATP synthesis
• excess is converted by liver to glycogen or fat

Marieb & Hoehn, Figure 24.18

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 5. Define the absorptive state & fate of macronutrients in this state
Absorptive State
Fats
• taken up by fat cells from chylomicrons in the blood
• primary energy substrate for liver, fat and muscle cells
Amino acids
• most pass through the liver and go onto other cells
• in liver cells, may be used for protein synthesis, used for fuel for
ATP synthesis or used for fatty acid synthesis

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 5. Define the absorptive state & fate of macronutrients in this state

Principal Pathways of the Absorptive State

Marieb & Hoehn, Figure 24.18

Energy is mainly derived from

utilising the available glucose

The rest of these pathways are involved in storing the

excess potential substrates (glucose, AAs and fats)

21 Figure
School of Biomedical 24.18b
Sciences
6. Define post-absorptive state & fate of macronutrients in this state
Post-absorptive State
Homeostasis of blood glucose critical to brain. when stomach and
small intestine are empty, stored fuels are used to ensure supply.
Carbohydrates - glucose is drawn from glycogen reserves for up to 4
hours and then synthesized from other compounds
Fat – adipocytes & liver cells convert glycerol to glucose
• free fatty acids are oxidized by liver to ketone bodies
Protein metabolism - used as fuel when glycogen and fat reserves
depleted

Marieb & Hoehn,

Figure 24.20

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6. Define post-absorptive state & fate of macronutrients in this state
Principal Pathways in the Post-absorptive
State
These processes are releasing substrates from storage molecules
(mainly fat and glycogen at first, but then protein as needed) for
producing glucose and energy substrates

Marieb & Hoehn, Figure 24.20

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7. Describe hormonal and nervous regulation of each absorptive state
Regulation of Absorptive State
Regulated by insulin secreted in response to elevated blood glucose
and amino acid levels and the hormones GIP, gastrin, secretin and
cholecystokinin
Insulin
• increases the cellular uptake of glucose by 20-fold
• stimulates glucose oxidation, glycogenesis and lipogenesis but
inhibits gluconeogenesis
• stimulates active transport of amino acids into cells and
promotes protein synthesis
• high protein, low carbohydrate meals stimulate release of
both insulin and glucagon preventing hypoglycemia

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 7. Describe hormonal and nervous regulation of each absorptive state

Regulation of the post-absorptive state

By sympathetic nervous
system, glucagon and
cortisol
Blood glucose drops,
glucagon secreted
• glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis
raise glucose levels
• lipolysis raises free
fatty acid levels

Google images “glucagon”

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7. Describe hormonal and nervous regulation of each absorptive state

Regulation of the post-absorptive state

Sympathoadrenal effects
Promote glycogenolysis and lipolysis
under conditions of injury, fear,
anger and stress. Adipose tissue,
liver cells and muscle cells are richly
innervated and also respond to
epinephrine from adrenal medulla.

Cortisol from adrenal cortex

promotes  blood glucose, fat and
protein catabolism and also
gluconeogenesis Google images “cortisol and blood glucose”

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 8. Define basal metabolic rate & describe factors that alter it
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
• BMR is basically the amount of calories you would burn whilst
doing NO activity
• Measured under resting conditions, 12 hours after a meal in a
thermoneutral environment
• Can be measured directly in a calorimeter or indirectly by oxygen
consumption
• Some factors affecting your metabolic rate include:
• Gender; males have higher metabolic rates than females
• Prolonged dieting – decreases BMR
• Exercise – elevated following exercise
• Thyroid hormone levels – decreased levels lower BMR
• Age – BMR decreases with age due to decreased muscle mass

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 8. Define basal metabolic rate & describe factors that alter it
Basal Metabolic Rate

Google images “indirect

calorimetry”

X by 1.375 if you are

not very active or
1.725 if you do a lot
of exercise for total
kcals burnt/day

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 Learning Objectives

1. Define the absorptive state of metabolism

and explain what happens to the
macronutrients in this state
2. Define the post-absorptive state of
metabolism and explain what happens to
the macronutrients in this state
3. Describe the hormonal and nervous
regulation of each state
4. Define basal metabolic rate and state
factors that alter it
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