Laser Beam Machining (LBM), Electron Beam Machining (EBM),

Plasma arc Machining (PAM), Ion beam Machining(IBM) -

Mechanism of metal removal, attributes of process
characteristics
on MRR, accuracy etc and structure of HAZ compared with
conventional process; application, comparative study of
advantages and limitations of each process.

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM), Abrasive Water Jet Machining

(AWJM) - Working principle, Mechanism of metal removal,
Influence of process parameters, Applications, Advantages &
disadvantages.
 LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 LBM uses the light energy (focused coherent beam of monochromatic light)
to remove material by vaporization and ablation (evaporation or melting of a
surface through heating by friction).
 The light energy is pulsed so that the released energy results in an impulse
against the work surface that produces a combination of evaporation and
melting with the melted material evacuating the surface at high velocities.
 Energy densities of the order of 100,000 kW/cm2
 Many types of laser exist – they can be classified as solid-state, gas or liquid.
In metal processing, solid state and gas are generally used. Principal lasers
used in metal processing are the neodymium -glass (Nd:glass), the carbon
dioxide (CO2) and the neodymiumdoped yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd:YAG)
lasers.
 LBM does not involve mass material removal but does provide rapid material
removal with an easily controlled non-contact, nonwearing tool.
 directional[travel long distance without spreading]
 Monochromatic{single colour}
 Coherent{light waves are in phase with each other & peak and valley are in
same line }

Laser material interaction

Energy absorbed by w/p:
I = (1-R) I0 e(-αz)
 R= reflectivity of the material
 I-R=absobtivity of material
 Alpa=absorbtion coeffient
 Z=depth of machinning
 Material is removed by vapou-
risation & ablation.
energy is conc. Optically
Laser emits continous or pulsed
Light beam.

Focal length
 Working material
 Assist gases
 Laser beam
 Focussing lens
 Factors affecting MRR/HAZ and Quality of
LBM process:
Beam related parameters,
1. Beam power intensity
2. Beam geometry,
3. Beam diameter
4. Wave length
Process parameter
1. Spot size
2. Position of focus
3. Gas pressure etc.
4. Cutting speed
W/p or material related
1. Melting point of work
2. composition of the material
3. Reflectivity,
4. Specific heat
5. Thermal conductivity physical factor
6. latent heat
 MRR:
MRR increases with laser power density. The cutting depth of a laser is directly proportional to
the power density
The cutting process requires the spot size is small enough to produce the high intensity
power. The small spot size obtained by focusing the laser beam to the surface of the work
piece at the focal point
Lesser the reflectivity of the work-piece material, higher will be the cutting efficiency of laser
machining
Depth of cut d =p/v*t
where t is the depth of cut, P is the laser beam power, v is the cutting velocity, and d is the
laser beam spot diameter
 The heat affected zone may lead to undesirable effects such as fatigue resistance, surface
cracking, and distortion.
 HAZ width increases with the increase of laser beam power throughout the range;
 Increases with the increase of pulse frequency.
 Laser beam diameter has a negligible effect on HAZ depth
 HAZ depth increases with thickness of work
 As cutting speed increases, the cutting time decreases and less time for the heat to diffuse
sideways and the narrower the HAZ.
Laser cutting, due to the narrow kerf width results in a superior quality, higher accuracy and
greater flexibility
Evaluation of laser cut quality is based on: geometry of cut, surface of cut, burr formation and
characteristics of material in zone of cut.
1. Focus position is the most significant laser cutting parameter affecting the quality
2. Decreasing power and increasing feed rate generally led to a decrease in kerf width
3. Increasing feed rate generally led to increasing surface roughness
4. As the cutting speed increases, the surface roughness decreases and quality improves when
the other operating parameters kept constant.
5. Surface roughness values ranging 0.4–6.3 μm Ra
6. Achievable tolerances ranging ±0.015–±0.125 mm.
 advatages:  Disadvantage:
 Ability to cut fragile  Skilled labour & CNC
material without any programmer required.
stress level  Limitation on thickness
 Narrow heat affected due to taper
zone  High capital &
 Non contact and no tool maintenance cost
wear
 safety precaution
 Plastic & rubber can be
machined required
 Cost effective & very hard
material can be machined
 No limit to cutting path
can move anywhere
 Fully automated
 1. Machining of small/ micro holes
 2. Cutting complex profiles on thin & hard
materials.
 3. Partial cutting and engraving,
 4. Sheet metal trimming,
 5. Blanking
 6. Precise aerospace applications,
 7. Making cellular phone parts, Ink jet heads,
 surgical equipment, medical devices…
 EBM is a metal removal process by a high velocity focused stream of electrons.
As the electrons strike the work piece with high velocity ,their kinetic energy is
transformed into thermal energy which melts and vaporizes the material.
 The production of free electrons ( negatively charged particles) are obtained by
electron gun.
 Due to pattern of electrostatic field produced by grid cup, electrons are
focused and made to flow in the form of a converging beam through anode.
The electrons are accelerated while passing through the anode by applying
high voltage at anode.
 A magnetic deflection coil is used to make electron beam circular and to focus
electron beam at a point (localized heating)
 The process is carried outing a vacuum chamber to prevent electrons from
colliding with molecules of the atmospheric air and to prevent tungsten
filament from getting oxidizing with air.
 MRR = area of slot or hole × speed of cutting = A×V
 Thermal velocity acquired by an electron of the work material due to
electron beam is
 Where, KB = Boltzmann constant
Max.MRR=10mm3/min
 M = mass of one atom of work.
 T = rise in temperature
 Electrons are accelerated due
to the potential
difference between anode
and cathode.
• The concave shape of the
cathode is intended for
concentrating the electron
stream through the anode.
• Applied voltage: 50,000 –
200,000 Volts.
• Velocity of electrons: Above
200,000 km/s.

 On impinging the surface, the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted

into thermal energy of high density, which melts and vaporizes the
material in a local area.
 • As the depth of cut increases, the beam gets in the way of the molten metal,
preventing it from escaping out of the hole.
 • To expel the molten material, a backing material is applied to the reverse side of
the work piece material being drilled.
 • When the electron beam breaks through the work piece material, the backing
material reacts to the beam by producing large volume of gas that expands
explosively, which removes the molten metal.
Heat affected zone depends on:
 1. Energy of incident electrons,
 2. Beam current,
 3. Diameter of the focused spot,
 4. Work piece properties,
 5. Pulse duration.

To minimize thermal diffusion problem, the beam

should be rapidly scanned across the surface to be
machined.
As cutting speed increases, problems due to thermal diffusion & HAZ
reduces.
 Advantages of pulsed beam operation
• To reduce the effect of conduction loss, pulsed beam should be used instead of
continuous stream of electrons.
• During pulsed beam operation, the focused spot is heated to high temperature before
conduction of heat takes place.
• Due to the reduced heat conduction loss, the efficiency of the process is improved &
HAZ is reduced.

Application:
1. Electron Beam Drilling
• Precision: +/- 25 μm, Accuracy: +/- 12.7 μm, Aspect Ratio[ 25:1]
2. For making fine gas orifices in nuclear reactors,
3. Holes in wire drawing dies,
4. Cooling holes in turbine blades.
Machine based parameters Work piece parameters
 1. Pulse duration  1. Melting temperature
 2. Beam current  2. Vaporization
 3. Working distance temperature
 4. Roundness of beam  3. Thermal conductivity
 5. energy per pulse  4. Thermal diffusivity
 6. Symmetry of focusing
lens
 7. Vacuum system
 8. Movement of work piece
 Advantages & Disadvantages of EBM
 • Advantages:
 1. Non-contact type thermal tool,
 2. High aspect ratio is attained (25:1) even at inclined
 angle,
 3. Parameters can be easily adjusted.
 4. Can produce holes ranging from 6 μm – 1.0 mm
 • Disadvantages:
 1. Size of vacuum chamber limits the size of work
 piece.
 2. High initial investment & running cost,
 3. Skilled programmer & labour is required.
 • Plasma is considered as fourth state of matter
 • When a gas is heated to above 3000ᶱ C, electrons from atoms
disintegrates and gas becomes ionized consisting of ions and electrons.
This state of gas is called plasma.
 • Plasma is electrically conductive and is responsive to magnetism.
• Heat source of plasma is due to the recombination of electrons and ions
into atoms or recombination of atoms into molecules.
Power Supply and Terminals
 Power supply (DC) is used to develop two terminals in the plasma gun. A
tungsten electrode is inserted to the gun and made cathode and nozzle of
the gun is made anode. Heavy potential difference is applied across the
electrodes to develop plasma state of gases.
Cooling Mechanism
 As we know that hot gases continuously come out of nozzle so there are
chances of its overheating. A water jacket is used to surround the nozzle to
avoid its overheating
 non-transferred  Transferred

Non-transferred – In the non-

transferred system the arc is
Transferred –Transferred system the
completed by making contact with
arc is completed by making contact
nozzle, it can produce an arc
with the work piece
without touching the grounded
work piece and can be very
dangerous .
 Performance of PAM Divided into 2 categories:
1. Those associated with the design and operation
of the torch – electrical power delivered, the gases used to form the
plasma, the flow rate of the gases through the torch, the orifice diameter through
.
the nozzle duct
 Those associated with the physical configuration of
the set up –
 1. Current intensity
 2. Plasma arc voltage
 3. Properties of work piece
 4. Thickness work piece
 5. The gases used to form the plasma,
 6. The flow rate of the gases
 7. Working Speed
 8. The nozzle diameter – determines the power density in the flame
 9. Standoff distance
1. MRR/production rate
2. Roughness of surface
3. Cutting width
4. Wear of nozzle
5. HAZ dimension
6. The shape of surface
 MRR:
MMR increases with cutting speed, current ,plasma gas flow rate, thickness of
w/p , w/p material property. With the inc. in current plasma gas flow rate inc.
which thereby inc. the power density of the flame and permits greater speed
with less taper on the kerf wall.
10% hydrogen and 90% nitrogen or argon usually gives good general-purpose
results.
Surface finish:
Arc current and arc voltage are found to be most significant parameter which
affects cut quality of plasma arc cut .
A lower value of arc current and arc voltage was found to produce better
surface finish. As the increase in thermal content of the arc was observed to
spoil the surface finish and increase the kerf width with increase in HAZ.
Large thickness of w/p with less cutting speed inc. the quality of cut.
surface finish achieved on the machined surface
is 5 to 75 micron
 Metallurgical effects/HAZ
 Heat affected zone is a function of thickness of the work material, plasma arc
system and material types. Heat affected zone it may be around 0.75 mm to
5 mm
 The highest quality plasma cut is usually obtained when maximum thermal
intensity is used.

Kerf
 Kerf is defined as the width of material that is removed by a cutting process.
Kerf is affected by three major variables.
 Increase in the current, top kerf width also increases.
 Cutting Speed. Slower travel speeds will result in a wider kerf
 Lowering standoff will lead to a narrower kerf and eventually loss of cut.
 Thickness of work: the plate gets thicker; the kerf gets wider.
 Standoff distance:
Due to the columnar shape of the plasma jet, a wide range of tip-to-work
piece spacing is allowable. This permits machine cutting along warped or
irregular surfaces. General consideration includes:
 1. Better quality cuts usually result from a short standoff distance since
arc divergence is less and the thermal intensity of the arc is greater.
 2. Excessively close standoff distance can promote arcing due to the
accumulation of slag drops on the tip.
 3. Increased power input is necessary when the standoff distance is
great.
 4. Standoff distance can range

from 6.5-76.2 mm.

Application
 It gives faster production rate. Much faster than the EDM and LBM
process
 Very hard and brittle metals can be machined.
 Small cavities can be machined with good dimensional accuracy.
 Mild steel of 6mm thick can be cut at 3m/min
 Profile cutting of metals especially of stainless steel and aluminium can
be very easily done by PAM
 Operating costs are less when compared to oxy-fuel torch
 Can be automated
 Disadvantage:
 It is uneconomical for bigger cavities to be machined.
 Smoke and noise
 Sharp corners are difficult to produce because of the wide diameter of
the plasma stream
 Burr is often produced
 Taper on the work piece may occur
 Its initial cost is very high.
In IBM, a stream of charged atoms (ions) of an inert gas, such as argon,
is accelerated in a vacuum by high energies and directed toward a solid
work piece. The beam removes atoms from the work piece by
transferring energy and momentum to atoms on the surface of the
object. When an atom strikes a cluster of atoms on the work piece, it
dislodges between 0.1 and 10 atoms from the work piece material.
Ion beam machining (IBM) takes place in a vacuum chamber using
charged ions fired from an ion source toward the work piece by means
of an accelerating voltage. It is the process of knocking out atoms from
the work-piece surface by the kinetic energy transfer from incident ion
to the target atoms. The process is, therefore, called ion etching, ion
milling, or ion polishing. The mechanism of material removal in IBM
differs from that of EBM. ION beam machining is the process based on
the sputtering off phenomenon.
A heated tungsten filament acts as the cathode, from which electrons
are accelerated by means of high voltage (1 kV) toward the anode.
During the passage of these electrons from the cathode toward the
anode, they interact with argon atoms in the plasma source, to produce
argon ions.
Ar +e−→Ar++2e
 Sputtering off: knocking out atoms from the work-piece surface by the kinetic energy
transfer from incident ion to the target atoms.
 Removal of atoms will occur when the actual energy transferred exceeds the usual binding
energy
 Several atoms or molecules will be ejected out and the bombarding ion will become
implanted deep within the material
 Energies greater than binding energy of 5 to 10 electron volt are needed to effect the
removal of atoms.
 The mechanism of material removal in this process differs from those in E B M and P B M
that is electron beam machining, and plasma beam machining. In ion beam machining the
atoms are ejected from the surface by other ionized atoms, which bomber the work
materials. Accordingly, this process is also known as ion itching, ion milling, or iron
polishing.
 Ion beam machining is generally a surface finishing process in which the material removal
takes place by sputtering of ions. It is also called etching process. This is different process
from electric discharge, electron beam, laser beam and plasma arc machining
 1. Ions energy. The energy of ions is determined by the accelerating potential of ion source
electrodes and for ion beams
 2. Ion current. The ion current, ion current density determines the sputtering rate.
 3. Ion beam power. The ion beam power or power density defines the material sputtering
rate and IBF run productivity
 4. Working Gas. The working gas determines the optical component material sputtering
yield,
 5. Angle of incidence
 6. Optical Motion pattern

Factor affecting Material removal rate :

 Sputtering yield (MRR) is a function of atomic number, binding energy, grain size, no. of
electrons shell, etc. of the work-piece material.
The sputtering yield is dependent on the atomic weight of the incident ion. ions. having
high atomic number will yield high MRR.
Angle of incidence: sputtering yield increases gradually reaches a maximum at an ion
incidence angle of nearly 500 and after that decreases rapidly. As the ion incidence angle
increases, more atoms of the work-piece can be knocked out or sputtered away easily from
the surface of work-piece
Machining depth increases with increase in current density .

Factors affecting surface finish :

Surface roughness increases with increase in size of the grain structure
, ion energy and current density.
 An increase in angle of incidence increases the surface roughness,
 For low current density and energy, the smaller value of surface roughness
Surface roughness increases for incident angle from 0 0 to 500 then decreases rapidly.
 Heat affected zone in IBM can be limited
to1μm. The mechanism of material removal in
IBM is different from EDM or LBM. The material
removal is at atomic level. So the heat affected
zone is very negligible.
 Process capability  Application
 1. It is applied mostly in micro-
 Machining of small dimensions machining of electronic components.
as 10 to 100 Nano-meter are 2. Typical materials that can be
possible, using ion beam

etched included glass, alumina,
 Machining accuracy levels ± 1 % quartz, crystal, silica, agates,
with repeatability is been porcelains, numerous metals, cermet
reported. and oxides.
 Smoothening to a surface finish  3. It is also being used to deposit
of less than 1 micro meter can be materials such as platinum, tungsten
obtained. and silicon oxide insulators on other
 Etching rates vary up to 2000 Å material substrate.
per min.
 4. Ion beam machining is an ideal
 Tolerances in the vicinity of + process for nano-finishing of high
50 Å to - 50 Å are possible. melting point hard and brittle
Accuracy of the etching process materials such as ceramics,
is considerably high mainly due semiconductors, diamond etc.
to the small amount of material
removal.  5. The processes can be applied to
the manufacturing of ultra-fine
 As there is no load on the precision parts of electronic and
work-piece while finishing, it is mechanical devices.
also suitable for finishing of very
thin objects, optics and soft  6. Material removal takes place in the
material. form of removal of atom or molecule
from the surface of the work-piece.
 Possible to achieve surface
finish in the order of a fraction of
the size of an atoms