MAJOR TECTONIC ELEMENTS IN

OCEAN:Continental Margins and

Ocean Basins
 Margins & Basins
• Ocean depths versus elevations above
sea-level.
• Difference between a continental
margin and ocean basin.
• Passive versus active continental
margins.
• Margin Features
• Basin Features
I. MAPPING THE OCEAN FLOOR

Bathymetry – measurement of ocean depths

and the shape or topography of the ocean
floor
Echo sounder (also referred to as sonar)
• Invented in the 1920s
• Primary instrument for measuring depth
• Reflects sound from ocean floor
Ocean Drilling
Vessel JOIDES
Resolution. Fig. 7.1
This scientific
drilling ship is
equippped to drill 5
miles below the
ocean surface. To
date, it has drilled
over 500 wells
worldwide. Together
with its earlier
sistership, the
Glomar Challenger,
they have drilled
over 1500 wells.
Bathymetry: a map of the ocean floor
Early bathymetric studies were often performed using a weighted
line to measure the depth of the ocean floor.
Vw ~= 1500 m/s (Pres, Temp,
• Echo sounding Salinity)
• Multibeam Systems
• Satellite Altimetry
Echo Sounders Bounce Sound off the
Seabed

5
Echo sounder and
multibeam sonar

Figure 9.11
PRIOR TO THE 1960’S MOST GEOLOGISTS CONSIDERED THE OCEAN FLOORS TO
BE GENERALLY FEATURELESS PLAINS, THE OCEANIC CRUST TO BE VERY OLD
AND TOPOGRAPHICALLY FEATURELESS. IT WAS ALSO ASSUMED TO BE FIXED
IN PLACE. BY 1970, ALL THIS HAD CHANGED.
Topography of Ocean Floors

Cross section of the

Atlantic ocean basin and
the continental United
States, showing the
range of elevations.
Ocean depth is clearly
greater than the average
height of the continent,
but general range of
contours is similar.

8
Same scale for comparison

‘real’ scale – no exaggeration 9

 THE OCEANS OF EARTH
The vast world ocean
Four main ocean basins
•Pacific Ocean - the largest and
deepest
•Atlantic Ocean – about half
the size of the Pacific Ocean
•Indian Ocean – slightly
smaller than the Atlantic
•Arctic Ocean – about 7
percent the size of the Pacific

Earth is often referred to as the blue planet

•71% of Earth’s surface is represented by oceans and marginal seas
•Continents and islands comprise the remaining 29
Oceans represent 97% of the Hydrosphere
 Land
Hemisphere
&
Water
Hemisphere
Figure 9.1
 Gravitational Anomalies:
Bathymetry of ocean floor-ridges, shelves

12
Compare Land versus
Ocean Topography:
The ocean cover over 75% of
Earth’s surface area.
Mean depth of ocean (3,790 m) is
about 4-times that for mean land
elevation (840 m).
Furthermore, the total relief
(difference between high and low
points) is slightly more for the
ocean (11 km deep trenches) than
on land (8.8 km).
 Continental and Oceanic Crust
Continental Crust (Granitic)
• Residue of Long-Continued Partial Melting
• Thick and Light
• Ancient: > 2.5 b.y.
Oceanic Crust (Basaltic)
• Derived Directly From Mantle
• Thin and Dense
• Young: < 200 m.y.
Continents have thick, light, granitic crust, Oceans have
thin, dense, basaltic crust
Earth Has Two Kinds of Crust

2. Continents have thick, light, granitic crust, Oceans have thin, dense, basaltic crust
Makeup of Ocean Crust

Features on the sea floor and edges of continents are products

of plate tectonics
THE OCEAN FLOOR CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS
(A) CONTINENTAL MARGINS – THE SUBMERGED OUTER EDGE OF A
CONTINENT
(B) OCEAN BASIN – THE DEEP SEAFLOOR BEYOND THE CONTINENTAL
MARGIN

THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF CONTINENTAL MARGINS

(A) PASSIVE OR TRAILING MARGINS: MARGIN OF CONTINENT THAT
MOVES AWAY FROM SPREADING CENTER – ATLANTIC-STYLE MARGINS
(ALSO ARTIC OCEAN, ANTARCTICA AND INDIAN OCEAN). VERY LITTLE
VOLCANIC OR EARTHQUAKE ACTIVITY IS ASSOCIATED WITH PASSIVE
MARGINS.
(B) ACTIVE OR LEADING MARGINS: PLATE BOUNDARY LOCATED
ALONG A CONTINENTAL MARGIN – OCEAN TRENCHES WHERE THERE IS
SUBDUCTION OF OCEANIC LITHOSPHERE – NARROW, STEEP, WITH
VOLCANIC MOUNTAINS (WEST COAST OF THE AMERICAS). ACTIVE
MARGINS ARE THE SITE OF VOLCANIC AND EARTHQUAKE ACTIVITY.
18
DEFINING CONTINENTAL MARGINS AND OCEAN BASINS:

MARGINS ARE THE SUBMERGED OUTER EDGE OF THE CONTINENTAL CRUST.

CONSISTING OF THE “SHELF “AND “SLOPE”. THE CONTINENTAL MARGIN
EXTENDS TO WHERE THE GRANITIC CONTINENTAL CRUSTAL ROCK STOPS AND
THE OCEAN CRUST BASALT BEGINS. THIS POINT IS ASSOCIATED WITH THE “RISE”.
Oceans cover
Continental Crust at
the margins.
This area is shelf
and slope and
represents 11.4% of
the Earth’s area.
Ocean basins are
Ocean
about evenly divided
plains
in surface area
29.8%
between ridges and
plains.
 Fig. 7.19

Model for sea-floor spreading showing expansion of ocean ridges (divergent) and arc-
trench (convergent) systems. Three lithospheric plates are shown moving over the weak
low-velocity zone of the upper mantle. Magmas are produced in arcs by heating along
the subduction zone. Deep earthquakes are concentrated in the relatively cool, brittle
downgoing slab. Shallower earthquakes occur under the spreading ridges. The 1000 C
contour illustrates the contrast between hot upper mantle beneath ridges and cooler
region beneath the arcs.
THREE MAJOR TOPOGRAPHIC
UNITS OF THE OCEAN FLOOR
1. CONTINENTAL MARGINS (ACTIVE
AND PASSIVE)
• ACTIVE MARGINS
• PASSIVE MARGINS

2. OCEAN BASIN FLOOR

3. MID-OCEAN RIDGE
GEOLOGICAL PROVINCES OF OCEAN BASIN
1. Continental Margins
• Boundaries between continental and oceanic crust
• Accumulate sediment deposits from rivers and streams
a. Continental shelf
b. Continental slope
c. Continental rise
2. Deep-Ocean Basins
3. Mid-Ocean Ridges
4. Hot Spots
 Continental Margins
• Shelf
• Slope
• Rise
• Active: Subduction Zones. Sometimes Called
Leading Edge
• Passive: No Subduction. Sometimes Called
Rifted or Trailing Edge
Features on the sea floor and edges of continents are products of plate tectonics
 A Continental Margin

Features on the sea floor and edges of continents are products of plate tectonics
 Continental Margins

• Region where continental crust meets oceanic crust

• Continental Shelf
• Shelf Break
• Continental Slope
• Continental Rise 28
Major topographic divisions of
the North Atlantic Ocean
Continental Margins:
Active: These are margins with intense earthquake and/or volcanic activity
due to their intimate association with convergent and transform plate
boundaries (e.g. west coast of South America). Short shelf; steep slopes.

Passive: These are often distant from a divergent plate boundary (e.g. east
coast of North America). Long shelf; gradual slope.

Recall that convection currents of mantle are the primary

force that drives plate movement.
 I - Continental margins
Passive continental margins
• Found along most coastal areas that surround
the Atlantic Ocean
• Not associated with plate boundaries
• Experience little volcanism and
• Few earthquakes
• Wider sandy beaches
 Continental Margins
• Shelf Break
Edge of the continental shelf
Change in slope

• Continental Slope
Extends from break to ocean basin
Steep (3 – 6 degrees)
As high as 25 degrees
Little/no deposition
32
Evolution of a Passive Margin

Features on the sea floor and edges of continents are products of plate tectonics
Anatomy of a Passive Margin

Features on the sea floor and edges of continents are products of plate tectonics
Features of a passive
continental margin
DETAILED CROSS-SECTION OF A PASSIVE MARGIN
Cretaceous &
Atlantic Margin Cenozoic sediments
Jurassic salt

What is the relative

age of the basalt? Triassic rift valley sediments
 Passive continental margins

• Comprises three features:

– Continental Shelf
– Continental Slope
– Continental Rise
Anatomy of a passive margin

(~ 140 m)

deep

38
sediments accumulate here, thickness varies
Geology

Geological Provinces
1. Continental Margins
a. Continental shelf
• Shallowest part of continental margin
• Underlie ~8% of ocean surface
• Richest, most productive parts of ocean
• Some parts exposed during times of low sea level and eroded
by rivers and glaciers now are submarine canyons
• Varies in width from 1 km (Pacific coast of S Am) to 750+
km (Arctic coast of Siberia)
• Ends at shelf break, usually at 120-200 m but up to 400+ m
depth.
 Passive continental margins
• Features comprising a passive
continental margin
1. Continental shelf
• Flooded extension of the
continent
• Contains oil and important
mineral deposits

Extends from coast to ~200km on average. It’s narrow for active margins associate with
subduction. Shelf width also varies with sea level (+5 to -120 m over last 2.8 My) and
marine processes (like scouring and sediment movement, especially for passive
margins). Average slope is 0.2º, pretty flat! Shelf area represents 7.4% of oceans, but has
some of the highest biological productivity. Max depth is 150m at shelf break.
 Continental Shelves
• Gently sloping (~0.5 degrees)
• Depositional environments
• Average width 65 km (40 miles)
• Average depth 130 m (430 feet)
• Narrow along Active margins
• Wide along Passive margins

41
Continental Shelves:
broad shallow extension of the continents (~75km wide)
Regions of deposition (rivers, glaciers, scrapped marine deposits,
calcium carbonate)
Large bedform features, reworked by tides, storms, waves

42
 Passive continental margins

• Features comprising a passive continental

margin
2. Continental slope
• Marks the seaward edge of the continental shelf
• Relatively steep structure
• Submarine canyons and turbidity currents
Continental slope lies just beyond the shelf and has a large
slope average of 4º, but steeper slopes of active margins have
been measured as steep as 25º. Ends at the rise.
Continental Slopes:
continental crust thins into oceanic crust
steep (~20km, 1-25 degrees), 5deg Pacific, 3deg Atlantic
extend to depths between 1500-4000 m

44
Turbidity currents

Figure 13.10
Submarine Canyons Form at the Junction between
Continental Shelf and Continental Slope
During last glacial period sea
level was ~120m lower so
rivers cut through the upper
parts of the continental shelf
to deposit their sediment load
at shelf break.

These are features of some continental margins. They cut into the
continental shelf and slope, often terminating on the deep-sea floor
in a fan-shaped wedge of sediment.
46
 Turbidity Currents
• Fast moving avalanches of mud and sand scour
slopes
• Form turbidite deposits
• 90 km/hr (56 mi/hr)

Turbidite bed
ancient deposit, exposed to
erosion, graded deposits:
largest particles at bottom
47
48
 Submarine Canyon
• Steep V shape channel, incised in the
continental slope (and shelf)
• Created by

Rivers during the last low stand (some)

Turbidity currents

49
 Continental margins
Passive continental margins
• Features comprising a passive continental
margin

3. Continental rise
• Found in regions where trenches are absent
• Continental slope merges into a more gradual
incline – the continental rise
• Thick accumulation of sediment
Continental rise begins at bottom of the continent. Basalt underlies sediments of the
rise. Slope is 0.5º.

Continental rise grades into the abyssal plains (flat) which extend to the base of the mid-
ocean ridge system.
 Continental Margins
• Continental Rise
Base of the continental slope
slope 0.5 – 1 degree
Depositional environment

Formed by:
Turbidity currents
Underwater landslides
51
Continental Rise:
Fan like deposit where the continental slope intersects the abyssal
plains
Formed by turbidity currents

52
 Active continental margins

• Continental slope descends abruptly into a

deep-ocean trench
• Located primarily around the Pacific Ocean
• Accumulations of deformed sediment and
scraps of ocean crust form accretionary wedges
• Some subduction zones have little or no
accumulation of sediments (narrow beaches)
 Major ocean trenches

Trenches are arc-shaped depressions in the ocean floor caused by the subduction of
a converging ocean plate.
Most trenches are around the edges of the active Pacific. Trenches are the deepest
places in Earth’s crust, 3 to 6 kilometers (1.9 to 3.7 miles) deeper than the adjacent
basin floor. The ocean’s greatest depth is the Mariana Trench where the depth54
reaches 11,022 meters (36,163 miles) below sea level.
Active margins are associated with subduction of seafloor
under continental crust, forming a deep-sea trench.
Trenches also form from subduction of old ocean crust under
younger ocean crust, on whose margin arc islands form.
Active margin of Oregon. Note crinkled
feature created by sediments scraped off
during subduction of the Jaun de Fuca
Plate (view from north to south)
An active continental margin
 Active continental margins
Deep-ocean trenches
• Long, relatively narrow features
• Deepest parts of ocean
• Most are located in the Pacific Ocean
• Sites where moving lithospheric plates plunge
into the mantle
• Associated with volcanic activity
• Volcanic islands arcs (Japan)
• Continental volcanic arcs (Andes, Cascades mts)
 II - OCEAN BASIN FLOOR

Abyssal plains
• Likely the most level places on Earth
• Sites of thick accumulations of sediment
• Found in all oceans
 Seamounts and guyots
• Isolated volcanic peaks
• Many form near oceanic ridges
 FEATURES OF THE DEEP OCEAN
• MID-OCEAN RIDGES
• ABYSSAL PLAINS AND HILLS
• FRACTURE ZONES
• OCEANIC TRENCHES
• SEAMOUNTS
• SUBMARINE CANYONS
• SUBMARINE FANS
Seafloor: 4000 – 6000 m water depth, 30% of the Earth’s surface
Abyssal Plain: vast, flat plain extending from the base of the
continental slope.
Ocean Basins: sections of the abyssal plain separated by continental
margins, ridges, and rises.

FEATURES ON THE SEA FLOOR AND EDGES OF CONTINENTS ARE PRODUCTS OF PLATE TECTONICS
 sections of the abyssal plain separated by
Basins  continental margins, ridges, and rises.

62
SEA FLOOR FEATURES
Flat-topped seamounts eroded by wave
action are called guyots.

Abyssal hills are small, extinct volcanoes or rock

intrusions near the oceanic ridges. 63
Seamounts are volcanic projections from the ocean floor that do not rise above sea
level. Flat-topped seamounts eroded by wave action are called guyots
Abyssal hills are flat areas of sediment-covered ocean floor found between the
continental margins and oceanic ridges. Abyssal hills are small, extinct volcanoes
or rock intrusions near the oceanic ridges.
64
2.1 Abysal Plains and Hills
Moving away from the ridge system the basalt cools
and thins, becoming denser. Sediments accumulate and the
topography flattens as sediments cover the rough features
observed at the ridge (see echogram of younger seafloor).
 By depths of 3,500 to 5,500 m the plains are mostly flat. Abyssal
hills and valleys at the edge of the ridge and beyond are due to more
dramatic faults and volcanoes (seamounts and guyots).

Sediments kilometers deep, particularly those at the continental rise, will

form into sedimentary rock due to intense pressure from above, a
process called lithification.
Sediments at 4,010 m under Drake Passage. Rippled due to
influence of the strong Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
Ocean Basins:
Dominated by abyssal plains and mid-ocean ridges (spreading centers).
 Ocean basin floor
Seamounts and guyots
• May emerge as an island
• May sink and form flat-topped seamounts
called guyots or tablemounts
 III - MID-OCEAN RIDGE

• Mid-ocean ridge characterized by;

– An elevated position
– Extensive faulting
– Numerous volcanic structures that have
developed on newly formed crust
 Mid-ocean ridge
• Interconnected ridge system is the longest
topographic feature on Earth’s surface
• Over 70,000 kilometers (43,000 miles) in length
• Twenty-three percent of Earth’s surface
• Winds through all major oceans
• Along the axis of some segments are deep
down faulted structures called rift valleys
 Mid-ocean ridge
• Consist of layer upon layer of basaltic rocks
that have been faulted and uplifted
• Mid-Atlantic Ridge has been studied more
thoroughly than any other ridge system
MID-OCEAN RIDGES AND RISES

An oceanic ridge is a mountainous chain of young, basaltic rock

at an active spreading center of an ocean. 73
MID-OCEAN (OCEANIC) RIDGES
Spreading centers are associated with intense volcanism, creating new
basaltic crust. They are of immense distance (65,000 km), elevation (2km from
abyssal plain), and global area (22%). Running perpendicular to breaks in the
ridge axis are fracture zones, the active area between ridge segments is a
transform fault.
Adjacent to the ridge axis
seawater gets sucked into
fissures in the basalt. This
seawater becomes super-
heated by the magma, and
now contains extremely high
amounts of dissolved
minerals. When the mineral
laden super-heated water
“vents” to the surface it can
create dramatic chimney
structures that bellow “black
smoke” (actually mineral
precipitates). These
chimneys and other hot
spring features of the ridge
axis are collectively referred
to as hydrothermal vents.
Hydrothermal vents are sites where superheated water containing dissolved
minerals and gases escapes through fissures, or vents. Cool water (blue arrows) is
heated as it descends toward the hot magma chamber, leaching sulfur, iron, copper,
zinc, and other materials from the surrounding rocks. The heated water (red
arrows) returning to the surface carries these elements upward, discharging them
at hydrothermal springs on the seafloor.
http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/vents/index.html
77
There are only a few manned
submersibles in the world that
can explore hydrothermal vent
communities (e.g. Alvin)
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
seafloor with little
sediment among rocky
outcroppings
 SEAFLOOR SEDIMENTS

Ocean floor is mantled with sediment

Sources
• Turbidity currents
• Sediment that slowly settles to the bottom from
above
Thickness varies
• Thickest in trenches – accumulations may
approach 10 kilometers
 Seafloor sediments
Thickness varies
• Pacific Ocean – about 600 meters or less
• Atlantic Ocean – from 500 to 1000 meters thick
Mud is the most common sediment on the
deep-ocean floor
 Seafloor sediments
Types of seafloor sediments
1. Terrigenous sediment
• Material weathered from continental rocks
• Virtually every part of the ocean receives some
Fine particles remain suspended for a long time
• Oxidation often produces red and brown colored
sediments
 Seafloor sediments
Types of seafloor sediments
2. Biogenous sediments
• Shells and skeletons of marine animals and plants
• Most common are calcareous oozes produced from
microscopic organisms that inhabit warm surface
waters
• Siliceous oozes composed of skeletons of diatoms
and radiolarians
• Phosphate rich materials derived from the bones,
teeth, and scales of fish and other marine organisms
 Seafloor sediments
Types of seafloor sediments
3. Hydrogenous sediment
• Minerals that crystallize directly from seawater
• Most common types include
• Manganese nodules
• Calcium carbonates
• Metal sulfides
• Evaporites
Distribution of marine sediments

Figure 13.17
Deep Ocean Sediments

6. Deep ocean sediment comes from

the continents and marine organisms
Where Sediment Comes From

Deep ocean sediment comes from the continents and marine organisms
Atlantic Sediments
 Seafloor sediments
Distribution
• Coarse terrigenous deposits dominate
continental margin areas
• Fine-grained terrigenous material is common in
deeper areas of the ocean basin
• Hydrogenous sediment comprises only a small
portion of deposits in the ocean
• There are a few places where very little
sediment accumulates (Mid-ocean ridges)
RESOURCES FROM THE SEAFLOOR

Energy resources
• Oil and gas
• Gas hydrates
Other resources
• Sand and gravel
• Evaporative salts
• Manganese nodules
 Take-Away Points
1. The earth has two kinds of crust; Continents have thick, light,
granitic crust, Oceans have thin, dense, basaltic crust
2. Near shore, the features of the ocean floor are similar to those of
the adjacent continents because they share the same granitic
basement. The transition to basalt marks the edge of the
continent and divides ocean floors into two major provinces,
The submerged outer edge of a continent is called the
continental margin. The deep-sea floor beyond the continental
margin is called the ocean basin
3. Features on the sea floor and edges of continents are products of a
combination of plate tectonics; and alsothe processes of erosion
and deposition.
4. Submarine landslides are important on continental margins
5. Deep ocean sediment comes from the continents and marine
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE RIFTING
PASSIVE RIFTING:
TENSIONAL STRESSES IN THE CONTINENTAL
LITHOSPHERE CAUSE IT TO FAIL,
ALLOWING HOT MANTLE ROCKS
TO PENETRATE THE LITHOSPHERE. CRUSTAL
DOMING AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY ARE ONLY
SECONDARY PROCESSES.

ACTIVE RIFTING:
ASSOCIATED WITH THE IMPINGEMENT ON
THE BASE OF THE LITHOSPHERE OF A
THERMAL PLUME OR SHEET. CONDUCTIVE
HEATING FROM THE MANTLE PLUME, HEAT
TRANSFER FROM MAGMA GENERATION, OR
CONVECTIVE HEATING MAY CAUSE THE
LITHOSPHERE TO THIN.
IF HEAT FLUXES OUT OF THE
ASTHENOSPHERE ARE LARGE ENOUGH,
RELATIVELY RAPID THINNING OF THE
CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE CAUSES
ISOSTATIC UPLIFT.
TENSIONAL STRESSES GENERATED BY THE
UPLIFT MAY THEN PROMOTE RIFTING.
PERKEMBANGAN DARI PASIVE KE ACTIVE MARGIN
MCKENZIE’S (1978A) UNIFORM STRETCHING
MODEL
The total subsidence in an extensional basin is made of two components:
- an initial fault controlled subsidence; which is dependent on
the initial thickness of the crust and the amount of stretching
beta;
- and a subsequent thermal subsidence caused by relaxation of
lithospheric isotherms to their pre-stretching position, and
which is dependent on the amount of stretching alone.

- Whereas the fault-controlled subsidence is modelled as instantaneous,

- The rate of thermal subsidence decreases exponentially with time.

- This is the result of a decrease in heatflow with time. The heat flow
reaches 1/e of its original value after about 50 Myr for a “standard”
lithosphere,
- so at this point after the cessation of rifting, the dependency of the
heat flow on beta is insignificant.
WILCONIAN CYCLE
CONTINENTAL EVOLUTION DESCRIBED
BY THE "WILSON CYCLE"
• -CONTINENTS RIFT, FORMING NEW
OCEAN BASINS
• -OCEAN BASINS OPEN AND WIDEN
• -EVENTUALLY THEY CLOSE BY
SUBDUCTION AND CONTINENTAL
COLLISION AND MOUNTAIN
BUILDING OCCUR
• -AS A RESULT, VOLCANIC ISLAND
ARCS AND CONTINENTAL
FRAGMENTS ACCRETE UNTO THE
CONTINENTS
• -THE CONTINENTS LATER RIFT
APART AGAIN
• -THUS OCEANS ARE BORN, LIVE, AND
DIE WHEREAS CONTINENTS NEVER
SUBDUCT BUT ARE REARRANGED
DAYA PENGGERAK
 DAYA PENGGERAK
Ocean RR
FSP
FSU FRP
RO RB
RDO
RDC
 DAYA PENGGERAK

PUSH RIDGE

110
TektonikLem
 DAYA
PENGGERAK

DITEMUKAN BENTUK
PUNGGUNG RAKSASA YANG
MEMBENTANG DARI UTARA-
SELATAN DAN MEMBELAH
BENUA

SESAR-SESAR DENGAN
UKURAN DAN JARAK DISEBUT :
PERGESERAN YANG BESAR “MID ATLANTIC RIDGE”
YANG MEMOTONG PUNGGUNG
DAN LANTAI SAMUDERA

111
TektonikLem
DAYA PENGGERAK
 HUBUNGAN Vp dan Vu
Back arc

Vu
Vsb
Where the Plates Meet