ENERGY AND RESPIRATION

Learning Outcomes: Respiration 12.2 Part 2

List the four stages in aerobic respiration (glycolysis, link
reaction, Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation) and state
where each occurs in eukaryotic cells
Outline glycolysis as phosphorylation of glucose and the
subsequent splitting of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (6C) into two
triose phosphate molecules, which are then further oxidized to
pyruvate with a small yield of ATP and reduced NAD
Explain that, when oxygen is available, pyruvate is converted
into acetyl (2C) coenzyme A in the link reaction
 Outline the Krebs cycle, explaining that oxaloacetate (a 4C
compound) acts as an acceptor of the 2C fragment from
acetyl coenzyme A to form citrate (a 6C compound), which is
reconverted to oxaloacetate in a series of small steps
Explain that reactions in the Krebs cycle involve
decarboxylation and dehydrogenation and the reduction of
NAD and FAD
Outline the process of oxidative phosphorylation including the
role of oxygen as the final electron acceptor (no details of the
carriers are required)
 Explain that during oxidative phosphorylation:
1.energetic electrons release energy as they pass through
the electron transport system
2. The released energy is used to transfer protons across the
inner mitochondrial membrane
3. protons return to the mitochondrial matrix by facilitated
diffusion through ATP synthase providing energy for ATP
synthesis (details of ATP synthase are not required)
h) carry out investigations to determine the effect of factors
such as temperature and substrate concentration on the rate
of respiration of yeast using a redox indicator (e.g. DCPIP or
methylene blue) (Part 1)
 Describe the relationship between structure and function of
mitochondrion using diagrams and electron micrographs
Distinguish between respiration in aerobic and anaerobic
conditions in mammalian tissue and in yeast cells, contrasting
the relative energy released by each (a detailed account of the
total yield of ATP from the aerobic respiration of glucose is not
(required)
 Explain the production of a small yield of ATP from respiration
in anaerobic conditions in yeast and in mammalian muscle
tissue, including the concept of oxygen debt
Explain how rice is adapted to grow with its roots submerged
in water in terms of tolerance to ethanol from respiration in
anaerobic conditions and the presence of aerenchyma
Carry out investigations, using simple respirometers, to
measure the effect of temperature on the respiration rate of
germinating seeds or small invertebrates( part 1)
List the four stages in aerobic
respiration
Respiration is a process in which organic
molecules act as a fuel.
The organic molecules are broken down in a
series of stages to release chemical potential
energy, which is used to synthesize ATP.
The main fuel for most cells is carbohydrate,
usually glucose
The Glycolytic Pathway
The Breakdown of Glucose Occurs in four stages:
Glycolysis(Cytoplasm)
The Link Reaction(Matrix of the mitochondria)
Kerbs Cycle(Matrix of the mitochondria)
Oxadative Phosphorylation(inner mitochondrial
membrane (Cristae)
Note: Link Reaction, Kerbs Cycle,
Oxadative Phosphorylation
Occurs Only when Oxygen is
Present
Glycolysis
Its the splitting or the lysis of glucose with
(6 carbon atom)to form two molecules of
pyruvate with (3 carbon atom), which
occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
First stage is phosphorylating glucose using
2 ATP, this is done so the reaction is easier
The net gain from glycolysis
2 ATP and 2 Reduced NAD

The end product, pyruvate still contain large

amount of chemical potential energy therefore, if
oxygen available then the Krebs cycle and oxidative
phosphorylation is continued to make use of this
energy
 Explain that, when oxygen is available, pyruvate is converted
into acetyl (2C) coenzyme A in the link reaction

Link Reaction
It take place in the matrix of the mitochondria
When oxygen is present Pyruvate passes by active
transport (using energy from ATP) from the cytoplasm,
through the outer and inner membranes of a
mitochondrion and into the mitochondrial matrix
It is the decarboxylated (that is carbon dioxide is
removed)
Then it is dehydrogenated
Then Combined with coenzyme A (CoA) to give acetyl
coenzyme A.
 The link Reaction

Coenzyme A is a complex molecule of a nucleoside (adenine + ribose) with

a vitamin (pantothenic acid) and acts as a carrier of acetyl groups (2C) to
the Krebs cycle. The hydrogen removed from pyruvate is transferred to
NAD

The Net Gain= CO2, Reduced NAD

Remember that there is 2 pyruvate molecules formed in
glycolysis so the net gain is 2 times
Krebs cycle or citric acid cycle or
tricarboxylic acid cycle
The Krebs cycle is a closed pathway of enzyme
controlled reactions.
Although reaction is a part of aerobic respiration the
reaction make use of no oxygen it is only necessary for
oxidative phosphorylation
Its aim is the release of hydrogen's in the form of
reduced NAD & reduced FAD which can be used in
oxidative phosphorylation (step 4) to provide energy to
make ATP
 Acetyl coenzyme A combines with a
four carbon compound
(oxaloacetate) to form a six-carbon
compound (citrate)
The citrate is decarboxylated and
dehydrogenated in a series of steps,
to yield carbon dioxide, which is
given off as a waste gas, and
hydrogen's which are accepted by
the carriers NAD and FAD (flavin
adenine dinucleotide)
Oxaloacetate is regenerated to
combine with another acetyl
coenzyme A
The Net gain
2co2
1 Reduced FAD
3 Reduced NAD
1 ATP
The Net gain in two turns
4co2
2 Reduced FAD
6 Reduced NAD
2 ATP

The Net gain in glycolysis +link reaction +Krebs cycle

10 Reduced NAD
2 Reduced FAD
4 ATP
Oxidative Phosphorylation And the Electron
Transport Chain ETC
 In the final stage of aerobic respiration, oxidative
phosphorylation, the energy for the phosphorylation of ADP
to ATP comes from the activity of the electron transport chain.
Reduced NAD and FAD are passed to the electron
transport chain
Reduced NADs and FADS release Hydrogen which then
splits up into H+ and 2e-
Electrons flow down ETC release energy to pump H+ ions
from the matrix to the intermembrane space producing
a proton gradient
 H+ then move down conc. gradient through ATP synthase
and form H2O by combining with oxygen and the 2e-
ADP + Pi = ATP , also occurs while the hydrogen passes
through the ATP synthase and uses hydrogen's electrical
potential energy for chemiosmosis
Realistically
Reduced NAD Produces 2.5 molecules of ATP
Reduced FAD Produces 1.5 molecules of ATP
So 10*2.5+2*1.5= 28 Molecules of ATP + 4 ATP (from the net
gains of 3 cycles)Total=32 ATP molecules
 Here is a table that shows all the ATP
Made and Used.
In this Process oxygen has a role to
play as the final electron acceptor.
In the mitochondrial matrix, an
electron and a proton are transferred
to oxygen, reducing it to water.
The process of aerobic
respiration is complete
Describe the relationship between structure and function of
mitochondrion using diagrams and electron micrographs
Mitochondria are rod-shaped, or filamentous organelles about 0.5 1.0 m in
diameter.
The number of mitochondria in a cell depends on its activity. Mammalian liver
cells contain between 1000 and 2000 mitochondria, occupying 20% of the cell
volume.
Each mitochondrion is surrounded by an envelope of two phospholipids
membranes. The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner is much folded
inwards to form cristae (singular crista). These give the inner membrane a
large total surface area for enzymes and cytochromes (protein carriers)
needed for the electrons transfer and ATP production
Cristae in mitochondria from different type of cells show considerable
variation, but, in general, mitochondria from active cells have longer, more
densely packed cristae than those from less active cells.
 The matrix of the mitochondrion is the site of the link reaction and the
Krebs cycle where substrates and enzymes can freely interact, and
contains the enzymes needed for these reactions. It also contains small
(70 S) ribosome for protein synthesis (enzymes), and several identical
copies of looped mitochondrial DNA for self replication

The diagram of mitochondria (x 15 000)

 Distinguish between respiration in aerobic and anaerobic
conditions in mammalian tissue and in yeast cells
Feature Aerobic Anaerobic
Oxygen Used Not Used
Carbon dioxide Produced In Alcoholic
Fermentation only
Energy Large Amount Small Amount
Site Mitochondria or Cytoplasm
cytoplasm
The relative energy 38 ATP Molecules 2 ATP In alcoholic
released Fermentation
2 ATP In Lactic Acid
Fermentation
Respiration without oxygen
Anaerobic Respiration It is one step reaction (Glycolysis), takes place in
cytoplasm, in absence of oxygen.
When no oxygen is present hydrogen can not be disposed
in the ETC therefore chain stops and reduced NAD not
oxidised hence soon Krebs cycle also stops. An alternative
acceptor (pyruvate) is reduced hence producing lactate

In Plants
Glycolysis takes place normally
Then pyruvate is decarboxylated to ethanal and then
the hydrogen from reduced NAD is passed to ethanal
and then its reduced to ethanol by the enzyme alcohol
dehydrogenase
This releases the NAD and allows glycolysis to continue.
Reaction can not be reversed
This conversion is called alcoholic fermentation
IN Animals
Pyruvate is reduced to lactate by the
enzyme lactate dehydrogenase
Reaction could be reversed also by
the same enzyme
This happens by transporting the
lactate produced to the liver by the
blood plasma and is converted back
to pyruvate
Some (about 20%) is oxidized directly
to form CO2 and H2O in the liver
when oxygen is available
The remained is converted by the
liver to form glycogen
 The oxygen needed to allow this removal of lactate is called
the oxygen debt
Adaptations of rice for wet fields
Can respond to flooding by growing taller; always has
parts such as leaves and flowers above water
Contains loosely packed aerenchyma cells in the
cortex
of stems (formed by cell death) allowing diffusion for
oxygen to be transported easily to areas deprived
Contains ridges to trap oxygen underwater
Can tolerate high levels of ethanol
Produce more alcohol dehydrogenase
which breaks
down ethanol
Ethanol stimulates gibberellin, which in
turn stimulates
cell division hence increasing length
 NOTE
A detailed account of the
total yield of ATP from the aerobic respiration of
glucose is not
(required) I just included it for extra information