ERT 209

HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER

FOR BIOPROCESS
ENGINEERING

EVAPORATOR
Purpose of Evaporation
To concentrate solution by removing the vapor from a boiling liquid
solution
In the majority of cases, evaporation refers to the removal of water
from an aqueous solution.
Example: concentration of aqueous solutions of sugar, sodium chloride,
sodium hydroxide, glycerol, glue, milk, and orange juice.
In these cases the concentrated solution is the desired product and the
evaporated water is normally discarded.
In a few cases, water, which contains a small amount of minerals, is
evaporated to give a solids-free water to be used as boiler feed, for
special chemical processes.
Evaporation processes to evaporate seawater to provide drinking water
have been developed and used.
Processing Factors
1. Concentration in the liquid
- low viscosity: high mass transfer coefficient
- high viscosity: low mass transfer coefficient

2. Solubility
- solubility increases with temperature
- crystallization may occur when a hot concentrated solution is
cooled to room temperature

3. Temperature sensitivity of materials

- food and biological materials may be temperature sensitive and
degrade at higher temperature or after prolonged heating.
4. Foaming or frothing
- food solution such as skim milk and some fatty-acid solution form a
foam or froth during boiling.

5. Pressure and temperature

- high operating pressure: high boiling point

6. Scale deposition and materials of construction

- Some solutions deposit solid materials called scale on the heating
surfaces.
- results in the overall heat-transfer coefficient decreases and
evaporator must be cleaned.
TYPES OF EVAPORATION
EQUIPMENT
1. Open kettle or pan
2. Horizontal-tube natural circulation evaporator
3. Vertical-type natural circulation evaporator
4. Long-tube vertical-type evaporator
5. Falling-film-type evaporator
6. Forced-circulation-type evaporator
7. Agitated-film evaporator
8. Open-pan solar evaporator
FIGURE 8.2-1. Different types of evaporators: (a) horizontal-tube type,
(b) vertical-tube type,
FIGURE 8.2-1. Different types of evaporators: (c) long-tube vertical type,
(d) forced-circulation type.
Methods of Operation of Evaporators

1. Single-effect evaporators
2. Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators
3. Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators
4. Parallel-feed multiple-effect evaporators
1. Single-effect evaporators

FIGURE 8.2-2. Simplified diagram of single-effect evaporator

 The feed enters at TF
Saturated steam at TS enters the heat- exchange section.
Condensed steam leaves as condensate or drips.
The solution in the evaporator is assumed to be completely mixed
Hence, the concentrated product and the solution in the evaporator
have the same composition.
Temperature T1 is the boiling point of the solution.
The temperature of the vapor is also T1, since it is in equilibrium
with the boiling solution.
The pressure is P1, which is the vapor pressure of the solution at T1.
 If the solution to be evaporated is assumed to be dilute and like water,
then 1 kg of steam condensing will evaporate approximately 1 kg of
vapor (if the feed entering has TF near the boiling point)
The concept of an overall heat-transfer coefficient is used in the
calculation of the rate of heat transfer in an evaporator
The general equation can be written

Where:
q is the rate of heat transfer in W (btu/h),
U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient in W/m2. K (btu/h ft. F),
A is the heat-transfer area in m2 (ft2),
TS is the temperature of the condensing steam in K (F),
T1 is the boiling point of the liquid in K (F).
 Single-effect evaporators are often used when the required capacity of
operation is relatively small and/or the cost of steam is relatively cheap
compared to the evaporator cost.

However, for large-capacity operation, using more than one effect will
markedly reduce steam costs.
2. Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators

A single-effect evaporator as shown in Fig. 8.2-2 is wasteful of energy.

The latent heat of the vapor leaving is not used but is discarded.
Much of this latent heat, however, can be recovered and reused by
employing a multiple - effect evaporator.
A simplified diagram of a forward-feed triple-effect evaporation system
is shown in Fig. 8.2-3.
FIGURE 8.2-3. Simplified diagram of forward -feed triple-effect evaporator.
 If the feed to the first effect is near the boiling point at the pressure in
the first effect, 1kg of steam will evaporate almost 1 kg of water.
The first effect operates at a temperature that is high enough that the
evaporated water serves as the heating medium to the second effect.
Here, again, almost another kg of water is evaporated, which can then
be used as the heating medium to the third effect.
As a very rough approximation, almost 3 kg of water will be evaporated
for 1 kg of steam in a three-effect evaporator.
Hence, the steam economy, which is kg vapor evaporated/kg steam
used, is increased.
This also holds approximately for more than three effects.
However, the increased steam economy of a multiple-effect evaporator
is gained at the expense of the original first cost of these evaporators.
 In forward-feed operation as shown in Fig. 8.2-3, the fresh feed
is added to the first effect and flows to the next in the same
direction as the vapor flow.
This method of operation is used when the feed is hot or when
the final concentrated product might be damaged at high
temperatures.
The boiling temperatures decrease from effect to effect. This
means that if the first effect is at P1 = 1 atm abs pressure, the
last effect wilt be under vacuum at a pressure P3.
3. Backward-feed multiple-effect evaporators
In the backward-feed operation shown in Fig. 8.2-4 for a triple-effect
evaporator, the fresh feed enters the last and coldest effect and
continues on until the concentrated product leaves the first effect.

FIGURE 8.2-4. Simplified diagram af backward-feed triple-effect evaporator.

 This method of reverse feed is advantageous when the fresh feed is
cold, since a smaller amount of liquid must be heated to the higher
temperatures in the second and first effects.
However, liquid pumps must be used in each effect, since the flow is
from low to high pressure.
This reverse-feed method is also used when the concentrated
product is highly viscous.
The high temperatures in the early effects reduce the viscosity and
give reasonable heat-transfer coefficients.
4. Parallel-feed multiple-effect evaporators
Parallel-feed in multiple-effect evaporators involves the adding of fresh
feed and withdrawal of concentrated product from each effect.
The vapor from each effect is still used to heat the next effect.

This method of operation is mainly used when the feed is almost

saturated and solid crystals are the product, as in the evaporation of
brine to make salt.
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient in Evaporators
The overall heat-transfer coefficient U in an evaporator is composed of:
1. The steam-side condensing coefficient, which has a value of
about 5700 W/m2.K (1000 btu/h ft2.F);
- The steam-side condensing coefficient outside the tubes can be
estimated using Eqs. (4.8-20) through (4.8-26).
2. The metal wall, which has a high thermal conductivity and
usually a negligible resistance;
3. The resistance of the scale on the liquid side; and the liquid film
coefficient, which is usually inside the tubes.
Calculation Methods for Single-Effect
Evaporator

1. Heat and Material Balances for Evaporators

2. Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation
3. Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions
4. Enthalpy - Concentration Charts of Solutions
Heat and Material Balances for Evaporators
The basic equation for solving for the capacity of a single-effect
evaporator is Eq. (8.2-1), which can be written as

where T (K, oF) is the difference in temperature between the

condensing steam and the boiling liquid in the evaporator.
In order to solve Eq. (8.4-1) the value of q in W (btu/h) must be
determined by making a heat and material balance on the evaporator
shown in Fig. 8.4-1.
FIGURE 8.4-1 Heat and mass balance for single-effect
evaporator
 The feed to the evaporator is F kg/h (lbm/h) having a solids content of
xF mass fraction, temperature TF, and enthalpy hF J/kg (btu/lbm).

Coming out as a liquid is the concentrated liquid L kg/h (lbm/h) having

a solids content of xL, temperature T1, and enthalpy hL.

The vapor V kg/h (lbm/h) is given off as pure solvent having a solids
content of yv = 0, temperature T1, and enthalpy Hv.

Saturated steam entering is S kg/h (lbm/h) and has a temperature of TS

and enthalpy of HS.

The condensed steam leaving of S kg/h is assumed usually to be at TS,

the saturation temperature, with an enthalpy of hS.

This means that the steam gives off only its latent heat, , where:
= HS hS (8.4-2)
 Since the vapor V is in equilibrium with the liquid L, the
temperatures of vapor and liquid are the same.

Also, the pressure P1 is the saturation vapor pressure of the liquid

of composition xL at its boiling point T1. (This assumes no boiling-
point rise.)

For the material balance, since we are at steady state, the rate of
mass in = rate of mass out. Then, for a total balance,

F=L+V (8.4-3)

For a balance on the solute (solids) alone,

F xF = L xL (8.4-4)
 For the heat balance, since the total heat entering = total heat leaving,

heat in feed + heat in steam = heat in concentrated liquid + heat in vapor +

heat in condensed steam (8.4-5)

This assumes no heat lost by radiation or convection. Substituting into

Eq. (8.4-5),

Substituting Eq. (8.4-2) into (8.4-6),

 The heat q transferred in the evaporator is then

In Eq. (8.4-7) the latent heat of steam at the saturation

temperature TS can be obtained from the steam tables in
Appendix A.2.

However, the enthalpies of the feed and products are often not
available; these enthalpy concentration data are available for only
a few substances in solution.
Hence, some approximations are made in order to make a heat balance.
These are as follows:

1. It can be demonstrated as an approximation that the latent heat of

evaporation of 1 kg mass of the water from an aqueous solution can
be obtained from the steam tables using the temperature of the
boiling solution T1 (exposed surface temperature) rather than the
equilibrium temperature for pure water at P1.

2. If the heat capacities cpF of the liquid feed and cpL of the product are
known, they can be used to calculate the enthalpies.
EXAMPLE 8.4-1. Heat-Transfer Area in Single-Effect Evaporator

A continuous single-effect evaporator concentrates 9072 kg/h of a

1.0 wt % salt solution entering at 311.0 K (37.8C) to a final
concentration of 1.5 wt %. The vapor space of the evaporator is at
101.325 kPa (1.0 atm abs) and the steam supplied is saturated at
143.3 kPa. The overall coefficient (U = 1704 W/m2.K. Calculate the
amounts of vapor and liquid product and the heat-transfer area
required. Assume that, since it is dilute, the solution has the same
boiling point as water.

F, L, V = ?
xF , xL , = ?
P 1 , T1 , = ?
PF , TF , hF = ?
TS , HS = ?
HV = ?
Solution:

The flow diagram is the same as in Fig. 8.4-1. For the material balance,
substituting into Eq. (8.4-3),
F=L+V (8.4-3)
9072 = L + V

Substituting into Eq. (8.4-4) and solving,

F xF = L x L (8.4-4)
9072(0.01) = L(0.015)
L = 6048 kg/h of liquid

Substituting into Eq. (8.4-3) and solving,

V = 3024 kg/h of vapor
 Assume cpF = 4.14 kJ/kg.K
Boiling point of dilute solution is assumed to be that of water at 101.32 kPa,
T1 = 373.2 K (1000C) as datum temperature.
Latent heat of water Hv at 373.2 K (from steam tables in Appendix A.2) is
2257 kJ/kg.
Latent heat of the steam at 143.3 kPa (saturation temp., TS = 383.2 K) is
2230 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of the feed can be calculated from:

T1 = 373.2 K; hL = 0 ; substitute into Eq. (8.4-7) gives

9072(4.14)(311.0 - 373.2) + S(2230) = 6048(0) + 3024(2257)

S = 4108 kg steam/h
 The heat q transferred through the heating surface area A is,
from Eq. (8.4-8),
q=S() (8.4-8)
q = (4108)(2230)(l000/3600) = 2 544 000 W

Substituting into Eq. (8.4-1), where T = TS - T1,

q = 2 544 000 = UA T
= 1704(A)(383.2 - 373.2)
Solving, A = 149.3 m2
Effects of Processing Variables on Evaporator Operation

1. Effect of feed temperature.

The inlet temperature of the feed has a large effect on the operation
of the evaporator.
If feed enter the evaporator at 311.0 K - cold as compared to the
boiling temperature of 373.2 K.
About 1/4 of the steam used for heating is used to heat the cold feed
to the boiling point.
Hence, only about 3/4 of the steam is left for vaporization of the
feed.
2. Effect of pressure.

In Example 8.4-1 a pressure of 101.32 kPa abs was used in the vapor
space of the evaporator.
This set the boiling point of the solution at 373.2 K and gave T for use
in Eq. (8.4-1) of 383.2 - 373.2, or 10 K.
In many cases a larger T is desirable, since, as T increases, the
heating-surface area A and cost of the evaporator decrease.
To reduce the pressure below 101.32 kPa (to be under vacuum), a
condenser and vacuum pump can be used.
For example, if the pressure were reduced to 41.4 kPa, the boiling point
of water would be 349.9 K
The new T would be 383.2 - 349.9 = 33.3 K.
A large decrease in heating-surface area would be obtained.
3. Effect of steam pressure.

Using higher-pressure saturated steam increases T, which

decreases the size and cost of the evaporator.
However, high-pressure steam is more costly as well as often being
more valuable as a source of power elsewhere.
Hence, overall economic balances are really needed to determine
the optimum steam pressures.
Boiling-Point Rise of Solutions

In the majority of cases in evaporation, the solutions are not dilute

solutions such as those considered in Example 8.4-1.
In most cases, the thermal properties of the solution being
evaporated may differ considerably from those of water.
The concentrations of the solutions are high enough that the heat
capacity and boiling point are quite different from those for water.
For strong solutions of dissolved solutes the boiling-point rise due
to the solutes in the solution usually cannot be predicted.
However, a useful empirical law known as Duhrings rule can be
applied.
According to this rule, a straight line is obtained if the boiling
point of a solution in C or F is plotted against the boiling point
of pure water at the same pressure for
FIGURE 8.4-2. Duhring lines for aqueous solutions of sodium hydroxide.
EXAMPLE 8.4-2 Use of Dhring Chart for Boiling-Point Rise

As an example of use of the chart, the pressure in an evaporator is

given as 25.6 kPa (3.72 psia) and a solution of 30% NaOH is being
boiled. Determine the boiling temperature of the NaOH solution and
the boiling-point rise BPR of the solution over that of water at the same
pressure.
Solution:

From the steam tables in Appendix A.2, the boiling point of

water at 25.6 kPa is 65.6 C.

From Fig. 8.4-2 for 65.6 C (150 F) and 30% NaOH, the boiling
point of the NaOH solution is 79.5 C (175 F).

The boiling-point rise is 79.5 - 65.6 = 13.9 C (25F).

Enthalpy - Concentration Charts of Solutions

If the heat of solution of the aqueous solution being concentrated in the

evaporator is large, neglecting it could cause errors in the heat
balances.
Should consider the heat-of-solution phenomenon.
If pellets of NaOH are dissolved in a given amount of water, it is found
that a considerable temperature rise occurs; that is, heat is evolved,
called heat of solution.
FIGURE 8.4-3. Enthalpy concentration chart for the system NaOH water
EXAMPLE 8.4-3 Evaporation of an NaOH Solution

An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kg/h (10 000 lbm/h) of

a 20% solution of NaOH in water entering at 60 C (140 F) to a
product of 50% solids. The pressure of the saturated steam used is
172.4 kPa (25 psia) and the pressure in the vapor space of the
evaporator is 11.7 kPa (1.7 psia). The overall heat-transfer
coefficient is 1560 W/m2.K (275 btu/h ft2.F). Calculate the steam
used, the steam economy in kg vaporized/kg steam used, and the
heating surface area in m2.
Solution:

The process flow diagram and nomenclature are the same as in

Fig. 8.4-1.
F = 4536 kg/h
xF = 0.20 wt fraction,
TF = 60 C, P1 = 11.7 kPa,
Steam pressure = 172.4 kPa
xL = 0.50 wt fraction.
For the overall material balance, substituting into Eq. (8.4-3),
F = 4536 = L + V (8.4-3)
Substituting into Eq. (8.4-4) and solving (8.4-3) and (8.4-4)
F xF = L x L
4536 (0.20) = L (0.50)
L = 1814 kg/h
V = 2722 kg/h
 To determine the boiling point T1 of the 50% concentrated solution, we
first obtain the boiling point of pure water at 11.7 kPa from the steam
tables, Appendix A.2, as 48.9 C (120 F).
From the Duhring chart, Fig. 8.4-2, for a boiling point of water of 48.9
oC and 50% NaOH, the boiling point of the solution is T = 89.5 oC (193
1
oF).

Hence,
boiling-point rise = T1 - 48.9 = 89.5 - 48.9 = 40.6 oC (73 oF)
From the enthalpy - concentration chart (Fig. 8.4-3), for 20% NaOH at
60C (140F), hf = 214 kJ/kg (92 btu/lbm). For 50% NaOH at 89.5 C
(193 F), hL 505 kJ/kg (217 btu/lbm).
For the superheated vapor V at 89.5C (193 F) and 11.7 kPa
[superheated 40.6C (73F) since the boiling point of water is 48.9 C
(120 F) at 11.7 kPa], from the steam tables, HV = 2660 kJ/kg (1147
btu/lbm).

An alternative method for calculating the H is first to obtain the

enthalpy of saturated vapor at 48.9 C (120 F) and 11.7 kPa of 2590
kJ/kg (1113.5 btu/lbm).
Then, using a heat capacity of 1.884 kJ/kg K for superheated steam
with the superheat of (89.5 - 48.9)C = (89.5 - 48.9) K,

HV = 2590 + 1.884(89.5 - 48.9) = 2667 kJ/kg

For the saturated steam at 172.4 kPa, the saturation temperature from
the steam tables is 115.6 C (240 F) and the latent heat is = 2214
kJ/kg (952 btu/lbm).

Substituting into Eq. (8.4-7) and solving for S,

Substituting into Eq. (8.4-8),

Substituting into Eq. (8.4-1) and solving,

2002(1000) = 1560(A)(115.6 - 89.5)

Hence, A = 49.2 m2
Also, steam economy = 2722/3255 = 0.836.
Evaporation of Biological Materials
Biological material such as pharmaceuticals, milk, citrus juice and
vegetable extracts are usually heat-sensitive.
Often contain fine particles of suspended matter in solution.
Problems due to bacteria growth: equipment must be designed for easy
cleaning.
Degradation of biological material is a function of the temperature and
length of time.
To keep temperature low, evaporation must be done under vacuum,
which reduces the boiling point of the solution.
To keep the time of contact low, equipment must provide for low
holdup time (contact time) for the material being evaporated.
Typical types of equipment used for biological materials:
1. Long-tube vertical evaporator: condensed milk
2. Falling film evaporator: fruit juices
3. Agitated-film evaporator: rubber latex, gelatin, antibiotics, fruit
juices
4. Heat-pump cycle evaporator: fruit juices, milk, pharmaceuticals