Word classes

Words are fundamental

units in every sentence
Verb be, drive, grow, sing, think
Noun brother, car, David, house
Determiner a, an, my, some, the
Adjective big, foolish, happy
Adverb happily, recently, soon, then,
Preposition at, in, of, over, with
Conjunction and, because, but, if, or
We use a combination of three criteria for
determining the word class of a word:

1.The meaning of the word

2.The form or `shape' of the
word
3.The position or `environment'
of the word in a sentence
Meaning
Using this criterion, we generalize about
the kind of meanings that words convey.
For example, we could group together
the words brother and car, as well as
David, house, and London, on the basis
that they all refer to people, places, or
things. It has also been applied to verbs,
by saying that they denote some kind of
"action", like cook, drive, eat, run, shout,
walk.
it allows us to determine word classes
by replacing words in a sentence with
words of "similar" meaning. For
instance, in the sentence My son cooks
dinner every Sunday, we can replace
the verb cooks with other "action"
words:
My son cooks dinner every Sunday
My son prepares dinner every Sunday
My son eats dinner every Sunday
However, this approach also has some
serious limitations. The definition of a noun
as a word denoting a person, place, or
thing, is wholly inadequate, since it
excludes abstract nouns such as time,
imagination, repetition, wisdom, and
chance. Similarly, to say that verbs are
"action" words excludes a verb like be, as in
I want to be happy.
The form or `shape' of a word
Some words can be assigned to a word class on the basis
of their form or `shape'. For example, many nouns have a
characteristic -tion ending
action, condition, contemplation, demonstration
Similarly, many adjectives end in -able or -ible:
acceptable, credible, miserable, responsible,
suitable
Many words also take what are called INFLECTIONS, that
is, regular changes in their form under certain conditions.
For example, nouns can take a plural inflection, usually by
adding an -s at the end:
car -- cars dinner -- dinners book -- books
Verbs also take inflections:
walk -- walks -- walked -- walking
The position or `environment' of a word in a
sentence
This criterion refers to where words typically
occur in a sentence, and the kinds of words
which typically occur near to them. We can
illustrate the use of this criterion using a simple
example. Compare the following:
[1] I cook dinner every Sunday
[2] The cook is on holiday
we can also apply a replacement test, based on
our first criterion. replacing cook in each
sentence with "similar" words:
Notice that we can replace verbs with
verbs, and nouns with nouns, but we
cannot replace verbs with nouns or nouns
with verbs:
*I chef dinner every Sunday
*The eat is on holiday
It should be clear from this discussion that
there is no one-to-one relation between
words and their classes. Cook can be a verb
or a noun -- it all depends on how the word
is used.
In fact, many words can belong to
more than one word class. Here are
some more examples:
She looks very pale (verb)
She's very proud of her looks (noun)

He drives a fast car (adjective)

He drives very fast on the motorway
(adverb)
chore hero knob dozen hum
A chore is a task that must be done.
A hero is someone who is admired
for doing something great or brave.
A knob is a handle that is usually
round.
A dozen is a group of twelve.
To hum is to sing with the lips closed,
not saying the words.
Open and Closed Word Classes
Some word classes are OPEN, that is,
new words can be added to the class
as the need arises. The class of nouns,
for instance, is potentially infinite
Internet, website, URL, CD-ROM, email,
newsgroup, bitmap, modem,
multimedia
New verbs have also been introduced:
download, upload
The adjective and adverb classes can also
be expanded by the addition of new words.
On the other hand, we never invent new
prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions.
These classes include words like of, the,
and but. They are called CLOSED word
classes because they are made up of finite
sets of words which are never expanded.
Nouns : Many nouns can be recognised by
their endings. Typical noun endings
include:
er/-or actor, painter, plumber, writer
-ism criticism, egotism, magnetism
-ist artist, capitalist, journalist, scientist
-ment arrangement, development,
establishment, government
-tion foundation, organisation,
recognition, supposition
Most nouns have distinctive SINGULAR and PLURAL
forms. The plural of regular nouns is formed by adding -s
to the singular:
Singular Plural
car cars
dog dogs
house houses
However, there are many irregular nouns which do not
form the plural in this way:
Singular Plural
man men
child children
sheep sheep
The distinction between singular and plural is known as
NUMBER CONTRAST.
We can recognise many nouns because they
often have the, a, or an in front of them:
the car, an artist, a surprise, the egg, a review
These words are called articles/determiners

Nouns may take an -'s ("apostrophe s") or

GENITIVE MARKER to indicate possession:
the boy's pen, a spider's web
If the noun already has an -s ending to mark the
plural, then the genitive marker appears only as
an apostrophe after the plural form:
the boys' pens, the spiders' webs
The genitive marker should not be
confused with the 's form of contracted
verbs, as in
John's a good boy (= John is a good boy).

Nouns often co-occur without a genitive

marker between them: rally car, cheese
grater University entrance examination
Common and Proper Nouns
Nouns which name specific people or places
are known as PROPER NOUNS.
John, Mary, London, France
Many names consist of more than one word:
John Wesley, Queen Mary, South Africa
Proper nouns may also refer to times or to
dates in the calendar:
January, February, Monday, Christmas
Thanksgiving
All other nouns are COMMON NOUNS.
Since proper nouns usually refer to
something or someone unique, they do not
normally take plurals. However, they may
do so, especially when number is being
specifically referred to:
There are three Davids in my class
we met two Christmases ago
For the same reason, names of people and
places are not normally preceded by
determiners the or a/an, though they can
be in certain circumstances:
it's nothing like the America I remember
my brother is an Einstein at maths
He is the sachin of our Team
The mathurs are on a holiday trip
Count and Non-count Nouns
Common nouns are either count or non-
count. COUNT nouns can be "counted", as
follows:
one pen, two pens, three pens, four pens...
NON-COUNT nouns, on the other hand,
cannot be counted in this way
this means that count nouns have singular as
well as plural forms, whereas non-count
nouns have only a singular form. It also
means that non-count nouns do not take
Some common nouns may be either
count or non-count, depending on the
kind of reference they have. For
example, in
I made a cake, cake is a count noun,
and the a before it indicates singular
number. However, in I like cake, the
reference is less specific. It refers to
"cake in general", and so cake is non-
count in this sentence.
academic having to do with formal schooling
analyze to study something part by part; to examine it
carefully
ballot paper or card on which a voter marks his or her
choice
bank account money deposited in a bank where it is
held ready for withdrawal by the depositor
consumer person who buys products or services
cultivate to prepare soil and grow crops
detour route used when the regular route is blocked
or closed to traffic
entre the main dish of a meal
etiquette rules of proper conduct; good manners
obligation a legal or moral duty or responsibility
passage a section of a speech or a piece of writing
pedestrians people who are walking instead of driving
or riding
prohibited describes something not allowed; often
forbidden by law
schedule a plan showing dates and times when parts
of a project should be completed
staples common articles or food items kept in
readiness for use
thrive to grow in a strong, healthy way
Use words from the glossary to complete the
sentences.
1. Driving the wrong way on a one-way street is ____
by law.
2. You show consideration for other people when you
follow the rules of _______.
3. When you sign a contract, you take on a legal ____.
4. A customer in a store can also be called a ______.
5. On an essay test, you might be asked to
__________ the causes of Americas Civil War.
6. When you arrive at a polling place, you will be given
a ________.
7. At most intersections, a crosswalk is provided for
______.
8. Your___....history is an important part of your rsum.
9. In order to establish a __________, you must fill out a form
and deposit some money.
10. To ____a garden plot, you will need a shovel, a trowel, and
a hoe.
11. Sugar and flour are ___found in most peoples kitchen
cupboards.
12. Kadai Paneer is the most popular ____served at this
restaurant.
13. Seedlings need plenty of sunshine and water if they are to
__....
14. The teacher asked Tim to read a __from Romeo and Juliet.
15. When roads are being repaired, drivers usually have to
make a ____.
16. Check the bus _______to see where you will have to
transfer to another route.
A noun can function as:
The subject of a verb: Tom arrived.
(who/what)
The complement of the verbs be, become,
seem:
Tom is an actor.
The object of a verb: I saw Tom.
The object of a preposition: I spoke to Tom.
A noun can also be in the possessive case:
Tom's books.
Pronouns
Pronouns are a major subclass of nouns.
We call them a subclass of nouns because
they can sometimes replace a noun in a
sentence.
John got a new job
~He got a new job
Children should watch less television
~They should watch less television
In each case, they refer to people, and so
we call them PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
There are three personal pronouns, and each
has a singular and a plural form:
Person Singular Plural
1st I we
2nd you you
3rd he/she/it they
These pronouns also have another set of forms,
which we show here:
Person Singular Plural
1st me us
2nd you you
3rd him/her/it them
Other Types of Pronoun
Pronoun Type Members
of the Subclass
Possessive mine, yours, his,
hers, ours, theirs

Reflexive myself, yourself, himself,

herself, itself, oneself,
ourselves, yourselves,
themselves

Reciprocal each other, one another

Relative that, which, who, whose,
whom
Demonstrative this, that, these,
those
Interrogative who, what, whom
Indefinite anything, anybody,
anyone, something,
somebody, someone,
nothing, nobody, none,
no , one
ways of cooking something
bake to cook things such as bread or cakes in
an oven :
Tom baked a cake for my birthday.
roast to cook meat or vegetables in an oven :
Roast the potatoes for an hour.
fry to cook food in hot oil :
She was frying some mushrooms.
stir-fry to fry small pieces of food while
moving them around continuously :
stir-fried tofu and bean sprouts
saut to fry vegetables for a short time in a small
amount of butter or oil :
Saut the potatoes in butter.
grill to cook food over or under strong heat :
grilled onion
broil (American English) to cook food under heat :
broiled fish
boil to cook something in very hot water :
He doesnt even know how to boil an egg.
steam to cook vegetables over hot water :
Steam the rice for 15 minutes.
poach to cook food, especially fish or eggs, slowly
in hot water : poached salmon
toast to cook the outside surfaces of bread :
toasted muffins
barbecue to cook food on a metal frame over a
fire outdoors :
I thought we could barbecue some mushrooms.
microwave to cook food in a microwave oven :
The beans can be microwaved.
Numerals and Determiners
Numerals are determiners when they appear
before a noun. In this position, cardinal
numerals express quantity:
one book, two books, twenty books
In the same position, ordinal numerals express
sequence:
first impressions, second chance, third prize
The subclass of ordinals includes a set of words
which are not directly related to numbers.
These are called general ordinals, and they
include last, latter, next, previous, and
The Ordering of Determiners
Determiners occur before nouns, and they
indicate the kind of reference which the nouns
have. Depending on their relative position
before a noun, we distinguish three classes of
determiners.
Predeterminers : they specify quantity in the
noun which follows them, and they are of three
major types:
1. "Multiplying" expressions, including
expressions ending in times: twice my salary
double my salary , ten times my salary
2. Fractions: half my salary one-third my salary
3. all and both: all my salary, both my salaries
Predeterminers do not normally co-occur:
*all half my salary
Central Determiners
The definite article the and the indefinite article
a/an are the most common central determiners:
all the book , half a chapter
My, your, his, their, our can also be a central
determiner. all your money, all his/her money
all our money, all their money
The demonstratives, too, are central determiners:
all these problems twice that size
Postdeterminers
Cardinal and ordinal numerals occupy the
postdeterminer slot:
the two children, his fourth birthday
This applies also to general ordinals:
my next project, our last meeting
Other quantifying expressions are also
postdeterminers:
my many friends, our several achievements
Unlike predeterminers, postdeterminers can co-
occur: my next two projects, several other
people
Degrees of indefinite quantity
References to quantity can be definite that is,
we can say exactly how many or how much
We need six eggs and half a kilo of butter
However, most quantifiers are indefinite that is,
they do not tell us exactly how many or much
Are there (any) apples in the bag?
There are (some) apples in the bag (We are not
told how many )
Is there (any) milk in the fridge?
There is (some) milk in the fridge
plural countable nouns uncountable nouns
Approximately how many Approximately how much
There are too many eggs There is too much milk
plenty of eggs plenty of milk
a lot of/lots of eggs a lot of/lots of milk
(not) enough eggs (not) enough milk
a few eggs a little milk
very few eggs very little milk
not many eggs not much milk
hardly any eggs hardly any milk
no eggs no milk
Some quantity phrases used as determiners
always take of
Weve had a lot of answers (a lot of answers =
determiner + noun)
But when they are used as pronouns, of is
dropped Weve had a lot (a lot as a pronoun)
Quantifiers which always take of before
nouns/pronouns include :
a couple of , dozens of , the majority, a minority
of, a number of , a bit of , a lot of , lots of ,
plenty of
The use of 'some' and 'any'
Some (= indefinite quantity or amount) is normally
used
-in the affirmative
There are some eggs in the fridge (i e an unstated
number) There is some milk in the fridge (i e an
unstated quantity)
-in questions when we expect (or hope to get) the
answer 'Yes'
Have you got some paper-clips in that box? (i e I know
or I think you've got some and expect you to say 'Yes')
- in offers, requests, invitations and suggestions when
we expect the answer 'Yes' or expect implied
agreement
Would you like some (more) coffee? (expecting 'Yes)
May I have some (more) coffee? (expecting 'Yes )
- to mean 'certain but not all
Some people believe anything they read in the papers
Any (= indefinite quantity or amount) is normally
used
-in negative statements containing not or nt
We haven't got any shirts in your size. There isn't any
milk in the fridge
-in questions when we are not sure about the answer
or expect No
Have you got any paper-clips in the box? (i e I dont
know if you've got any
- in sentences containing a negative word
other than not such as hardly never seldom
or without or with if or whether
Theres hardly any petrol in the tank
We reached there without any problems
I don t know if/whether there's any news from
Harry

- with at all and (more formally) whatever for

special emphasis
/ haven't got any idea at all/whatever about
what happened
a thought (n) / (be lost) in thought
We all agreed that this was an extremely
interesting ..
He didn't hear what I said since he was
completely ..
imagination (n) / imaginative (adj)
Poets, artists, and inventors need a lively
..
He has a very
consider (sb as : v) / take into consideration
His boss him as not suitable for the job.
They will take every serious offer into .
regard (as) (v) / take sth seriously
He simply refused to take anything ~
Ihim as a very dependable person
a belief (n) / believe in sth (v)
After the accident, she seemed to have lost her ~ in
God.
He has always..his ability to succeed.
estimate (v)
We had .that the work would take about an
hour but we were proved wrong.
make up your mind / (change your) mind
I can't make ~ my ~ about what to do next.
He got his bike, but then he . his mind and went
by bus
preparing food
grate to cut cheese, carrot etc into small
pieces by rubbing it against a special tool :
Grate the cheese and sprinkle it over the
top of the pasta.
melt to make butter, chocolate etc so that
they become liquid :
Melt the butter, chocolate, and 1 teaspoon
of cream over a low heat.
sieve British English , sift American
to put flour or other powders through a
sieve
Sift the flour and cocoa before adding to
the rest of the mixture.
chop to cut something into pieces,
especially using a big knife :
Chop up the vegetables.
dice to cut vegetables or meat into small
square pieces :
Dice the carrots and then fry them in
butter.
season to add salt, pepper etc to food :
Season the meat before grilling.
crush to use a lot of force to break
something such as seeds into very small
pieces or into a powder :
Add one clove of crushed garlic.
beat/whisk to mix food together quickly with a
fork or other tool :
Whisk the egg whites until they form soft peaks.
stir to turn food around with a spoon :
Stir the sauce gently to prevent burning.
knead to press dough (= a mixture of flour and
water ) many times with your hands when you
are making bread :
Knead the dough for ten minutes, until smooth.
drizzle to slowly pour a small amount of a liquid
onto something :
Drizzle with olive oil.
serve to put different foods together as part of a
meal : Serve with rice and a salad. | Serve the
dinner
The word context means the
a.surrounding or background of something.
b.list of contents in a book.
c. index at the back of a book.
d. best way to complete a sentence.
When you call something explicit, you mean it
a. is very complicated. b. is very simple.
c. is clearly stated.d. cannot be easily understood.
The word stationery describes
a.something that doesnt move.
b.a statue in a public park.
c. writing paper and envelopes.
d. a service place, such as a gas station.
The word dessert describes
a.a dry landscape with cactus and no grass.
b.the tropical part of a jungle.
c.the ending of a story.
d. the sweet part served at the end of a meal.

To persecute someone is to
a.try them for a crime.
b.count them as part of a group.
c. find someone guilty of a crime.
d. punish or pursue in an extreme manner.
Not...any'and no'
An alternative way of forming a negative is with
no
There aren't any buses after midnight
There are no buses after midnight
Negatives with not any are used in normal
conversation but we must always use no (Never
'not any*) if we wish to begin a sentence with a
negative
No department stores open on Sundays
'No' and 'none'
No meaning not any is a determiner and can
only be used before a noun; none stands on its
own as a pronoun:
There isn't any bread
Theres no bread Theres none
Special uses of 'some', 'any' and 'no'
'Some'
some can be used to refer to an unspecified
person or thing
Some Mr. Mathur was asking about you.
There must be some book on this topic.
Any'
any can occur in affirmative within two senses:
'the minimum/maximum':
He II need any help he can get
-'I don't care which':
you can give me Any book to read

'much' and 'many'

We normally use much(+ uncountable) and
many(+ plural countable): - in negative
statements:
/ haven't much time
- in questions:
Is there much milk in that carton?
Have you had many inquiries?
In everyday speech we usually avoid using much
and many in affirmative statements.
When much and many are modified by much
and far (much far too much far too many) they
tend to be used in the affirmative:
Your son gets much/far too much pocket money
There are far too many accidents at this junction
A lot of lots of and plenty of (+ plural countable
or singular uncountable) are normally used in
the affirmative. They also occur in questions,
especially when we expect the answer 'Yes':
/ ve met a lot of/lots of interesting people.
Don't worry, We ve got plenty of time.
Were there a lot of/lots of questions.
A lot of (not lots of or plenty of) can be modified
by quite/rather
Jimmy s caused quite a lot of trouble at his new
school.
The new law has affected rather a lot of people.
Several can only be used with plural countables in
the affirmative:
Weve already had several offers for our flat.
It can also combine with dozen, hundred, thousand,
million etc .
Several hundred people took part in the rally.

'Few' and 'a few'

Few and a few are used with plural countables.
Few is negative, suggesting 'hardly any at all', and is
often used after very.
Mona has had very few opportunities to practise her
English
In everyday speech we prefer not many or hardly
any-,
Mona hasn't had many opportunities to practise her
English.
Mona has had hardly any opportunities to practise
her English.
Few can also convey the idea of 'not as many as
were expected':
A lot of guests were expected but few came.
A few is positive, suggesting 'some, a (small)
number': The police would like to ask him a few
questions
Little' and a tittle'
Little and a little are used with uncountables.
Little (like few) is negative, suggesting 'hardly any at
all' and is often used after very:
He has very little hope of winning this race
In everyday speech we use not much or hardly any:
He hasn't much hope of winning this race
He has hardly any hope of winning this race
Little can also convey 'not as much as expected':
We climbed all day but made little progress
Little occurs in idiomatic 'negative' phrases such as
little point little sense, little use, etc.:
Theres little point in trying to mend it
A little and, in very informal contexts, a bit (of)
are positive, suggesting 'some, a (small)
quantity':
I'd like a little (or a bit of) time to think about it
please.
'Enough'
Enough, meaning 'adequate in quantity or
number', can be used in front of plural
countable nouns and (singular) uncountable
nouns in all kinds of utterances: statements,
questions or negatives:
Have we got enough books to read while we are
on holiday?
Have we got enough food in the house to last
the next few days?
Compare the use of enough, meaning 'of an
adequate degree', after adjectives and adverbs:
Is there enough hot water for me to take a
bath? (quantity)
Is the water hot enough for me to take a bath?
(degree)
'Both', 'all' and 'half + nouns
Both all and half can be used equally with:
- people: both (the) women, all (the) women,
half the women
-things: both (the) forks, all (the) forks. half the
forks
We usually prefer the whole to all the with
singular concrete nouns The whole is not
normally used with plurals and uncountables.
He ate the whole loaf{= all the loaf) by himself.
All and the whole combine with a number of
(often abstract) nouns For example, we can use
all or the whole in: all my business/ my whole
business, all my life/my whole life
jump verb [ intransitive and transitive ] to push
yourself up into the air, over something etc, using
your legs :
The cat jumped up onto the table.
skip verb [ intransitive ] to move forwards with
little jumps between your steps, especially because
you are feeling happy :
The little girl was skipping down the street.
hop verb [ intransitive ] to jump or move around
on one leg :
He was hopping around because hed injured his
foot.
leap verb [ intransitive and transitive ] especially
written to suddenly jump up high or a long way :
The deer leapt over the fence.
bounce verb [ intransitive ] to jump up and down
several times, especially on something that has
springs in it : Children love bouncing on beds.
dive verb [ intransitive ] to jump into water with
your head and arms first :
Zo dived into the swimming pool.
vault / [ intransitive and transitive ] especially
written to jump over something in one movement,
using your hands or a pole to help you : He vaulted
the ticket barrier and ran for the exit.
alumnus a person who has attended or has
graduated from a particular school
[The plural of alumnus is alumni.]
boycott the process of refusing to deal with a
person, organization, or country, usually to express
disapproval or to force acceptance of terms
[This word can act as either a noun or a verb in a
sentence.]
charlatan a person who pretends to have more
knowledge or ability than he or she actually possesses
condiment something used to make food tastier,
such as mustard, ketchup, salt, pepper, or other
seasonings.
'Every' compared with 'each'
Every and each refer to particular people or
things. They can point to more than two Each is
more individual and suggests 'one by one' or
'separately'. We use it to refer to a definite and
usually limited number:
Each child in the school was questioned
This difference is not always important and the
two words are often used interchangeably
Every/Each time I wash the car it rains
Each cannot be modified; every can be modified
by almost nearly, and practically and can be
followed by single:
Almost every building was damaged in the
earthquake
I answer every single letter I receive
We can use not in front of every, but not in front
of each:
Not every house on the island has electricity
'Another' compared with '(the) other(s)'
Another can have two meanings:
- 'additional'/'similar': Do you need another cup?
No I have enough
-'different': Give me another cup, This ones
cracked
Another is followed by a singular noun; other by
a plural noun:
There must be another way of solving the
problem
There must be other ways of solving the
problem
Others is often used in contrast to some:
Some people enjoy exercise others don't
The other + one or a noun refers to a specific
alternative:
/ don't like this shirt, Can I try the other one
please? Compare: Can I try another (one)? (=
any other one, non-specific)
The other (day) can mean 'a few (days) ago' in
time references:
Karen phoned the other day to apologize for her
behaviour
'Either' compared with 'neither'
Either and neither refer to two people things, etc
(singular nouns) only. Either means 'one or the
other' and neither means 'not one and not the
other'
Either' and 'both' compared
Either refers to two things considered
separately. Compare
You cant have either of them (= you can't have
one or the other)
You cant have both of them (= you can have
only one of them)
1. The knock at the door is Uncle Bob!
He can come right in if he turns the _______.
2. The soccer score was one to zero.
Then Mike scored a goal and was the teams
______.
3. Making the bed can be a real bore.
Nonetheless, its your daily _______.
4. While you sing along, my guitar Ill strum.
If you dont know the words, why dont you just
_________?
5. At the dinner table sat my aunt and cousin.
Plus the ten in my family, that made a ______.
1. The meat looked red and uncooked.
( delicious / raw )
2. Maria told the dentist she had a pain in her tooth
( ache / hole )
3. I dont like cherry candy, so Ill trade this one for
lime.
( exchange / sell )
4. We watched the waves from the sandy beach.
shore / desert )
5. The museum is normally closed on Tuesdays.
( seldom / usually )
6. The teachers expect students to arrive on time
7. Randy is almost as tall as his brother.
( exactly / nearly )
8. Sally tells her secrets to her friend Anna.
( sister / pal )
9. She also writes her secrets in a diary.
( journal / newspaper )
10. A tunnel led from the basement to the
garage. ( cellar / barn )
11. The tunnel had a concealed entrance.
( hidden / open )
12. Dont drink from a cup if the edge is chipped.
( rim / glass )
Formation of adjectives
We use adjectives to say what a person, etc is
like or seems like For example, adjectives can
give us information about
Quality :a beautiful dress, a nice day
Size: a big car a, small coin, a tall man
Age: a new handbag, a young man
Temperature: a cool evening, a hot day
Shape: a round table, a square box
Colour: blue eyes, grey hair, a white horse
Origin: a Japanese camera, a Swiss watch
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives
An adjective is gradable when:
we can imagine degrees in the quality referred to
and so can use it with words like very, too, and
enough- very good too good, less good not good
enough, etc.
we can form a comparative and superlative from it
- (big) bigger, biggest, (good) better, best, etc.
An adjective is non-gradable when:
- we cannot modify it (i.e. we cannot use it with
very too, etc.)
we cannot make a comparative or superlative
from it: e.g. daily, dead, medical, unique, etc.
Attributive and predicative adjectives
The terms attributive and predicative refer to the
position of an adjective in a phrase or sentence.
We say that an adjective is attributive or is used
attributively when it comes before a noun.
an old ticket, a young shop-assistant,
We say that an adjective is predicative or that it is
used predicatively when it comes directly after be
seem, etc. It can be used on its own as the
complement.
This ticket is old
Your mother seems angry
A few adjectives such as old, late and heavy can
take on a different meaning when used
attributively. Compare:
Agatha is very old now (i.e. in years - predicative)
He s an old friend (i.e. I've known him a long time
- attributive)
Your suitcase is very heavy (i.e. in weight -
predicative)
Peter is a heavy smoker (i.e. he smokes a lot -
attributive)
You're late again (i.e. not on time - predicative)
My late uncle was a manager(i.e. he's dead now -
attributive)
Predicative adjectives describing health
The following are used predicatively in connection
with health:
faint, ill, poorly, unwell and well:
What's the matter with him? - He's ill/unwell
He feels faint
How are you - I'm very well thank you/ I'm fine
thanks
Fine relating to health is predicative; used
attributively it means 'excellent' (e.g. She's a fine
woman).
The adjectives sick and healthy can be used in the
attributive position whereas ill and well normally
Predicative adjectives beginning with 'a-'
Adjectives like the following are used only
predicatively:
afloat afraid alight alike, alive alone, ashamed
asleep awake
The children were asleep at 7 but now they're
awake
We can express similar ideas with attributive
adjectives:
The vessel is afloat The floating vessel
The children are afraid The frightened
children
The buildings are alight The burning buildings
A few adjectives can behave in the sense of
'complete', and can be used only in the attributive
position, e.g. mere, out and out, sheer, utter
Ken cant be promoted Hes a mere boy/an out and
out rogue
What you say is sheer/utter nonsense
(Very itself is used as an adjective in fixed
expressions like the very end the very limit, the very
thing I want/need)
Other adjectives which can have the sense of very
when used attributively are: close (a close friend);
complete perfect/total (a complete/perfect/total
fool); pure (pure nonsense); and strong (a strong
supporter).
Some con artists swindle gullible people over the
telephone. To avoid becoming a victim of
telephone fraud, follow these tips provided by the
police:
1. Never give a stranger any personal information.
(This rule applies to any unknown persons seeking
information in person or by mail as well as by
telephone.) Particularly, do not reveal your
address, bank account number, or credit card
number.
2. If a solicitor bothers you with requests for money
or tries to argue, simply hang up.
3. If you suspect the telephone offer is a fraud,
WORD SEARCH
1. What seven-letter verb in the reading means
to cheat or trick someone for financial gain?
---------
2. What seven-letter verb in the reading means
disturbs or pesters in an annoying way? _____
3. What seven-letter verb in the reading means
to guess that something might be true? ______
4.What eight-letter adjective in the reading means
who easily believes what others tell
him/her
5. What nine-letter noun in the reading means
one who sells goods by going place to place
Adjectives before or after nouns with a change in
meaning
A few adjectives change in meaning depending on
whether they are used before or after a noun.
Some of these are:
The concerned (= worried) doctor rang for an
ambulance
The doctor concerned (= responsible) is on holiday
This elect (= specially chosen) body meets once a
year
The president elect (= who has been elected) takes
over in May .
It was a very involved (= complicated) explanation
Present employees (= those currently employed)
number 3 000
Employees present (= those here now) should
vote on the issue
Janet is a responsible girl (= She has a sense of
duty.)
The girl responsible (= who can be blamed) was
expelled.
Adjectives like the following are used after
The, never after a/an to represent a group as a
whole.
e g the blind, the deaf, the living/the dead, the
rich/the poor, the young/the old the
unemployed.
So the deaf means a group of people who are all
deaf.
Andrew was sent to a special school for the deaf
These adjectives are followed by a plural verb
You can always judge a society by the way the
old are cared for.
We use adjectives, not adverbs, after verbs of
perception, particularly those relating to the senses,
such as look, taste
e.g. appear strange, feel rough, look good, look
well seem impossible, smell sweet sound nice, taste
bad That pie looks good but it tastes awful
A day in the country sounds nice
The hot water feels better
The words used after these verbs are adjectives
because they are describing the subject of the verb,
not modifying the verb itself. They function as
adjectival complements
Compare: You look well (Well = 'in good health' is
an adjective.)
Conceited frustrate lavish opponent
To be conceited is to have too high of an
opinion of yourself.
To frustrate someone is to keep that person
from doing or getting something desirable.
Lavish means very generous in giving or
spending; much more than enough.
To lavish is to spend or give generously.
Opponents are individuals or teams, etc.,
that work against one another in a fight,
contest, election, etc.; they are foes.
party a social event when a lot of people meet
together to enjoy themselves by eating, drinking,
dancing etc :
Were having a party for jyotis 20th birthday.
get-together an informal party :
Christmas is the perfect time for a family get-together.
ball a large formal party where people dance :
the end of term ball
rave a large party which is held outside or in an empty
building, where people dance to music and take illegal
drugs
reception a large formal party, especially one after a
wedding or to welcome an important person :
The wedding reception is at a nearby hotel.
function a large formal or official party :
He has been asked to play at many corporate
functions (= an official party held by a company ) .
celebration a party or special event that is
organized in order to celebrate something :
the countrys 50th anniversary celebrations
bash informal a party, especially a big one that a lot
of famous people go to used especially in
journalism : the stars birthday bash
do British English informal a party : Were having a
do to celebrate Margarets birthday.
dinner party a party where people are invited to
someones house for an evening meal : I met him
at a dinner party.
house-warming (party) a party that you have
when you move into a new house : Were having a
house-warming next week.
cocktail party ( also drinks party British English ) a
party that people go to in order to talk and have a
drink together for a few hours
fancy-dress party British English , costume party
American English a party where people dress in
special clothes, for example to look like a famous
person or a character in a story
hen party especially British English a social
event just before a wedding, for a woman who
is getting married and her female friends
stag night British English , bachelor party
American English a social event just before a
wedding, for a man who is getting married and
his male friends
baby/wedding shower American English an
event at which people give presents to a
woman who is going to have a baby or get
married
conceited arrogant/ calm/ modest

frustrate please/ resist/ hinder

lavish thrifty/ ancient/ extravagant

opponent foe/ comrade/ assistant

Idioms

A blind date try to do something new

without any help

A blind spot ignore something that you

know is actually wrong

Turn a blind eye meet some stranger to start a

relationship

Fly blind something that you dont

understand at all.
The comparison of adjectives
Spelling of comparative and superlative forms
1 Most one-syllable adjectives form their
comparatives and superlatives like clean: -er and -est
are added to their basic forms.
Cold, cool, great, hard, high, low, neat, new, short
small thick weak.
2 Many one-syllable adjectives end with a single
consonant after a single vowel-letter. This consonant
doubles in the comparative and superlative, as in
the case of big.
fat, sad, thin, wet.
Compare adjectives like full small tall, etc. which end
with a double consonant and form their
comparatives and superlatives like clean: tall taller
tallest.
Many one-syllable adjectives end in -e, like nice.
These add -r and -st to the basic form
Other examples like nice are: fine, large, late, safe
strange. Free
Some adjectives, like tidy, end in -y with a consonant
letter before it. In the comparative and superlative -y
is replaced by i (tidy, tidier, tidiest). Other examples
like tidy are: busy dirty, dry early easy empty, funny,
heavy ready, sleepy. (But note shy shyer shyest.)
Some irregular comparative and superlative forms
adjective comparative superlative
good better best
bad worse worst
far farther farthest
further furthest
old older oldest
elder eldest
Most longer adjectives (i.e. of two or more
syllables) combine with the quantifiers more /
less to form their comparatives and most / least
to form their superlatives.
pleasant more pleasant most pleasant
less pleasant least pleasant
careful more careful most careful
less careful least careful
expensive more expensive most expensive
less expensive least expensive
Some two-syllable adjectives can form their
comparatives and superlatives either with -er and
-est or with more less and most/least
Clever, common, gentle, handsome, happy, narrow,
quiet, shallow, simple
Adjectives ending in -ed and -ing such as
amused/amusing require more, less and most/least
to form their comparatives and superlatives.
The use of the comparative form of adjectives
We use the comparative when we are comparing
one person or thing, etc. with another. Comparison
may be between:
- single items: Jane is taller than Alice
-a single item and a group:
Jane is taller than other girls
-two groups:
The girls in class 3 are taller than the girls in class
1
Two comparatives (adjectives or adverbs), joined
by and, can convey the idea of general increase or
decrease:
'the' + comparative + 'the'
This construction can be used with adjectives or
adverbs to show cause and effect: when one
change is made, another follows:
The more money you make, the more you
spend.
The more expensive petrol becomes, the less
people drive.
The use of the superlative form of adjectives
We use the superlative when we compare a
person or thing with more than one other in the
same group. The definite article the is used
Unfortunately, theres nothing we can do to change the
situation.
alter especially written to change something so that it
is better or more suitable :
Can we alter the date of the meeting?
adapt to change something slightly in order to improve
it or make it more suitable :
You can adapt the recipe to suit your own
requirements.
adjust to make small changes in the position or level of
something in order to improve it or make it more
suitable : How do you adjust the volume on the
television?
modify especially written to make small changes to
something such as a piece of equipment, a set of
ideas, or a way of behaving in order to improve it or
use it in a different way :
a modified version of the original program.
reform to change a law, system, organization etc so
that it is fairer or more effective :
plans to reform the tax system
revise to change a plan, idea, law etc because of
new information and ideas :
In July, China revised the rules for foreign
investment. reorganize to change the way that a
system or organization works : Weve had to
reorganize our database
transform to change something completely,
especially so that it is much better :
Putin transformed the Russian economy.
distort to explain facts, statements etc in a way
that makes them seem different from what they
really are
Dont try to distort the truth.
twist to dishonestly change the meaning of a
piece of information or of something that
someone has said, in order to get an advantage
for yourself or to support your own opinion :
He accused reporters of twisting his words.
adv. miserably
(a) first in place or rank; primary; leading; main
(b) without pleasure or happiness; wretchedly; poorly
(c) before; at an earlier time; in the past
(d) Relatively
adj. reticent
(a) keeping quiet; reserved; showing self-restraint
(b) exacting; nagging; annoying
(c) costly; precious; opposite of cheap
(d) real; current
adj. thorough
(a) negotiated by an intermediary; settled through a
middleman
(b) sticking together; forming a unit or union; united
adj. precise
(a)exact; not more and not less
(b)continuing for many years; perpetual; everlasting
(c) Pre payment of an item
(d) faithful; true to one's obligations
adv. minutely
(a) In short time
(b) therefore; so
(c) meticulously; scrupulously; diligently; thoroughly
(d) in a fitting manner; firmly
v. segment
(a) to identify; to know; to admit
(b) to play an important role
(c) to direct; to lead; to instruct
DEFINITION
_____ very hungry
_____ remove from power
_____ give up ones position or power
_____ sag or collapse under pressure
_____ pray; beg
_____ feeling hopeless, dejected, or very sad
_____ keep away from; shun
 A.) The unhappy citizens wanted to DEPOSE
the queen.
B.) Her doctor told her to ESCHEW fatty foods.
C.) He felt DESPONDENT after losing the big
game.
D.) After not eating all day, he was FAMISHED at
dinnertime.
E.) The bridge BUCKLED because there were too
many trucks on it.
F.) The angry citizens forced the king to
ABDICATE the throne.
G.) He ENTREATED the judge for mercy.
Adverbs
The word adverb (ad-verb) suggests the idea of
adding to the meaning of a verb. This is what many
adverbs do. They can tell us something about the
action in a sentence by modifying a verb, i.e. by
telling us how, when, where, etc. something
happens or is done:
Paul played the violin beautifully
However, adverbs can also modify:
- adjectives: very good, awfully hungry
- other adverbs: very soon, awfully quickly
One-word adverbs ending in '-ly'
A great many adverbs, particularly those of
manner, are formed from adjectives by the addition
of-/y: e.g. patient patiently. Some adverbs of
frequency are also formed in this way: e.g. usual
usually, as are a few adverbs of degree: e.g. near,
nearly.
One-word adverbs not ending in '-ly'
Many adverbs cannot be identified by their
endings. These include adverbs of manner
which have the same form as adjectives, e.g
fast, adverbs of place {there); of time {then); of
frequency {often)
Adverbial phrases
Adverbial phrases of manner, place and time
are often formed with a preposition + noun:
in a hurry, in the garden, at the station
Position of adverbs of manner
Adverbs of manner: after the object or after
the verb
The most usual position of adverbs of manner is
after the object or after the verb
-after the object
Look at this photo carefully
-after the verb
Adverbs of place
The idea of place covers
- location Larry is in America
- direction (to away from) Larry went to America
A distinction can be drawn between location and
direction
1 Location adverbials answer the question Where?
and go with 'position verbs' such as be, live stay,
work. They can begin a sentence
In America Larry stayed at the Grand Hotel
2 Direction adverbials answer the questions Where
to? and Where from? They often go with 'movement
verbs' like go and cannot usually begin a sentence
Adverbs of place may be
- words like abroad, ahead, anywhere, everywhere
nowhere, somewhere, away, back, backwards,
forwards here/there left, right, north, south,
upstairs, downstairs
-words like the following, which can also function
as prepositions
Above, behind, below, beneath, underneath
-two words combining to emphasize place, such as
far ahead, far away, over here, over there
Prepositional phrases often function as adverbials
of place
at my mother s, from New York, in hospital, on
Adverbs of time
Adverbs and adverbial phrases of time can refer
to definite time, answering questions like When
(exactly)?
i'II see you tomorrow/on Monday
They refer to duration answering Since when,
'For how long?
I haven't seen her since Monday/for a year
Other adverbials refer to indefinite time, i e
they do not answer time questions precisely
He doesn't live here now/any more
Adverbs of definite time
Adverbs of definite time answer the question
When? and are generally used with past
tenses, or refer to the future
I started my job last Monday
I'II ring tomorrow
Two main categories can be defined
1 'Points of time' such as today tomorrow
yesterday we use Since with them
2. Periods of time such as one day, five years,
three minutes, we use For with them.
Adverbs of indefinite time
Some common adverbs of indefinite time are
afterwards already, another day, another time, at
last, at once, early, eventually, formerly,
immediately, just, late, lately (= recently), now,
nowadays, once, one day, presently, recently, some
day, soon, still, subsequently, suddenly, then,
ultimately, and yet
Still emphasizes continuity It is mainly used in
questions and affirmatives often with progressive
tenses. Its position is the same as for adverbs of
indefinite frequency
Mrs Mason is still in hospital
Position and use of 'already'
Already is not normally used in negative
sentences. Its position is the same as for adverbs
of indefinite frequency, though it can also come
at the end:
This machine is already out of date
It is out of date already
I've already seen the report
I've seen it already
Tom already knows the truth
He knows it already
Yet generally comes at the end in questions and
negatives:
Have the new petrol prices come into force yet?
Haven't the new petrol prices come into force
yet? The new petrol prices haven t come into
force yet .
In negatives, yet can come before the main
verb:
The new petrol prices haven't yet come into
force
Q1 I cannot understand why she did that, it really
doesn't add up.
(a) doesn't calculate (c) doesn't make sense
(b) isn't mathematics (d) makes the wrong
addition
Q2 All the sudents got high marks in the test but
Mary stood out.
(a) got a lot of marks (c) got very good marks
(b) got higher marks than someone
(d) got the most marks of all
Q3 He has sold his house and has no job and so
now he has next to nothing.
(a) he is unemployed (c) he has a few
Q4 As a newspaper reporter she always wanted to
get information at first hand.
(a)Quickly (b) slowly
(c) easily (d) directly
Q5 I think we can safely say now that we have got
our money back, we are home and dry.
(a) have not got wet (c) have been successful
(b) have got no water (d) have got home dry
Synonyms for quit
Q1 The train to Jaipur ....... at 6 pm sharp.
(a) exits (b) goes (c) departs (d) deserts
Q2 Have you heard that Mrs James ....... from the
board of directors?
(a) departed (b) abandoned (c) deserted (d)
resigned
Q3 This exercise was very difficult and I
finally ........
(a) left (b) resigned (c) departed (d) gave up
Q4 Unloyal sailors often ....... their ship.
(a) abandon (b) give up (c) desert (d) depart
Q5 You have to ....... smoking because it's not good
Q6 The teacher asked the noisy students
to ....... talking.
(a) give up (b) leave (c) quit (d) abandon
Q7 My best friend ....... me in a time of need.
(a) quitted (b) deserted (c) departed (d)
resigned
Q8 He easily ....... his career.
(a) left (b) departed (c) abandoned (d) stopped
Q9 Why did Jason ....... his wife?
(a) depart (b) quit (c) abandon (d) resign
Q10 Cuckoos usually ....... their nests.
(a) resign (b) desert (c) give up (d) quit
nd the odd one out

mend revise withdraw modify

hicle dory vessel skif
en foreign exotic capable
under error essay goof
unt candid wild frank
ex vend annoy pester
nt clue suggestion solutio
Beat roast
Chop slice
Grate spread
Heat squeeze
Mix stir
Peel whip
Duration (periods of time) can be expressed by
adverbs (e.g. ago all (day) long, (not) any more,
(not) any longer, no longer no more), and by
prepositional phrases functioning as adverbials
(beginning with by, during, for, from, to/till, since
throughout)
Since combines with points of time to answer
the question Since when it is often associated
with the present perfect to mark the beginning
of a period lasting till now
I haven't seen Tim since January/since last
holidays
Period of time + ago (answering How long ago?
or When?) marks the start of a period going back
from now:
/ started working here seven months ago
Note that since is placed before the point in time
it refers to; ago is placed after the period it
refers to.
For (+ period of time, answering How long?)
marks the duration of a period of time in the
past or in the future, or up to the present:
The Sharmas lived here for five years (They no
longer live here.)
For combines with e.g. ages, hours days, weeks,
months, years, etc. to emphasize or exaggerate
duration:
I haven't seen Smita for months. How is she?
'From...to/till/until'
From to/till/until refer to a defined period: The
tourist season runs from June to/till October
By', 'till/until' and not...till/until'
Till (or until) and by mean any time before and
not later than When we use continuity verbs
which indicate a period of time (e g stay wait) we
can only use till/until (Not *by*)
I'II stay here till/until Monday
When we use verbs which indicate a point of time
(e g finish, leave) we can only use till/until in the
negative
I won't leave till/until Monday (= on Monday not
before)
We can only use by with point of time verbs so
we can say
III left by Monday (= any time before and not
later than)
'During', 'in' and 'throughout'
During always followed by a noun can refer to a
whole period
It was very hot during the summer
or to points during the course of a period
He has phoned four times during the last half
hour Throughout can replace during if we wish
to emphasize 'from the beginning to the end of a
whole period
There were thunderstorms throughout July
All( )long emphasizes duration and is commonly
used with words like day and night. Long gives
extra emphasis and is optional
It rained all night (long)
Not any more, not any longer and no longer are
used to show that an action with duration has
stopped or must stop. They come at the end of a
sentence or clause
Hurry up, I can't wait any longer/any more
No longer can come before a full verb or at the
end of a sentence though the end position is
sometimes slightly more formal
/'m sorry she no longer lives here.
_____ respect given as to a hero
_____ put oil on
_____ relevant; pertinent
_____ exclude; banish
_____ gap
_____ ever awake and alert
_____ longing or sentimental
_____ destiny; fate
_____ motivated purely by money
A.) In a debate, keep your answers
GERMANE to the subject; dont bring up
unrelated issues.
B.) When he continued to break the rules at
the private club, he was finally OSTRACIZED
from it.
C.) Smita LUBRICATED the door to stop it
from squeaking.
D.) Night watchmen must learn to be
VIGILANT no matter how tired they feel.
E.) The workers strike at the factory led to a
F.) She would not do anything for free; her
motives were entirely MERCENARY.
G.) My beloved thinks we met because of
feelings for the past KISMET; I think it was just
coincidence.
H.) Listening to the old songs evoked a feeling of
NOSTALGIA in him.
I.) The city paid HOMAGE to the returning
soldiers in the parade.
Adverbs of frequency
These adverbs fall into two categories definite
frequency and indefinite frequency
Both kinds of adverbs answer How often?
Adverbs of definite frequency and their position
These include words and phrases like the
following once, twice, several times, (a day
week month year, )
hourly/daily/weekly/fortnightly/monthly/yearly
/annually
-every + day/week/month/year
-+ morning afternoon evening night
-every other day, every 3 years, every few days, -
These adverbials usually come at the end of a
sentence There s a collection from this letter box
twice daily
Adverbs of indefinite frequency
These adverbs give general answers to How
often? Here are some of the most common,
arranged on a 'scale of frequency'
- always (i e 'all of the time') , almost always,
nearly always
- generally, normally, regularly, usually
- frequently, often
- sometimes, occasionally
- almost never, hardly ever, rarely, scarcely,
Negative frequency adverbs (almost never,
etc above) cannot be used with not
I hardly ever see Brian these days (Not */
don't hardly ever")

Other adverbials that suggest indefinite

frequency are again and again, at times, ever
so often, (every) now and again, from time to
time, (every) now and then, and ordinary -ly
adverbs such as
Constantly, continually, continuously, repeatedly
Position of adverbs of indefinite frequency
The normal position of most adverbs of indefinite
frequency is 'after an auxiliary or before a full verb'.
This means:
-after be when it is the only verb in a sentence
I was never very good at maths
after the first auxiliary verb when there is more than
one verb:
You can always contact me on 9887559339.
-before the main verb when there is only one verb:
Gerald often made unwise decisions
-These adverbs usually come before used to, have to
and ought to:
We never used to import so many goods.
In questions, these adverbs usually come after the
subject:
Do you usually have cream in your coffee?
Not must come before always and it commonly
comes before generally, normally, often, regularly
and usually:
Public transport isn't always very reliable
Not must come after sometimes and frequently:
she is sometimes not responsible for what she
does.
Ever, meaning 'at any time', is used in questions:
Have you ever thought of applying for a job
abroad?
Never is used in negative sentences and
frequently replaces not when we wish to
strengthen a negative Compare:
I don't smoke I never smoke
The negative not ever may be used in
preference to never for extra emphasis in e.g.
promises, warnings, etc.:
/ promise you, he won't ever trouble you again'
Adverbs of degree
Adverbs of degree broadly answer the question
'To what extent?' Some of the most common are:
almost altogether, barely, a bit, enough, fairly,
hardly, nearly , quite, rather, somewhat, too
Most of these go before the words they modify:
e.g.
- adjectives: quite good
- adverbs: quite quickly
- verbs: I quite like it
Bite cough
Blink grin
Kick hiccup
Knock sneeze
Suck snore
Swallow brush
Wave comb
Whisper lick
Whistle pat
wink
1. adapt adjust refuse confuse
2. carnival zoo festival library
3. freight dock cargo business
4. transparent muddy black clear

HOMONYMS
1. When the ( rein / rain ) began to fall, I opened
my umbrella.
2. Queen Elizabeth I began her ( reign / rain ) over
England in1558.
3. The rider used a light ( rein / reign ) to guide her
horse.
4. A leather ( bridal / bridle ) fit over the horses
head.
5. In China, the bride traditionally wears a red
( bridal / bridle ) gown.
6. The eagle and the flag are ( cymbals /
symbols ) of our country.
7. With a clang of the ( cymbals / symbols ) the
band ended the anthem.
8. It seems that just as I get interested in a
program, the TV station will ( pause / paws ) for
an ad.
9. The bear used its ( pause / paws ) to snatch
Q1 My mother was ....... down the hall lost in
thought.
(a) straying (b) pacing (c) jumping (d) wandering
Q2 Homeless people often ....... about the streets.
(a) move (b) stagger (c) wander (d) limp
Q3 Every day after work Brian and Joan .......
together back home.
(a) move (b) walk (c) turn (d) pace
Q4 My mother was very angry, she couldn't
stop ....... up and down the hallway.
(a) straying (b) limping (c) pacing (d) strolling
Q5 Don't forget to ....... the dog today!
(a) walk (b) pace (c) move (d) stray
Q6 I think this puppy is lost because it has .....from
its mother.
(a) moved (b) wandered (c) turned (d) strayed
Q7 Why is this man .......? Is he drunk?
(a) walking (b) wandering (c) limping (d) staggering
Q8 Why are you .......? Is your leg hurt?
(a) staggering (b) walking (c) pacing (d) limping
Q9 The old woman ....... in front of the shop and fell
down.
(a) staggered (b) strayed (c) stumbled (d) limped
Q10 Be careful, please, because you can easily .......
in the dark and lose the way.
(a) stray (b) walk (c) wander (d) stagger
Prepositions
We normally use prepositions in front of nouns
or noun phrases, pronouns or gerunds to
express a relationship between one person,
thing, event, etc. Some relationships expressed
by prepositions are:
Space: We ran across the field
Time: The plane landed at 4:25 precisely .
Cause: Travel is cheap for us because of the
strength of the dollar
Means: You unlock the door by turning the key
to the right
Prepositions may take the form of:
- single words: at, from, in, to, into, etc.
-two or more words: according to, apart from,
because of
object form of pronouns must be used after
prepositions:
The car stopped behind/in front of me/us/them.
Between you and me, theres no truth in the
report.
Some words function both as prepositions and as
adverb particles. When they are followed by an
object, they function as prepositions:
We drove round the city (round + object =
preposition)
When no object is stated, these words function as
adverb particles.
We drove round (no object = adverb particle)
Some words can be used as prepositions or as
conjunctions (when followed by a clause): e.g.
after, as, before, since, till, until:
I haven t seen him since this morning
(preposition)
Time and date: at, on, by, before, in
at a time: at dawn, at six, at midnight, at 4.30 .
at an age: at sixteen/at the age of sixteen
She got married at seventeen.
on a day/date: on Monday, on 4 June, on
Christmas Day
Exceptions at night, at Christmas, at Diwali (the
period, not the day only)
on the morning/afternoon/evening/night of a
certain date:
We arrived on the morning of the sixth.
It is also, of course, possible to say: this/next
by, before
by a time/date/period = at that time or before/not
later than that date. It often implies 'before that
time/date': The train starts at 6.10, so you had
better be at the station by 6.00.
by + a time expression is often used with a perfect
tense, particularly the future perfect:
By the end of July I'll have read all those books.
on time = at the time arranged, not before, not
after:
The 8.15 train started on time.
in time/in time for + noun = not late
Passengers should be in time for their train.
in good time (for) = with a comfortable margin:
I arrived at the movie theatre in good time (for the
movie).
(Perhaps the movie began at 7:30 and I arrived at
7:15.)
on arrival, on arriving, on reaching, on getting to
on arrival/on arriving, he . . . = when he
arrives/arrived, he ...
on can also be used similarly with the gerund of
certain other verbs (chiefly verbs of information):
On checking, she found that some of the party
didn't know the way.
On hearing/Hearing that the plane had been
at the beginning (of)/at the end (of) = literally at
the beginning/end:
At the beginning of a book there is often a table of
contents.
At the end there may be an index.
in the beginning/at first = in the early stages. It
implies that later on there was a change:
In the beginning/At first we used hand tools. Later
we had machines.
in the end/at last = eventually/after some time:
At first he opposed the marriage, but in the end he
gave his consent.
from, since and for
from is normally used with to or till/until:
Most people work from nine to five
since is used for time and means 'from that time to
the time referred to'. It is often used with a
present perfect or past perfect tense.
He has been here since Monday, (from Monday till
now).
for is used of a period of time: for six years, for
two months
during is used with known periods of time, i.e.
periods known by name, such as Christmas, Easter
or periods which have been already refilled:
during the Middle Ages, during 1941, during the
summer (of that year) during his childhood, during
my holidays The action can either last the whole
period or occur at some time within period:
It rained all Monday but stopped raining during the
night. (at some point of time)
He was ill for a week, and during that week he ate
nothing.
Q1 His wife never lets him do what he wants and as a
result he leads a dog's life.
(a) eats what he can (b) never sleeps
(c) has an unhappy time (d) goes everywhere
on foot
Q2 A word of warning: don't let him make a monkey
of you.
(a) make you jump up and down (b) make faces at
you
(c) make you spend your money (d) make a fool of
you
Q3 I would advise you to wait and see which way the cat
jumps.
(a)what develops (b) what goes
Q5 He's very greedy when it comes to eating and
always takes the lion's share of the food.
(a)last portion (b) smallest portion
(c) first portion (d) largest portion
Q6 I really don't know how to explain it as I am
completely foxed.
(a) absolutely sure (b) absolutely convinced
(c) absolutely confused (d) absolutely curious
Q7 Until he is more serious in his job and stops
playing the goat, he won't get any more money.
(a) arriving late all the time
(b) eating too much all the time
(c) making too much noise all the time
(d) making jokes all the time
to and till/until
We can use from ... to or from . . . till/until:
They worked from five to ten/from five till ten.
till/until is often used with a negative verb to
emphasize lateness:
We didn't get home till 2 a.m.
after and afterwards (adverb)
after (preposition) must be followed by a noun,
pronoun or gerund:
Don't bathe immediately after a meal/after
eating.
Don't have a meal and bathe immediately
Travel and movement: from, to, at, in, by, on, into,
onto, of, out, out of
We travel from our starting place to our
destination:
They flew/drove/cycled/walked from Paris to
Rome.
We also send/post letters etc. to people and
places.
arrive at/in, get to, reach (without preposition)
We arrive in a town or country, at or in a village,
at any other destination:
They arrived in Spain/in Madrid.
get to can be used with any destination, and so can
reach:
He got to the station just in time for his train.
I want to get to home before dark.
They reached the top of the mountain before
sunrise.
home We can use a verb of motion etc. + home
without a preposition:
I took us an hour to get home.
They went home by bus. But if home is
immediately preceded by a word or phrase a
preposition is necessary:
She returned to her parents' home.
We can be/live/stay/work etc. at home, at + . . .
+ home or in + . . . + home.
Transport: by, on, get in/into/on/onto/of/out of
We can travel by car (but in the/my/Tom's car), by
bus/train/plane etc. and by sea/air. We can also
travel by a certain route.
We can walk or go on foot.
We can cycle or go on a bicycle or by bicycle. We
can ride or go on horseback.
We get into a public or private vehicle
We get on/onto a horse/camel/bicycle.
We get out of a public or private vehicle.
We get of a public vehicle, a horse, bicycle, etc.
get in/into/out/out of can also be used of
buildings, institutions and countries .
Place position preposition
at, in; in, into; on, onto
at We can be at home, at work, at the office, at
school, at university, at an address, at a certain
point e.g. at the bridge, at the crossroads, at the
bus-stop.
in We can be in a country, a town, a village, a
square, a street, a room, a forest, a wood, a field, a
desert or any place which has boundaries or is
enclosed.
But a small area such as a square, a street, a room,
a field might be used with at when we mean 'at this
point' rather than 'inside'.
We can be in or at the sea, a river, lake, swimming
pool etc. in here means actually in the water:
The children are swimming in the river.
at the sea/river/lake etc. means 'near/beside the
sea'. But at sea means 'on a ship'.
in and into
in as shown above normally indicates position.
into indicates movement, entrance:
They climbed into the lorry.
With the verb put, however, either in or into can
be used:
He put his hands in/into his pockets.
on and onto on can be used for both position and
movement:
He was sitting on his case.
Snow fell on the hills.
His name is on the door.
onto can be used (chiefly of people and
animals) when there is movement involving a
change of level:
People climbed onto their roofs.
The cat jumped onto the mantelpiece.
Q8 He never makes any silly mistakes because he's
got too much horse sense.
(a)common sense (b) nonsense
(c) absolute sense (d) full sense
Q9 Charlie doesn't like getting too tired so he gets
his assistant to do all the donkey work.
(a)academic work (b) artwork
(c) homework (d) hard work
Q10 He doesn't really go around with many people
because he's a bit of a lone wolf.
(a)single person (b) lonely person
(c) unhappy person (d) simple person
advanced using very modern
technology and ideas :
technologically advanced nations |
sophisticated very advanced, and
working in a better but often more
complicated way than other things :
highly sophisticated weapons
high-tech using very advanced
technology, especially electronic
equipment and computers :
high-tech industries in Silicon Valley
state-of-the-art using the newest
and most advanced features, ideas,
and materials that are available :
The football club has invested 40
million in state-of-the-art training
facilities. cutting-edge cutting-edge
technology or research is the most
advanced that there is at this time :
The system uses cutting-edge
technology to identify and eliminate
viruses.
1. to make a mistake; err
2. lessen; reduce
3. unexpected gain or good fortune
4. trembling fear
5. not genuine or authentic
6. pleasant means of amusement
7. inclined to seek revenge
8. wise in practical matters
A.It is PRUDENT not to walk there after dark.
B.Cricket is our countrys national emotions PASTIME.
C.When oil prices went up sharply due to a shortage,
oil companies experienced a WINDFALL.
D.Reports of UFOs turned out to be SPURIOUS.
E.The planner BLUNDERED when he scheduled two
games on the same field at the same time.
F. Her disappointing scores DIMINISHED her chances
of getting into the college of her choice.
G.Alone in the house, he felt TREPIDATION when the
wind made the roof creak.
H.It is usually better to understand and forgive him
who hurts you rather than be VINDICTIVE.
sadness a sad feeling, caused
especially when a happy time is ending,
or when you feel sorry about someone
elses unhappiness :
I noticed a little sadness in her eyes.
unhappiness the unhappy feeling you
have when you are in a very difficult or
unpleasant situation, especially when
this lasts for a long time :
After years of unhappiness, she finally
decided to leave him.
sorrow written the feeling of being very
sad, especially because someone has died
or because terrible things have happened
to you
His heart was filled with great sorrow after
her death.
misery great unhappiness, caused
especially by living or working in very bad
conditions :
Thousands of families were destined to a
life of misery.
despair a feeling of great unhappiness,
because very bad things have happened
and you have no hope that anything will
grief great sadness that you feel when
someone you love has died :
He was overcome with grief when his wife
died.
heartache a strong feeling of great
sadness, especially because you miss
someone you love :
She remembered the heartache of the
first Christmas spent away from her sons.
above, over, under, below, beneath
above (preposition and adverb) and over
(preposition) can both mean 'higher than' and
sometimes either can be used:
The helicopter hovered above/over us.
Flags waved above/over our heads.
But over can also mean 'covering', 'on the other
side of, 'across' and from one side to the
other':
We put a rug over him.
He lives over the mountains.
There is a bridge over the river.
all over + noun/pronoun can mean 'in every part
of:
He has friends all over the world.
above can have none of these meanings.
over can mean 'more than' or 'higher than'.
above can mean 'higher than' only.
Both can mean 'higher in rank'. But
He is over me would normally mean
He is my immediate superior
over can be used with meals/food/drink:
They had a chat over a cup of tea.
above can also be an adjective or adverb meaning
'earlier' (in a book, article etc.):
below and under
below (preposition and adverb) and under
(preposition) can both mean 'lower than' and
sometimes either can be used. But under can
indicate contact:
She put the letter under her pillow.
The ice crackled under his feet.
With below there is usually a space between the
two surfaces:
They live below us. (We live on the fourth floor and
they live on the third.)
below and under can mean 'junior in rank'. But He
is under me implies that I am his immediate
beneath can sometimes be used instead of under,
but it is safer to keep it for abstract meanings:
He would think it beneath him to tell a lie.
(unworthy of him)
She married beneath her. (into a lower social class)
beside, between, behind, in front of, opposite
Imagine a theatre with rows of seats: A, B, C etc..
Row A being nearest the stage.
Stage
Row A Tom Ann Bill
Row B Mary Bob Jane
This means that: Tom is beside Ann; Mary is beside
Bob etc. Ann is between Tom and Bill; Bob is
between Mary and Jane. Mary is behind Tom; Tom
is in front of Mary.
But if Tom and Mary are having a meal and Tom is
sitting at one side of the table and Mary at the
other, we do not use in front of, but say:
Tom is sitting opposite Mary or
Tom is facing Mary.
between and among
between normally relates a person/thing to two
other people/things, but it can be used of more
when we have a definite number in mind;
Luxembourg lies between Belgium, Germany and
France.
among relates a person/thing to more than two
others; normally we have no definite number in
mind:
Through, across and along

through the gate across the road along the path

Through is three-dimensional. You go through a
tunnel, a doorway, a crowd of people, and so on.
The water flows through the pipe.
I looked through the telescope.
Across is two-dimensional. You go from one side to
the other across a surface such as a lawn or a
playground, or a line such as a river or a frontier.
You can get across the Channel by ferry.
Sometimes we can use either through or across,
depending on whether we see something as
having three or two dimensions.
We walked through/across the field.
We use along when we follow a line. You go along
a path, a road, a passage, a route,
and so on. Compare these sentences.
We walked along the canal for a few miles.
We do not normally use at, on or in in phrases of
time with last, this, next, every, later, yesterday
and tomorrow.
I received the letter last Tuesday. NOT on last
Tuesday
We've been really busy this week. NOT in this week
You can take the exam again next year. NOT in the
next year
The same thing happens every time. NOT at every
time
We use with to talk about an instrument, a thing
we use to carry out an action.
The thieves broke the door down with a hammer.
By is more abstract. It refers to the means in
general rather than to a specific thing.
I paid by credit card.
The motor is powered by electricity.
They broke the door down by force.
We use by before a gerund.
They got in by breaking down the door.
Some passive sentences have by + agent.
The door was broken down by two men/with a
hammer.
We use as to express a role or function.
Maria has come along as our guide. (She is our
guide.)
I'm having to use the sofa as my bed. (It is my bed.)
We use like to express a comparison.
She slapped his face. The noise was like a pistol
shot.
with :
He was with a friend.
He cut it with a knife.
Don't touch it with bare hands.
The mountains were covered with snow.
I have no money with me/on me.
He fought/quarrelled with everyone.
In descriptions: the girl with red hair , the boy with
his hands in his pockets
Some people who lose their jobs become
( indigent / impeccable ).
Mohans solution to the problem may not be
( malleable / viable ).
Ritas ( profligate / requisite ) spending makes
us worry.
Stevens ( austere / vapid ) remarks in class are
annoying to the teacher.
In todays society, ( decorum / avarice ) is
common.
Q1 You want to know why I've got a bee in my
bonnet?
(a) a headache (b) a problem on my mind
(c) a fly in my head (d) a difficulty with my
hair
Q2 Yes, tell me about it. I'm all ears.
(a) listening carefully (b) listening quickly
(c) listening quietly (d) listening completely
Q3 That car that cost me an arm and a leg?
(a) a fair amount of money(b) a good amount of
money
(c) a small amount of money (d) a huge amount
of money
Q5 Well, he's not that at all. He's a bird brain.
Q7 I went round to his office like a bull in a china shop
(a) shouting at him (b) knocking everything over
(c) running up to him (d) hitting everybody
Q8 After lunch he was having a cat nap.
(a)a deep sleep (b) a long sleep (c) a short sleep (d) a
big sleep
Q9 The only reason you were there was because you
had a bone to pick with him?
(a) to have a discussion (b) to have a talk
(c) To eat with him (d) to have an argument
Q10 The government has opened up a whole new can o
worms by publishing population data on religion basis.
(a) made a complete mess (b) find some insects
(b) exposed a lot of problems (d) start a lot of paper
bombastic adj. speaking proudly, with inflated self-
importance.
Audience was shocked to listen such a BOMBASTIC
speech.
censure n. an expression of strong criticism or
disapproval; a rebuke or condemnation.
After the minister was found guilty of taking bribes, the
House
agreed to censure him.
derisive adj. scornful, expressing ridicule; mocking,
jeering.
Derisive comments are forbidden in the classroom.
disparage v. to speak of in a slighting, to belittle.
Comedians often disparage politicians in their shows.
- A number of people who are together or
who are connected in some way: group
- A group of people who live in a particular
area or country or share some quality, etc:
community
- A group of people who are at the same
social and economic level: (social) class
- A social group that is considered to be the
highest because of its power, intelligence,
etc: elite
- One of the groups into which people can be
divided according to their skin, colour, etc:
race
- Your social or professional position in relation
to others: status
- A person's legal right to freedom and equality
whatever their sex, race or beliefs: civil
rights/liberties
-- To separate one group of people from the
rest: segregate sb (from sth); noun (U):
segregation
- The ability or willingness to accept
differences between people: tolerance
- A dislike of a group in society that is not
based on reason or experience: prejudice
- To treat one group of people worse than
others: discriminate (against sb/sth)
- A person who believes that people of other
races are not as good as of their own race:
racist
- A person who thinks they are better than
lower class and who admires higher class: snob
- The study of people, especially of their
origins, development, beliefs and customs:
anthropology
- An official count of all people in a country,
including information about their age, jobs,
talkative a talkative person likes to talk a
lot also used about peoples moods :
Hes very talkative with his friends and
family. Benjamin was in a talkative mood.
chatty liking to talk a lot in a friendly way
a rather informal use :
I like her shes always cheerful and
chatty.
articulate able to talk easily and effectively
about things, especially difficult subjects :
All the applicants we interviewed were
intelligent and articulate.
eloquent able to express your ideas and
opinions well used especially about people
who speak in public and are able to influence
people :
an eloquent public speaker
garrulous formal talking a lot, especially about
unimportant things :
A garrulous old man was sitting near me in the
bar.
you cant shut him/her up informal used to
say humorously that someone talks all the
time :
You cant shut him up so I never get any work
gainsay v. to deny, contradict, or declare false; to oppose.
Peter would gainsay all accusations made against her.
importune v. 1. to ask incessantly, make continuous
requests.
2. to beg persistently and urgently.
She importuned a lot to know about her future.
mince v. 1. to cut into very small pieces. 2. to walk or
speak affectedly, as with studied refinement.
Please dont mince your wordsjust tell me what you
want to say.
remonstrate v. 1. to say or plead in protest, objection, or
opposition.
2. to scold or reprove.
The children remonstrated loudly when their mother told
them they couldnt watch that movie.
repartee n. 1. a quick, witty reply.
I can't stand it when you talk to me like that! Stop doing
that!
(a) want to fall (b) feel like sitting down
(c) want to be disobedient (d) despise
I can't wait to hear about your English class.
(a)am eager to (b) am late to (c) am indifferent (d) am
happy to
You've got me head over heels!
(a)angry at you (b) impatient (c) in love with you (d)
disappointed
I wish I could trust you again, but all that you ever did to
me was to let me down.
(a)to make me cry (b) to make me angry
(c) to despise me (d) to disappoint me
Which word means the same as expose?
a. Relate b. develop c. Reveal d. Pretend
Which word means the same as abrupt?
a.Interrupt b. sudden c. Extended d. corrupt
Which word means the same as apathy?
a. Hostility b. depression c. indifference d.
concern
Which word means the same as coerce?
a.Force b. permit c. waste d. deny
Which word means the same as proximity?
a.Distance b. agreement c. nearness d.
intelligence
steal into/across etc
He dressed quietly and stole out of the house.
steal the show/limelight/scene
to do something, especially when you are acting in a
play, that makes people pay more attention to you than
to other people she stole the show with a marvelous
performance.
steal a look/glance etc to look at someone or
something quickly and secretly
steal a kiss to kiss someone quickly when they are not
expecting it
steal sbs thunder to get the success and praise
someone else should have got, by doing what they had
intended to do
steal to illegally take something that belongs to
someone else
burgle to go into someones home and steal
things, especially when the owners are not there
rob to steal money or other things from a bank,
shop, or person
mug to attack someone in the street and steal
something from them Someone tried to mug me
outside the station.
nick/pinch to steal something : Someones
nicked my wallet!
embezzle to steal money from the organization
you work for, especially money that you are
responsible for
Government officials embezzled more than $2.5
million from the department.
shoplifting stealing things from a shop by taking
them when you think no one is looking.
phishing the activity of dishonestly persuading
people to give you their credit card details over
the Internet, so that you can steal money from
their bank account :
Phishing is becoming very popular with computer
An ALLEY is a little lane. An ALLY is a friend.
alley (singular), alleys (plural)
ally (singular), allies (plural)
The trip was cancelled owing to ADVERSE weather
conditions. (= unfavourable)
She is not AVERSE to publicity. (= opposed)
ACCESSARY is used to refer to someone associated with
a crime and ACCESSORY to refer to something that is
added (a fashion accessory or car accessories).
all ready or already?
There is a difference in meaning. Use these exemplar
sentences as a guide:
We are ALL (= everyone) READY. It is ALL (= everything)
READY.
Verbs
Verbs have the following forms.
Regular verbs Irregular verbs
Base form play steal find
S-form plays steals finds
Past form played stole found
ing-form playing stealing finding
Past participle played stolen found
Action verbs and state verbs
Verbs can express actions or states.
Actions States
Jane went to bed. Jane was tired.
I'm buying a new briefcase. I need a new
briefcase.
I lent Jeremy five pounds. Jeremy owes me five
pounds.
An action means something happening, something
changing. Action verbs are verbs like do, go, buy, play,
stop, take, decorate, say, ask, decide etc.
When have has a non-state meaning - for example
when it means 'eat', 'undergo', 'take' or
'hold' - we can use the present continuous:
'What's that terrible noise?' 'The neighbours are
having a party.
When we want to emphasise that something is done
repeatedly, we can use the present continuous
with words like always, constantly, continually, or
forever. Often we do this when we want to show
that we are unhappy about it, including our own
behaviour:
They're constantly having parties until the early
hours of the morning.
When we use the present perfect, it suggests some
kind of connection between what happened in the
past, and the present time. Often we are
interested in the way that something that
happened in the past affects the situation that
exists now:
I've washed my hands so that I can help you with
Past Simple
When we use the simple past, we are usually
concerned with when an action occurred, not with its
duration (how long it lasted)
Past habit
Like used to, the simple past can be used to describe
past habits [compare present habit.
I smoked forty cigarettes a day till I gave up.
We use the past simple for situations that existed
for a period of time in the past, but not now:
When I was younger I played badminton for my
local team.
The Pharaohs ruled Egypt for thousands of years.
Polite inquiries, etc.
The simple past does not always refer to past time
It can also be used for polite inquiries (particularly
asking for favours), often with verbs like hope
,think or wonder Compare:
I wonder if you could give me a lift
I wondered if you could give me a lift (more
tentative/polite)
We can use either the present perfect or the past
simple to talk about repeated actions or events.
If we use the present perfect, we often suggest
that the action or event might happen again.
Sometimes we emphasise this with phrases such
as so far and up to now . If we use the
past simple, it suggests that it is finished and
won't happen again. Compare:
Timson has made 13 films and I think her latest
is the best.
Timson made 13 films before she was tragically
killed in a car accident.
We can use both the present perfect and the past
simple to talk about states. We use the present
perfect to talk about a state that existed in the
past and still exists now, and we use the past
simple if the state no longer exists. Compare:
I have known him most of my working life. (I
am still working)
I knew him when we were both working in
Rome.
Some time adverbs that connect the past to the
present are often used with the present perfect:
already, since, so far, still, up to now, yet, just
Time adverbs that refer to the present, such as
today, this morning/week/month, can also be used
with either the present perfect or past simple. If we
see today etc. as a past, completed period of time,
then we use the past simple; if we see today, etc. as
a period including the present moment, then we use
the present perfect. Compare:
I didn't shave today (= the usual time has passed;
suggests I will not shave today)
I haven't shaved today. (= today is not finished; I
may shave later or may not)
I wrote three letters this morning. (= the morning is
over) I've written three letters this morning. (= it is
To talk about a temporary situation that existed at or
around a particular time in the past, we use the past
continuous:
At the time of the robbery, they were staying with
my parents.
My head was aching again, so I went home.
 d that other people cannot notice it : There is an obvious connection between the two murders. | It was obvious that so
me that my father was dying. | There are clear signs of an economic recovery.
ause a noticeable change in someones behaviour. | Road noise tends to be more noticeable in certain weather conditio
ot on the birds wings | She tried to make herself look less conspicuous. | Dont leave your valuables in a conspicuous pl
mistakable sound of gunfire | The flowers scent is unmistakable.
accept them or know about them : The facts in this case are self-evident and cannot be denied. | We hold these truths t
hamed of : a blatant lie | The bill is a blatant attempt to limit our right to free speech.
rk, she could tell it was him. | How can you tell if youve broken your arm?
 d that other people cannot notice it : There is an obvious connection between the two murders. | It was obvious that so
me that my father was dying. | There are clear signs of an economic recovery.
ause a noticeable change in someones behaviour. | Road noise tends to be more noticeable in certain weather conditio
ot on the birds wings | She tried to make herself look less conspicuous. | Dont leave your valuables in a conspicuous pl
mistakable sound of gunfire | The flowers scent is unmistakable.
accept them or know about them : The facts in this case are self-evident and cannot be denied. | We hold these truths t
hamed of : a blatant lie | The bill is a blatant attempt to limit our right to free speech.
rk, she could tell it was him. | How can you tell if youve broken your arm?
 eir case.

pils.
whether it interests you or whether you are good at it :

ant, usually by taking a risk :

ople become angry :

.
ur best to block out other distractions.

to do : I tried to explain what was wrong. | He tries hard in class, but hes finding the work difficult.
mpt is more formal than try and is used especially in written English : Any prisoner who attempts to escape will be shot
our best to help them.
find this difficult : It is worth making an effort to master these skills. | She made a big effort to be nice to him.
cially for a long time : Shes still struggling to give up smoking. | Many of these families are struggling to survive.
must constantly strive for greater efficiency.
/ formal to try hard to do something : Each employee shall endeavour to provide customers with the best service possib
are not sure that you will succeed : Im not very good at fixing taps, but Ill have a go. | Do you want to have another t
when offering to do something, or suggesting that someone should do something : Ill see if I can get you a ticket. | Se

chance to study somewhere :

years.

cially in a shop :
Be/hang in the balance
Throw sb off the balance
a ball and a chain
Ball is in sbs court
Have a ball
Set/start the ball rolling
A whole new ball game
A ballpark figure
A banana republic
A banana skin
Go bananas
Jump/leap on the bandwagon
Bane of life
Baptism of/by fire
Sbs bark is not worse than their bite
Barking up the wrong tree
A basket case
Not bat an eyelid
With bated breath
Pass the baton
Battle of wills
Battle of wits
Battle of sexes
1. The word faction refers to a
a. body part. b. clique. c. political party. d. equation.
2. To add decoration or embellishments to something is to
a. admonish it. b. chastise it. c. garnish it. d. redress it.
3. A more descriptive word for pretty is
a. accoutrement. b. belligerent. c. gregarious. d. winsome.
4. Someone who is laconic tends to be
a. terse. b. wealthy. c. attractive. d. polite.
5. A person who is admired or worshipped is known as
a. an idle. b. an idol. c. an idyll. d. idyllic.
6. A nebulous answer is one that is
a. negative. b. gruesome. c. offensive. d. confusing.
7. To behave ignominiously is to act
a. dishonorably. b. anxiously. c. logically. d. consistently.
8. A truly miserable person is
a. Credulous b. bellicose. c. disconsolate. d. zealous.
 ound :

about something or someone : Several customers complained about the service they received. | I wish youd stop telli
meone in authority : His parents made a complaint to the head teacher.
pecially publicly : Demonstrators were protesting against the war.
l residents have objected to the plan. | Some teachers objected to the scheme.
ething : Rail travellers have been grumbling about the increase in ticket prices. | Whats he grumbling about now?
mal ) to keep complaining in an annoying way : Everyone was moaning about the hotel food. | Stop whingeing and get
hing, especially something that is not very important : The soup wasnt hot enough, but he didnt want to make a fuss.