Introduction

Multiplexing is the transmission of information (in

any form) from one or more sources to one or more
destination over the same transmission medium
(facility).
The three most predominant methods of multiplexing
signals are time-division multiplexing (TDM),
frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and
wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)
Time Division Multiplexing
Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a type of
multiplexing in which two or more signals or bit
streams are transferred apparently simultaneously as
sub-channels in one communication channel, but are
physically taking turns on the channel.
The time domain is divided into several recurrent
timeslots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A
sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is
transmitted during timeslot 1, sub-channel 2 during
timeslot 2, etc.
Time Division Multiplexing
One TDM frame consists of one timeslot per sub-
channel. After the last sub-channel the cycle starts all
over again with a new frame, starting with the second
sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc.
Time Division Multiplexing
PCM is the most prevalent encoding technique used
for TDM signals
With PCM-TDM system, two or more voice channels
are sampled, converted to PCM code and then time-
division multiplexed onto a single metallic or optical
fiber cable.
DS-0 channel (digital signal level 0) is the
fundamental building block for most TDM systems in
the US
Time Division Multiplexing
As the figure shows, DS-0 channels use an 8-kHz
sample rate and an eight-bit PCM code, which
reproduces a 64 kbps PCM line speed:

8000 samples 8 bits

line speed x
second sample
64, 000 bps
Time Division Multiplexing
For a PCM carrier system comprised of 2 DS-0
channels that have been time-division multiplexed.
Each channels input is sampled at an 8-kHz rate and
then converted to an 8-bit PCM code.
While the PCM code from channel 2 is being
transmitted, the next sample is taken from channel 1
and converted to a PCM code
This process continues, and samples are taken
alternately from each channel, converted to PCM
codes and transmitted.
Time Division Multiplexing
The multiplexer is simply an electronically controlled
digital switch with two inputs and one output.
One 8-bit PCM code for each channel (16 total bits) is
called a TDM frame, and the time it takes to transmit
one frame is called frame time.
The frame time is equal to the reciprocal of the sample
rate (1/fs, or 1/8000 = 125 s).
The line speed at the output of a multiplexer is
2 channels 8000 samples 8 bits
line speed x x
frame second sample
128 kbps
Two-channel PCM-TDM system
T1 Digital Carrier
A digital carrier system is a communications system
that uses digital pulse rather than analog signals to
encode information.
Figure below shows the block diagram for AT&Ts T1
digital carrier system, which has been the North
American digital multiplexing standard since 1963 and
recognized by ITU-T as Recommendation G.733.
T1 stands for transmission one and specifies a digital
carrier system using PCM-encoded analog signals.
Bell System T1 Carrier System Block Diagram
Bell System T1 Carrier System Sampling Sequence
T1 Digital Carrier
A T1 carrier system time-division multiplexes PCM-
encoded samples from 24 voice-band channels for
transmission over a single metallic wire pair or optical
fiber transmission line.
Each voice band channel has a bandwidth of
approximately 300 to 3000 Hz.
Time division multiplexing 24 voice band channels
does not in itself constitute a T1 carrier system
At this point, the output of the multiplexer is simply
multiplexed first-level digital signal (DS level 1).
T1 Digital Carrier
The system does not become a T1 carrier until it is line
encoded and placed on special conditioned cables
called T1 lines.
One 64-kbps PCM-encoded sample is transmitted for
each voice-band channel during each frame (a frame
time of 125 s). The line speed is calculated as follows:
24 channels 8 bits 192 bits
x
frame sample frame
thus,
192 bits 8000 frames
x 1.536 Mbps
frame second
T1 Digital Carrier
Later an additional bit (called framing bit) is added to
each frame.
The framing bit occurs once per frame and is recovered
in the receiver, where it is used to maintain frame and
sample synchronization between TDM transmitter
and receiver.
As a result, each frame contains 193 bits, and a line
speed for T1 digital carrier system is
193 bits 8000 frames
x 1.544 Mbps
frame second
Fractional T Carrier Service
Figure below shows 4 subscribers combining their
transmissions in a special unit called a data service
unit/channel service unit (DSU/CSU).
North American Digital Hierarchy
Digital Line Carrier Encoding
Digital line encoding involves converting standard
logic levels (TTL, CMOS, and the like) to a form
suitable to telephone line transmission. Essentially, six
primary factors must be considered when selecting a
line encoding-format:
Transmission voltages and DC component
Duty cycle
Bandwidth considerations
Clock and framing bit recovery
Error detection
Ease of detection and decoding
Transmission Voltages and DC
Component
Transmission voltage or levels can be categorized as
being either unipolar (UP) or bipolar (BP).
Unipolar transmission of binary data involves
transmission of binary data involves the transmission
of only a single nonzero voltage level (e.g. either a
positive or negative voltages for a logic 1 and 0 V
[ground] for a logic 0.
In bipolar transmission, two nonzero voltages are
involved (e.g., a positive voltage for a logic 1 and an
equal-magnitude negative voltage for a logic 0 or vice
versa).
Duty Cycle
The duty cycle of a binary pulse can be used to
categorize the type of transmission.
If the binary pulse is maintained for the entire bit
time, this is called nonreturn to zero (NRZ).
If the active time of the binary pulse is less than 100%
of the bit time, this is called return to zero (RZ).
Unipolar and bipolar transmission voltages can be
combined with either RZ or NRZ is several ways to
achieve a particular line-encoding scheme.
Duty Cycle
Figure below shows five line encoding possibilities
Fig. (a) represents a unipolar nonreturn to zero
(UPNRZ). There is only one nonzero voltage (+V =
logic 1). Also each logic 1 maintains the positive voltage
for the entire bit time (100 % duty cycle). The average
dc voltage is V/2.
Figure (b) represents a bipolar nonreturn to zero
(BPNRZ). There are two nonzero values ( +V = logic 1
and V = logic 0) and a 100% duty cycle is used. The
average dc voltage is 0 V.
Duty Cycle
Figure (c) represents a unipolar return-to-zero (UPRZ).
Only one nonzero voltage is used, but each pulse is
only active 50% of the bit time (tb/2). The average dc
voltage is the nonzero voltage (V/4).
Figure (d) represents a bipolar return-to-zero (BPRZ)
signal. The average dc voltage is 0 V.
In Figure (e), there are two nonzero voltage levels (-V
and +V), but now both polarities represent ones, and 0
V represents logic 0. This method is alternate mark
inversion (AMI).
Duty Cycle
With AMI transmissions, successive logic 1s are
inverted in polarity from the previous logic 1. Because
return-to-zero is used, the encoding technique is
called bipolar return-to-zero alternate mark inversion
(BPRZ-AMI). The average dc voltage is approximately 0
V regardless of the bit sequence.
 UPNRZ

BPNRZ

UPRZ

BPRZ

BPRZ-AMI
Duty Cycle
With NRZ encoding, a long string of either logic 1s
and 0s produces a condition in which a receiver may
lose its amplitude reference for optimum
discrimination between received 1s and 0s. This
condition is called dc wandering.
Bandwidth Requirements
To determine the minimum bandwidth required to
propagate a line-encoded digital signal.
The highest fundamental frequency is determined
from a worst-case (fastest transition) binary bit
sequence.
With UPNRZ, the worst case condition is alternating
1/0 sequence; the period of the highest fundamental
frequency takes the time of two bits and, therefore, is
equal to one-half the bit rate (fb/2).
Bandwidth Requirements
With BPNRZ, the highest fundamental frequency is
one-half the bit rate (fb/2)
With UPRZ, the worst-case condition occurs when two
successive logic 1s occur. Therefore, the minimum
bandwidth is equal to the bit rate (fb).
With BPRZ encoding, the worst-case condition occurs
for successive logic 1s and logic 0s, and the minimum
bandwidth is again equal to the bit rate (fb).
With BPRZ-AMI, the worst-case condition is two or
more consecutive logic 1s, and the minimum
bandwidth is equal to one-half the bit rate (fb/2).
Clock and Framing Bit Recovery
To recover and maintain clock and framing bit
synchronization from the received data, there must be
sufficient transitions in the data waveform.
With UPNRZ and BPNRZ encoding, a long string of
ones and zeros generates a data signal void of
transition and, therefore is inadequate for clock
recovery.
With UPRZ and BPRZ-AMI encoding, a long string of
zeros also generates a data signal void of transitions.
With BPRZ, a transition occurs in each bit position
regardless of whether the bit is 1 or 0.
Clock and Framing Bit Recovery
Thus, BPRZ is the best encoding scheme for clock
recovery.
If long sequences of zeros are prevented from
occurring, BPRZ-AMI encoding provides sufficient
transitions to ensure clock synchronization.
Error Detection
With UPNRZ, BPNRZ, UPRZ, and BPRZ encoding,
there is no way to determine if the received data has
errors.
However, with BPRZ-AMI encoding, an error in any bit
will cause a bipolar violation (BPV, or the reception of
two or more consecutive logic ones with the same
polarity.
Therefore, BPRZ-AMI has a built-in error-detection
mechanism.
T carriers use BPRZ-AMI with +3 V and -3 V
representing a logic 1 and o V representing a logic 0.
 From the above table, BPRZ-AMI has the best over-all
characteristics, and is therefore, the most commonly
used format.
 Example 1
A PCM-TDM system multiplexes 20 voice-band
channels. Each sample is encoded into eight bits, and a
framing bit is added to each frame. The sampling rate
is 10,000 samples per second. BPRZ-AMI encoding is
the line format. Determine
(a) The maximum analog input frequency
(b) The line speed in bps
(c) The minimum Nyquist bandwidth
 Example 2
A PCM-TDM system multiplexes 30 voice-band channels
each with a bandwidth of 0 to 3 kHz. Each sample is
encoded with a nine-bit PCM code. UPNRZ encoding
is used. Determine
(a) The minimum sample rate
(b) Line speed in bits per second
(c) Minimum Nyquist bandwidth
 Example 3
For the following bit sequence, draw the timing diagram
for UPRZ, UPNRZ, BPRZ, BPNRZ and BPRZ-AMI
encoding:

bit stream: 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1