Flow of Fluid

Types of fluid flow
Mach number defined as

When analyzing rockets, spacecraft, and other systems that
involve high speed gas flows, the flow speed is often
expressed in terms of the dimensionless
Laminar Fluid Flow
The irritating water hammer in a water pipe, for example, is
caused by the vibrations of the pipe generated by the reflection
of pressure waves following the sudden closing of the valves.
Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather
disordered.
The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth
layers of fluid is called laminar.
The word laminar comes from the movement of adjacent

fluid particles together in laminates.
The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities

is typically laminar.
Turbulent Fluid Flow
The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at

high velocities and is characterized by velocity fluctuations is
called turbulent.
The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities

is typically turbulent.
The flow regime greatly influences the required power for

pumping.
Transitional Fluid Flow
A flow that alternates between being laminar and turbulent is
called transitional.
The experiments conducted by Osborn Reynolds in the 1880s

resulted in the establishment of the dimensionless Reynolds
number, Re.
Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow
A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how

the fluid motion is initiated.
In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in

a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan.
In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means

such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as the rise
of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the fall of cooler
(and thus denser) fluid.
Steady versus Unsteady Flow
Steady Flow
The terms steady and uniform are used frequently in
engineering, and thus it is important to have a clear
understanding of their meanings.
The term steady implies no change at a point with time.
The opposite of steady is unsteady. The term uniform implies

no change with location over a specified region.
Steady and unsteady Flow
In fluid mechanics, unsteady is the most general term that applies to
any flow that is not steady, but transient is typically used for
developing flows.
When a rocket engine is fired up, for example, there are transient
effects (the pressure builds up inside the rocket engine, the flow
accelerates, etc.) until the engine settles down and operates steadily.
The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which

the flow oscillates.
Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers,

and heat exchangers operate for long periods of time under the
same conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices.
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A flow field is best characterized by the velocity distribution,

and thus a is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the
flow velocity varies in one, two, or three primary dimensions,
respectively.
A typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry,

and the velocity may vary in all three dimensions, rendering
the flow three-dimensional V (x, y, z) in rectangular or in
cylindrical coordinates
Properties of Fluid
VISCOSITY
When two solid bodies in contact move relative to each other,
a friction force develops at the contact surface in the direction
opposite to motion.
It appears that there is a property that represents the internal
resistance.
of a fluid to motion or the fluidity, and that property is the
viscosity.
The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction is called the drag force, and the magnitude of this
force depends, in part, on viscosity.
Properties of Fluid
we conclude that the rate of deformation of a fluid element is
equivalent to the velocity gradient du/dy.
Further, it can be verified experimentally that for most fluids

the rate of deformation (and the velocity gradient) is directly
proportional to the shear stress.
Types of Fluids
Newtonian fluids
Fluids for which the rate of deformation is proportional to the
shear stress are called Newtonian fluids after Sir Isaac
Newton, who expressed it first in 1687.
Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are
Newtonian fluids.
Blood and liquid are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.

Types of Fluids
where the constant of proportionality m is called the
coefficient of viscosity or the dynamic (or absolute) viscosity
of the fluid.
whose unit is kg/m-s, or equivalently, N-s/m2 (or Pa ! s where
Pa is the pressure unit pascal) common viscosity unit is poise.
The viscosity of water at 20C is 1 centipoise, and thus the

unit centipoise serves as a useful reference.
SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARY
EFFECT
Surface Tension
water droplets from rain or dew hang from branches or leaves
of trees; a liquid fuel injected into an engine forms a mist of
spherical droplets; water dripping from a leaky tap falls as
spherical droplets; a soap bubble released into the air forms a
spherical shape; and water beads up into small drops on flower
petals.
Surface Tension
Surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid

molecules to each other (due to cohesion) than to the molecules
in the air (due to adhesion).
The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the
liquid to behave as if its surface were enclosed with a stretched
elastic membrane.
The surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces.

The relatively high attraction of water molecules for each other
through a web of hydrogen bonds, water has a higher surface
tension.
Capillary Effect
Capillary Effect
Another interesting consequence of surface tension is the
capillary effect, which is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small
diameter tube inserted into the liquid.
Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels are called
capillaries.
The rise of kerosene through a cotton wick inserted into the
reservoir of a kerosene lamp is due to this effect.
The capillary effect is also partially responsible for the rise of
water to the top of tall trees.
The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube is called
the meniscus.
Capillary Effect
The phenomenon of capillary effect by considering cohesive forces (the
forces between like molecules, such as water and water) and adhesive
forces (the forces between unlike molecules, such as water and glass).
The liquid molecules at the solidliquid interface are subjected to both

cohesive forces by other liquid molecules and adhesive forces by the
molecules of the solid.
The relative magnitudes of these forces determine whether a liquid wets a

solid surface.
The water molecules are more strongly attracted to the glass molecules and
thus water tends to rise along the glass surface.
Capillary Effect
The magnitude of the capillary rise in a circular
tube can be determined from a force balance on
the cylindrical liquid column of height h in the
tube Fig.
The bottom of the liquid column is at the same

level as the free surface of the reservoir, and the
pressure there must be atmospheric pressure.
This balances atmospheric pressure acting at the

top surface, and these two effects cancel each
other.
The weight of the liquid column is

approximately
VAPOR PRESSURE
Temperature and pressure are dependent properties for pure substances during
phase-change processes.
At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is

called the saturation temperature Tsat.
Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes

phase is called the saturation pressure Psat.
The vapor pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by its
vapor in phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature.
Pv is a property of the pure substance, and turns out to be identical to

the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv " Psat).
VAPOR PRESSURE
Partial pressure is defined
The pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture with other gases.
For example, atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air and water

vapor, and atmospheric pressure is the sum of the partial
pressure of dry air and the partial pressure of water vapor.

Flow of Fluid

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Types of fluid flow

Mach number defined as

The word laminar comes from the movement of adjacent

The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities

The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at

The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities

The flow regime greatly influences the required power for

The experiments conducted by Osborn Reynolds in the 1880s

A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending on how

In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in

In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means

The term steady implies no change at a point with time.

The opposite of steady is unsteady. The term uniform implies

The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which

Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers, condensers,

A flow field is best characterized by the velocity distribution,

A typical fluid flow involves a three-dimensional geometry,

Further, it can be verified experimentally that for most fluids

Blood and liquid are examples of non-Newtonian fluids.

The viscosity of water at 20C is 1 centipoise, and thus the

Surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid

The surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces.

The liquid molecules at the solidliquid interface are subjected to both

The relative magnitudes of these forces determine whether a liquid wets a

The bottom of the liquid column is at the same

This balances atmospheric pressure acting at the

The weight of the liquid column is

At a given pressure, the temperature at which a pure substance changes phase is

Likewise, at a given temperature, the pressure at which a pure substance changes

Pv is a property of the pure substance, and turns out to be identical to

Partial pressure is defined

The pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture with other gases.

For example, atmospheric air is a mixture of dry air and water

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