Cengel FTFS 6e ISM CH 10

10-1
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
Fundamentals of Thermal Fluid Sciences
6th Edition
Yunus A. Çengel, John M. Cimbala, Afshin J. Ghajar
McGraw-Hill, 2022
Chapter 10
PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

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10-2
No-Slip Condition and Classification of Fluid Flows
10-1C Define internal, external, and open-channel flows.
Solution We are to define internal, external, and open-channel flows.
Analysis External flow is the flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe. The flow
in a pipe or duct is internal flow if the fluid is completely bounded by solid surfaces. The flow of liquids in a pipe is
called open-channel flow if the pipe is partially filled with the liquid and there is a free surface, such as the flow of
water in rivers and irrigation ditches.
Discussion As we shall see in later chapters, different approximations are used in the analysis of fluid flows based on
their classification.
10-2C Define incompressible flow and incompressible fluid. Must the flow of a compressible fluid necessarily be treated
as compressible?
Solution We are to define incompressible and compressible flow, and discuss fluid compressibility.
Analysis A fluid flow during which the density of the fluid remains nearly constant is called incompressible flow.
A flow in which density varies significantly is called compressible flow. A fluid whose density is practically independent
of pressure (such as a liquid) is commonly referred to as an “incompressible fluid,” although it is more proper to refer to
incompressible flow. The flow of compressible fluid (such as air) does not necessarily need to be treated as compressible
since the density of a compressible fluid may still remain nearly constant during flow – especially flow at low speeds.
Discussion It turns out that the Mach number is the critical parameter to determine whether the flow of a gas can be
approximated as an incompressible flow. If Ma is less than about 0.3, the incompressible approximation yields results that
are in error by less than a couple percent.
10-3C Consider the flow of air over the wings of an aircraft. Is this flow internal or external? How about the flow of gases
through a jet engine?
Solution We are to determine whether the flow of air over the wings of an aircraft and the flow of gases through a jet
engine is internal or external.
Analysis The flow of air over the wings of an aircraft is external since this is an unbounded fluid flow over a
surface. The flow of gases through a jet engine is internal flow since the fluid is completely bounded by the solid surfaces
of the engine.
Discussion If we consider the entire airplane, the flow is both internal (through the jet engines) and external (over the
body and wings).
10-3
10-4C What is forced flow? How does it differ from natural flow? Is flow caused by winds forced or natural flow?
Solution We are to define forced flow and discuss the difference between forced and natural flow. We are also to
discuss whether wind-driven flows are forced or natural.
Analysis In forced flow, the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a tube by external means such as a pump or a
fan. In natural flow, any fluid motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect that manifests itself as the rise
of the warmer fluid and the fall of the cooler fluid. The flow caused by winds is natural flow for the earth, but it is
forced flow for bodies subjected to the winds since for the body it makes no difference whether the air motion is caused
by a fan or by the winds.
Discussion As seen here, the classification of forced vs. natural flow may depend on your frame of reference.
10-5C What is the no-slip condition? What causes it?
Solution We are to define the no-slip condition and its cause.
Analysis A fluid in direct contact with a solid surface sticks to the surface and there is no slip. This is known as
the no-slip condition, and it is due to the viscosity of the fluid.
Discussion There is no such thing as an inviscid fluid, since all fluids have viscosity.
10-6C What is a boundary layer? What causes a boundary layer to develop?
Solution We are to define a boundary layer, and discuss its cause.
Analysis The region of flow (usually near a wall) in which the velocity gradients are significant and frictional
effects are important is called the boundary layer. When a fluid stream encounters a solid surface that is at rest, the fluid
velocity assumes a value of zero at that surface. The velocity then varies from zero at the surface to some larger value
sufficiently far from the surface. The development of a boundary layer is caused by the no-slip condition.
Discussion As we shall see later, flow within a boundary layer is rotational (individual fluid particles rotate), while that
outside the boundary layer is typically irrotational (individual fluid particles move, but do not rotate).
10-4
Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
10-7C What is vapor pressure? How is it related to saturation pressure?
Solution We are to define vapor pressure and discuss its relationship to saturation pressure.
Analysis The vapor pressure Pv of a pure substance is defined as the pressure exerted by a vapor in phase
equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature. In general, the pressure of a vapor or gas, whether it exists alone or in
a mixture with other gases, is called the partial pressure. During phase change processes between the liquid and vapor
phases of a pure substance, the saturation pressure and the vapor pressure are equivalent since the vapor is pure.
Discussion Partial pressure is not necessarily equal to vapor pressure. For example, on a dry day (low relative
humidity), the partial pressure of water vapor in the air is less than the vapor pressure of water. If, however, the relative
humidity is 100%, the partial pressure and the vapor pressure are equal.
10-8C Does water boil at higher temperatures at higher pressures? Explain.
Solution We are to discuss whether the boiling temperature of water increases as pressure increases.
Analysis Yes. The saturation temperature of a pure substance depends on pressure; in fact, it increases with pressure.
The higher the pressure, the higher the saturation or boiling temperature.
Discussion This fact is easily seen by looking at the saturated water property tables. Note that boiling temperature and
saturation pressure at a given pressure are equivalent.
10-9C If the pressure of a substance is increased during a boiling process, will the temperature also increase or will it
remain constant? Why?
Solution We are to determine if temperature increases or remains constant when the pressure of a boiling substance
increases.
Analysis If the pressure of a substance increases during a boiling process, the temperature also increases since the
boiling (or saturation) temperature of a pure substance depends on pressure and increases with it.
Discussion We are assuming that the liquid will continue to boil. If the pressure is increased fast enough, boiling may
stop until the temperature has time to reach its new (higher) boiling temperature. A pressure cooker uses this principle.
10-10C What is cavitation? What causes it?
Solution We are to define and discuss cavitation.
Analysis In the flow of a liquid, cavitation is the vaporization that may occur at locations where the pressure
drops below the vapor pressure. The vapor bubbles collapse as they are swept away from the low pressure regions,
generating highly destructive, extremely high-pressure waves. This phenomenon is a common cause for drop in
performance and even the erosion of impeller blades.
Discussion The word “cavitation” comes from the fact that a vapor bubble or “cavity” appears in the liquid. Not all
cavitation is undesirable. It turns out that some underwater vehicles employ “super cavitation” on purpose to reduce drag.
10-5
10-11E The pressure on the suction side of pumps is typically low, and the surfaces on that side of the pump are
susceptible to cavitation, especially at high fluid temperatures. If the minimum pressure on the suction side of a water pump
is 0.70 psia absolute, determine the maximum water temperature to avoid the danger of cavitation.
Solution The minimum pressure on the suction side of a water pump is given. The maximum water temperature to
avoid the danger of cavitation is to be determined.
Properties The saturation temperature of water at 0.70 psia is 90F (Table A-3E).
Analysis To avoid cavitation at a specified pressure, the fluid temperature everywhere in the flow should remain
below the saturation temperature at the given pressure, which is
Tmax = Tsat @ 0.70 psia = 90F
Therefore, T must remain below 90F to avoid the possibility of cavitation.
Discussion Note that saturation temperature increases with pressure, and thus cavitation may occur at higher pressure at
locations with higher fluid temperatures.
10-12 A pump is used to transport water to a higher reservoir. If the water temperature is 20°C, determine the lowest
pressure that can exist in the pump without cavitation.
Solution The minimum pressure in a pump to avoid cavitation is to be determined.

Properties The vapor pressure of water at 20C is 2.339kPa.
Analysis To avoid cavitation, the pressure anywhere in the system should not be allowed to drop below the vapor (or
saturation) pressure at the given temperature. That is,
Pmin=P sat@20° C =2. 339 kPa
Therefore, the lowest pressure that can exist in the pump is 2.339kPa.
Discussion Note that the vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature, and thus the risk of cavitation is greater
at higher fluid temperatures.
10-13 In a piping system, the water temperature remains under 30°C. Determine the minimum pressure allowed in the
system to avoid cavitation.
Solution The minimum pressure in a piping system to avoid cavitation is to be determined.

Properties The vapor pressure of water at 30C is 4.246 kPa.
Analysis To avoid cavitation, the pressure anywhere in the flow should not be allowed to drop below the vapor (or
saturation) pressure at the given temperature. That is,
Pmin =P sat@30° C =4. 246 kPa
Therefore, the pressure should be maintained above 4.246 kPa everywhere in flow.
Discussion Note that the vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature, and thus the risk of cavitation is greater
at higher fluid temperatures.
10-6
Viscosity
10-14C What is a Newtonian fluid? Is water a Newtonian fluid?
Solution We are to discuss Newtonian fluids.
Analysis Fluids whose shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient (shear strain) are called
Newtonian fluids. Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils are Newtonian fluids.
Discussion In the differential analysis of fluid flow, only Newtonian fluids are considered in this textbook.
10-15C What is viscosity? What is the cause of it in liquids and in gases? Do liquids or gases have higher dynamic
viscosities?
Solution We are to define and discuss viscosity.
Analysis Viscosity is a measure of the “stickiness” or “resistance to deformation” of a fluid. It is due to the
internal frictional force that develops between different layers of fluids as they are forced to move relative to each other.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the molecules in liquids, and by the molecular collisions in gases. In
general, liquids have higher dynamic viscosities than gases.
Discussion The ratio of viscosity  to density  often appears in the equations of fluid mechanics, and is defined as the
kinematic viscosity,  =  /.
10-16C How does the kinematic viscosity of (a) liquids and (b) gases vary with temperature?
Solution We are to discuss how kinematic viscosity varies with temperature in liquids and gases.
Analysis (a) For liquids, the kinematic viscosity decreases with temperature. (b) For gases, the kinematic
viscosity increases with temperature.
Discussion You can easily verify this by looking at the appendices.
10-17C Consider two identical small glass balls dropped into two identical containers, one filled with water and the other
with oil. Which ball will reach the bottom of the container first? Why?
Solution We are to compare the settling speed of balls dropped in water and oil; namely, we are to determine which
will reach the bottom of the container first.
Analysis When two identical small glass balls are dropped into two identical containers, one filled with water and the
other with oil, the ball dropped in water will reach the bottom of the container first because of the much lower viscosity
of water relative to oil.
Discussion Oil is very viscous, with typical values of viscosity approximately 800 times greater than that of water at
room temperature.
10-7
10-18E The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 5-ft-long concentric cylinders. The
inner diameter of the outer cylinder is 6 in, and the gap between the two cylinders is 0.035 in. The outer cylinder is rotated
at 250 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 1.2 lbf⋅ft. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.
Solution The torque and the rpm of a double cylinder viscometer are given. The viscosity of the fluid is to be
determined.
l = 0.035 influid
Assumptions 1 The inner cylinder is completely submerged in the fluid. 2 The viscous effects on the two ends of the inner
cylinder are negligible. 3 The fluid is Newtonian.
Analysis Substituting the given values, the viscosity of the fluid is determined to be
Tℓ (1 .2 lbf⋅ft)(0 . 035/12 ft )
μ= 2 3
= 2 3 -1
=2. 72×10−4 lbf⋅s/ft 2
4 π R ṅ L 4 π (3 /12 ft) (250/60 s )(5 ft )
Discussion This is the viscosity value at temperature that existed during the experiment. Viscosity is a strong function
of temperature, and the values can be significantly different at different temperatures.
10-8
10-19 The dynamic viscosity of carbon dioxide at 50°C and 200°C are 1.612 × 10–5 Pa·s and 2.276 × 10–5 Pa·s,
respectively. Determine the constants a and b of the Sutherland correlation for carbon dioxide at atmospheric pressure. Then
predict the viscosity of carbon dioxide at 100°C and compare your result against the value given in Table A–23.
Solution The viscosities of carbon dioxide at two temperatures are given. The constants of Sutherland correlation for
carbon dioxide are to be determined and the viscosity of carbon dioxide at a specified temperature is to be predicted and
compared to the value in Table A-23.
Analysis Sutherland correlation is given by
a √T
μ=
1+b /T
where T is the absolute temperature. Substituting the given values we have
a √T 1
= √ →1.612 ×10−5= √
a 50+273.15 a 323.15
μ1 =
1+b /T 1 b b
1+ 1+
50+273.15 323.15
a √T 2
= √ → 2.276× 10−5= √
a 200+ 273.15 a 473.15
μ2 =
1+b /T 2 b b
1+ 1+
200+273.15 473.15
whichis a nonlinear system of two algebraic equations. Using EES or any other computer code, one finds the following
result:
−6 1/ 2
a=1.633 ×10 kg /(m ∙ s ∙ K )b=265.5 K
Using these values the Sutherland correlation becomes
1.633 ×10−6 √ T
μ=
1+265.5/T
Therefore the viscosity at 100 ℃ is found to be
1.633 ×10−6 √ 373.15 −5

μ= =1.843 ×10 Pa∙ s
1+265.5/373.15
The agreement is perfect and within approximately 0.1%.
10-9
10-20 Consider the flow of a fluid with viscosity μ through a circular pipe. The velocity profile in the pipe is given as
where is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs at the centerline; r is the radial distance
from the centerline; and u(r) is the flow velocity at any position r. Develop a relation for the drag force exerted on the pipe
wall by the fluid in the flow direction per unit length of the pipe.
Solution The velocity profile of a fluid flowing though a circular pipe is given. The friction drag force exerted on the
pipe by the fluid in the flow direction per unit length of the pipe is to be determined.
Assumptions The viscosity of the fluid is constant.
Analysis The wall shear stress is determined from its definition to be
( )
du d rn −nr n−1 nμumax
τ w =−μ |r=R =−μumax 1− n =−μumax |r= R =
dr dr R r= R R n R
Note that the quantity du/dr is negative in pipe flow, and the negative sign is u(r)= umax(1-rn/Rn)
added to the w relation for pipes to make shear stress in the positive (flow)
direction a positive quantity. (Or, du/dr = - du/dy since y = R – r). Then the
friction drag force exerted by the fluid on the inner surface of the pipe
becomes R
nμu max r
F=τ w A w = (2 πR )L=2 n πμ umax L
R
0
Therefore, the drag force per unit length of the pipe is
umax
F /L=2n πμ umax
.
Discussion Note that the drag force acting on the pipe in this case is independent of the pipe diameter.
10-10
10-21 The viscosity of a fluid is to be measured by a viscometer constructed of two 75-cm-long concentric cylinders. The
outer diameter of the inner cylinder is 15 cm, and the gap between the two cylinders is 1 mm. The inner cylinder is rotated
at 300 rpm, and the torque is measured to be 0.8 N·m. Determine the viscosity of the fluid.
Solution The torque and the rpm of a double cylinder viscometer are given. The viscosity of the fluid is to be
determined.
l=
fluid
Assumptions 1 The inner cylinder is completely submerged in oil. 2 The viscous effects on the two ends of the inner
cylinder are negligible. 3 The fluid is Newtonian.
Analysis Substituting the given values, the viscosity of the fluid is determined to be
Tℓ (0 . 8 N⋅m)(0 .001 m )
μ= = 2 =0 . 0128 N⋅s/m2
4 π R ṅ L 4 π (0 . 075 m )3 (300 /60 s-1 )(0 .75 m)
2 3
Discussion This is the viscosity value at the temperature that existed during the experiment. Viscosity is a strong
function of temperature, and the values can be significantly different at different temperatures.
10-11
10-22 A thin 30-cm × 30-cm flat plate is pulled at 3 m/s horizontally through a 3.6-mm-thick oil layer sandwiched
between two plates, one stationary and the other moving at a constant velocity of 0.3 m/s, as shown in Fig. P10–22. The
dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.027 Pa⋅s. Assuming the velocity in each oil layer to vary linearly, (a) plot the velocity
profile and find the location where the oil velocity is zero and (b) determine the force that needs to be applied on the plate
to maintain this motion.
Solution A thin flat plate is pulled horizontally through an oil layer sandwiched between two plates, one stationary
and the other moving at a constant velocity. The location in oil where the velocity is zero and the force that needs to be
applied on the plate are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The thickness of the plate is negligible. 2 The velocity profile in each oil layer is linear.
Properties The absolute viscosity of oil is given to be  = 0.027 Pas = 0.027 Ns/m2.
Analysis (a) The velocity profile in each oil layer relative to the fixed wall is as shown in the figure below. The point
of zero velocity is indicated by point A, and its distance from the lower plate is determined from geometric considerations
(the similarity of the two triangles in the lower oil layer) to be
2 . 6− y A 3
=
yA 0.3
yA = 0.23636 mm
Fixedwall
h1=1 mm V = 3 m/s F
h2=2.6 mm
A
y yA Vw= 0.3 m/s
Movingwall
(b) The magnitudes of shear forces acting on the upper and lower surfaces of the plate are
du V −0 3 m/s
Fshear, upper =τ w, upper A s =μA s| |=μA s =(0.027 N⋅s/m2 )(0.3×0.3 m2 ) =7.29 N
dy h1 1. 0×10 -3 m
du V −V w [3−(−0 .3 )] m/s
Fshear, lower =τ w, lower A s =μA s| |=μA s =(0 .027 N⋅s/m 2 )(0 .3×0 .3 m2 ) =3 . 08 N
dy h2 2. 6×10-3 m
Noting that both shear forces are in the opposite direction of motion of the plate, the force F is determined from a force
balance on the plate to be
F=Fshear, upper +F shear, lower =7 . 29+3 . 08=10 . 4 N
Discussion Note that wall shear is a friction force between a solid and a liquid, and it acts in the opposite direction of
motion.
10-12
10-13
10-23 A rotating viscometer consists of two concentric cylinders—an inner cylinder of radius rotating at angular
velocity (rotation rate) and a stationary outer cylinder of inside radius Ro. In the tiny gap between the two cylinders
is the fluid of viscosity μ. The length of the cylinders (into the page in Fig. P10–23) is L. L is large such that end effects
are negligible (we can treat this as a two-dimensional problem). Torque (T) is required to rotate the inner cylinder at
constant speed. (a) Showing all of your work and algebra, generate an approximate expression for T as a function of the
other variables. (b) Explain why your solution is only an approximation. In particular, do you expect the velocity profile in
the gap to remain linear as the gap becomes larger and larger (i.e., if the outer radius were to increase, all else staying
the same)?
Solution We are to determine the torque required to rotate the inner cylinder of two concentric cylinders, with the
inner cylinder rotating and the outer cylinder stationary. We are also to explain what happens when the gap gets bigger.
Assumptions 1 The fluid is incompressible and Newtonian. 2 End effects (top and bottom) are negligible. 3 The gap is
very small so that wall curvature effects are negligible. 4 The gap is so small that the velocity profile in the gap is linear.
Analysis (a) We assume a linear velocity profile between the two walls as sketched – the inner wall is moving at
speed V = iRi and the outer wall is stationary. The thickness of the gap is h, and we let y be the distance from the outer wall
into the fluid (towards the inner wall). Thus,
where
10-14
Since shear stress  has dimensions of force/area, the clockwise (mathematically negative) tangential force acting along the
surface of the inner cylinder by the fluid is
But the torque is the tangential force times the moment arm Ri. Also, we are asked for the torque required to turn the inner
cylinder. This applied torque is counterclockwise (mathematically positive). Thus,
(b) The above is only an approximation because we assumed a linear velocity profile. As long as the gap is very small,
and therefore the wall curvature effects are negligible, this approximation should be very good. Another way to think about
this is that when the gap is very small compared to the cylinder radii, a magnified view of the flow in the gap appears
similar to flow between two infinite walls (Couette flow). However, as the gap increases, the curvature effects are no longer
negligible, and the linear velocity profile is not expected to be a valid approximation. We do not expect the velocity to
remain linear as the gap increases.
Discussion It is possible to solve for the exact velocity profile for this problem, and therefore the torque can be found
analytically, but this has to wait until the differential analysis chapter.
10-15
19-24 The clutch system shown in Fig. P10–24 is used to transmit torque through a 2-mm-thick oil film with
μ = 0.38 N⋅s/m2 between two identical 30-cm-diameter disks. When the driving shaft rotates at a speed of 1200 rpm, the
driven shaft is observed to rotate at 1125 rpm. Assuming a linear velocity profile for the oil film, determine the transmitted
torque.
Solution A clutchsystem is used to transmittor que through an oil film between two identical disks. For specified
rotational speeds, the transmitted to rqueis to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The thickness of the oil film is uniform. 2 The rotational speeds of the disks remain constant.
Properties The absolute viscosity of oil is given to be  = 0.38 Ns/m2.
Driving Driven
shaft shaft
SAE 30W oil
Analysis The disks are rotting in the same direction at different angular speeds of 1 and of 2 . Therefore, we can
assume one of the disks to be stationary and the other to be rotating at an angular speed of ω1 −ω 2 . The velocity gradient
anywhere in the oil of film thickness h is V/h where V =(ω1 −ω 2 )r is the tangential velocity. Then the wall shear stress
anywhere on the surface of the faster disk at a distance r from the axis of rotation can be expressed as
du V ( ω1 −ω2 ) r
τ w =μ =μ =μ
dr h h
Then the shear force acting on a differential area dA on the surface and the h
torque generation associated with it can be expressed as
(ω 1−ω2 )r 2r
dF=τ w dA=μ ( 2 πr ) dr
h 1r
2
( ω1 −ω 2 )r 2 πμ( ω1 −ω2 ) 3
dT =rdF =μ (2 πr )dr= r dr
h h
10-16
Integrating,
4
2 πμ(ω 1−ω2 ) D/2 3 2πμ(ω 1−ω2 ) r 4 D /2 πμ(ω1 −ω 2 )D
T=
h
∫r=0 r dr= h | =
4 r=0 32 h
Noting that , the relative angular speed is

ω1 −ω 2 =2 π ( ṅ1 −ṅ 2 )=(2 π rad/s )[(1200−1125) rev/min ] (160mins )=7 .854 rad/s
Substituting, the torque transmitted is determined to be
π (0 . 38 N⋅s/m2 )(7 . 854 /s)(0 .30 m)4

T= =1 . 19 N⋅m
32(0 .002 m)
Discussion Note that the torque transmitted is proportional to the fourth power of disk diameter, and is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the oil film.
10-17
10-25 Reconsider Prob. 10–24. Using appropriate software, investigate the effect of oil film thickness on the torque
transmitted. Let the film thickness vary from 0.1 mm to 10 mm. Plot your results, and state your conclusions.
Solution We are to investigate the effect of oil film thickness on the transmitted torque.
Analysis The previous problem is reconsidered. Using EES software, the effect of oil film thickness on the
torque transmitted is investigated. Film thickness varied from 0.1 mm to 10 mm, and the results are tabulated and
πμ( ω1 −ω2 ) D4
T=
plotted. The relation used is 32 h . The EES Equations window is printed below, followed by the
tabulated and plotted results.
mu=0.38 [N-s/m^2]
n1=1200 [rpm]
n2=1125 [rpm]
D=0.3 [m] 25
h=0.002 [m]
w1=2*pi*n1/60
w2=2*pi*n2/60
Tq=pi*mu*(w1-w2)*(D^4)/(32*h) 20
Film Torque
thickness transmitted 15
Tq, N.m
h, mm T, Nm
0.1 23.73
0.2 11.87 10
0.4 5.933
0.6 3.956
0.8 2.967
5
1 2.373
2 1.187
4 0.5933
6 0.3956 0
8 0.2967 0 2 4 6 8 10
10 0.2373 h, mm
Conclusion Torque transmitted is inversely proportional to oil film thickness, and the film thickness should be as small as
possible to maximize the transmitted torque.
Discussion To obtain the solution in EES, we set up a parametric table, specify h, and let EES calculate T for each value
of h.
10-18
10-26 A 50-cm × 30-cm × 20-cm block weighing 150 N is to be moved at a constant velocity of 1.10 m/s on an inclined
surface with a friction coefficient of 0.27. (a) Determine the force F that needs to be applied in the horizontal direction.
(b) If a 0.40-mm-thick oil film with a dynamic viscosity of 0.012 Pa⋅s is applied between the block and inclined surface,
determine the percent reduction in the required force.
Solution A block is moved at constant velocity on an inclined surface. The force that needs to be applied in the
horizontal direction when the block is dry, and the percent reduction in the required force when an oil film is applied on the
surface are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The inclined surface is plane (perfectly flat, although tilted). 2 The friction coefficient and the oil film
thickness are uniform. 3 The weight of the oil layer is negligible.
Properties The absolute viscosity of oil is given to be  = 0.012 Pas = 0.012 Ns/m2.
Analysis (a) The velocity of the block is constant, and thus its
acceleration and the net force acting on it are zero. A free body diagram of the
block is given. Then the force balance gives
V= 1.10 m/s
∑ F x =0: F1−F f cos 20 °−F N 1 sin 20 °=0 (1) F1 Ff
∑ F y =0 : F N 1 cos20 °−F f sin 20 °−W =0 (2)
200
y
200 FN1
F f =fF N 1 200 x
Friction force: (3) W = 150 N
Substituting Eq. (3) into Eq. (2) and solving for FN1gives
W 150 N
F N 1= = =177 . 0 N
cos 20 °−f sin 20° cos20 °−0. 27 sin 20 °
Then from Eq. (1):
F1 =F f cos20 °+F N 1 sin 20 °=(0 . 27×177 N)cos20°+(177 N )sin 20 °=105 .5 N
(b) In this case, the friction force is replaced by the shear
force applied on the bottom surface of the block due to the V= 1.10 m/s
oil. Because of the no-slip condition, the oil film sticks to the
inclined surface at the bottom and the lower surface of the
block at the top. Then the shear force is expressed as F2
V
F shear =τ w A s =μA s Fshear = wAs
h
20 0 FN2
1 .10 m/s
¿( 0 . 012 N⋅s/m 2 )(0 .5×0 .2 m 2 )
4×10−4 m W = 150 N
¿ 3 .3 N
10-19
Replacing the friction force by the shear force in part (a),
∑ F x =0: F −F cos 20 °−F sin 20 °=0

2 shear N2
(4)
∑ F y =0 : F cos 20°−F sin20 °−W =0

N2 shear
(5)
Eq. (5) gives
F N 2 =( F shear sin 20 °+W )/cos 20°=[(3. 3 N)sin 20°+(150 N )] /cos 20°=159 . 7 N
Substituting into Eq. (4), the required horizontal force is determined to be
F2 =F shear cos 20 °+ F N 2 sin20 °=(3. 3 N)cos 20 °+(159 .7 N)sin 20 °=57 .7 N
Then, our final result is expressed as
F 1 −F 2 105 . 5−57 . 7
Percentage redıction in required force= ×100 %= ×100 %=45 . 3%
F2 105 . 5
Discussion Note that the force required to push the block on the inclined surface reduces significantly by oiling the
surface.
10-20
10-27 For flow over a plate, the variation of velocity with vertical distance y from the plate is given as u(y) = ay − by2
where a and b are constants. Obtain a relation for the wall shear stress in terms of a, b, and μ.
Solution For flow over a plate, the variation of velocity with distance is given. A relation for the wall shear stress is
to be obtained.
Assumptions The fluid is Newtonian.
Analysis Noting that u(y) = ay – by2, wall shear stress is determined from its definition to be
2
du d(ay−by )
τ w =μ |y=0 =μ |y=0=μ(a−2by )|y=0 =aμ
dy dy
Discussion Note that shear stress varies with vertical distance in this case.
10-28 In regions far from the entrance, fluid flow through a circular pipe is one dimensional, and the velocity profile for
laminar flow is given by where R is the radius of the pipe, r is the radial distance from the center of
the pipe, and is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs at the center. Obtain (a) a relation for the drag force applied
by the fluid on a section of the pipe of length L and (b) the value of the drag force for water flow at 20°C with R = 0.08 m,
L = 30 m, = 3 m/s, and μ = 0.0010 kg/m⋅s.
Solution The velocity profile for laminar one-dimensional flow through a circular pipe is given. A relation for friction
drag force exerted on the pipe and its numerical value for water are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the circular pipe is one-dimensional. 2 The fluid is Newtonian.
Properties The viscosity of water at 20C is given to be 0.0010 kg/ms.
u(r)= umax(1-r2/R2)
Analysis (a) The velocity profile is given by

u(r )=umax 1−( ) r2
R2
R
where R is the radius of the pipe, r is the radial distance from the center of r
the pipe, and umax is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs at the center,
r = 0. The shear stress at the pipe surface is expressed as 0
( )
du d r 2
−2 r 2 μu max umax
τ w =−μ | =−μumax 1− 2 =−μumax |r=R =
dr r=R dr R r=R R2 R
Note that the quantity du/dris negative in pipe flow, and the negative sign is added to the w relation for pipes to make shear
stress in the positive (flow) direction a positive quantity. (Or, du/dr = du/dysince y = R – r). Then the friction drag force
exerted by the fluid on the inner surface of the pipe becomes
(b) Substitutingthe values we get
F D=4 πμ Lumax=4 π (0 . 0010 kg/m⋅s)(30 m )(3 m/s ) (11 Nkg⋅m/s )=1 . 13 N

2
Discussion In the entrance region and during turbulent flow, the velocity gradient is greater near the wall, and thus the
drag force in such cases will be greater.
10-21
10-22
10-29 Repeat Prob. 10–28 for

Solution The velocity profile for laminar one-dimensional flow through a circular pipe is given. A relation for friction
drag force exerted on the pipe and its numerical value for water are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow through the circular pipe is one-dimensional. 2 The fluid is Newtonian.
Properties The viscosity of water at 20C is given to be 0.0010 kg/ms.
u(r)= umax(1-r2/R2)
Analysis (a) The velocity profile is given by

u(r )=umax ( )r2
1− 2
R
where R is the radius of the pipe, r is the radial distance from the center of R
the pipe, and umax is the maximum flow velocity, which occurs at the center, r
r = 0. The shear stress at the pipe surface can be expressed as
0
( )
du d r2 −2 r 2 μu max
τ w =−μ |r=R =−μumax 1− 2 =−μumax | = umax
dr dr 2 r=R R
R r=R R
Note that the quantity du/dr is negative in pipe flow, and the negative sign is added to the w relation for pipes to make shear
stress in the positive (flow) direction a positive quantity. (Or, du/dr = du/dy since y = R – r). Then the friction drag force
exerted by the fluid on the inner surface of the pipe becomes
(b) Substituting, we get
F D=4 πμ Lumax=4 π (0 .0010 kg/m⋅s)(30 m )(6 m/s ) (11 kg⋅m/s

N
)=2 .26 N
2
Discussion In the entrance region and during turbulent flow, the velocity gradient is greater near the wall, and thus the
drag force in such cases will be larger.
10-23
10-30 A frustum-shaped body is rotating at a constant angular speed of 200 rad/s in a container filled with SAE 10W oil
at 20°C (μ = 0.100 Pa⋅s), as shown in Fig. P10–30. If the thickness of the oil film on all sides is 1.2 mm, determine the
power required to maintain this motion. Also determine the reduction in the required power input when the oil temperature
rises to 80°C (μ = 0.0078 Pa⋅s).
Solution A frustum shaped body is rotating at a constant

angular speed in an oil container. The power required to
maintain this motion and the reduction in the required power
input when the oil temperature rises are to be determined.
Assumptions The thickness of the oil layer remains constant. Case
Properties The absolute viscosity of oil is given to be
 = 0.1 Pas = 0.1 Ns/m2 at 20C and 0.0078 Pas at 80C.
Analysis The velocity gradient anywhere in the oil of D=
film thickness h is V/h where V= r is the tangential velocity.
Then the wall shear stress anywhere on the surface of the L=
frustum at a distance r from the axis of rotation is d=
du V ωr SAE 10W oil of
τ w =μ =μ =μ z filmthicknessh
dr h h
The shear force acting on differential area dAon the surface, r
the torque it generates, and the shaft power associated with it
are expressed as
2
ωr ωr
dF=τ w dA=μ dA dT =rdF =μ dA
h h
μω μω 2
T=
h ∫A
r 2 dA Ẇ sh =ωT =
h A
∫ r 2 dA
Top surface: For the top surface, dA=2π rdr . Substituting and integrating,
2 2 2 4 2 4
μω D/2 2 2πμω D/2 3 2πμω r D/2 πμω D
Ẇ sh, top=
h
∫
r=0
r (2πr )dr= ∫
h r=0
r dr= | =
h 4 r=0 32h
2 4
πμω d
Ẇ sh, bottom =
Bottom surface: A relation for the bottom surface is obtained by replacing D by d, 32 h
10-24
Side surface: The differential area for the side surface can be expressed as dA=2 π rdz . From geometric considerations, the
d D−d
r= + z
variation of radius with axial distance is expressed as 2 2L .
D−d 2L 4 πL
dr = dz dz= dr dA=2 π dz= rdr
Differentiating gives 2 L or D−d . Therefore, D−d . Substituting and integrating,
2 2 2
μω 2 D /2 2 4 πL 4 πμω 2 L D /2 3 4πμω 2 L r 4 D /2 πμω L(D −d )
Ẇ sh, top = ∫r=0 r rdr= ∫ r dr= h (D−d) 4 |r=d /2=16 h(D−d )
h D−d h( D−d) r=d/2
Then the total power required becomes
Ẇ sh, total =Ẇ sh, top + Ẇ sh, bottom + Ẇ sh, side=

πμω 2 D 4
32 h [1+( d /D )4 +
D−d ]
2 L[1−(d / D )4 )]
,
where d/D = 4/12 = 1/3. Substituting,
Ẇ sh, total =
π (0 . 1 N⋅s/m 2 )(200 /s)2 (0 .12 m)4
32(0. 0012 m)
1 +(1/3 )4 +
[
2(0.12 m )[1−(1/3 )4 )] 1 W
(0. 12−0. 04 ) m 1 Nm/s ](
=270 W )
Noting that power is proportional to viscosity, the power required at 80C is
μ 80 °C 0 . 0078 N⋅s/m 2
Ẇ sh, total, 80 ° C = Ẇ sh, total, 20° C = (270 W )=21. 1 W
μ 20° C 0 . 1 N⋅s/m 2
Therefore, the reduction in the required power input at 80C is
which is about 92%.

Discussion
-
Note that the power required to overcome shear forces in a viscous fluid greatly depends on temperature.
10-25
10-31 A rotating viscometer consists of two concentric cylinders—a stationary inner cylinder of radius and an outer
cylinder of inside radius rotating at angular velocity (rotation rate) In the tiny gap between the two cylinders is the
fluid whose viscosity (μ) is to be measured. The length of the cylinders (into the page in Fig. P10–31) is L. L is large such
that end effects are negligible (we can treat this as a two-dimensional problem). Torque (T) is required to rotate the inner
cylinder at constant speed. Showing all your work and algebra, generate an approximate expression of T as a function of the
other variables.
Solution We are to determine the torque required to rotate the outer cylinder of two concentric cylinders, with the
outer cylinder rotating and the inner cylinder stationary.
Assumptions 1 The fluid is incompressible and Newtonian. 2 End effects (top and bottom) are negligible. 3 The gap is
very small so that wall curvature effects are negligible. 4 The gap is so small that the velocity profile in the gap is linear.
Analysis We assume a linear velocity profile between the two walls – the outer wall is moving at speed V = oRo and
the inner wall is stationary. The thickness of the gap is h, and we let y be the distance from the outer wall into the fluid
(towards the inner wall) as sketched. Thus,
where
10-26
Since shear stress  has dimensions of force/area, the clockwise (mathematically negative) tangential force acting along the
surface of the outer cylinder by the fluid is
But the torque is the tangential force times the moment arm Ro. Also, we are asked for the torque required to turn the inner
cylinder. This applied torque is counterclockwise (mathematically positive). Thus,
Discussion The above is only an approximation because we assumed a linear velocity profile. As long as the gap is very
small, and therefore the wall curvature effects are negligible, this approximation should be very good. It is possible to solve
for the exact velocity profile for this problem, and therefore the torque can be found analytically, but this has to wait until
the differential analysis chapter.
10-27
Surface Tension and Capillary Effect
10-32C What is surface tension? What is its cause? Why is the surface tension also called surface energy?
Solution We are to define and discuss surface tension.
Analysis The magnitude of the pulling force at the surface of a liquid per unit length is called surface tensions.
It is caused by the attractive forces between the molecules. The surface tension is also surface energy (per unit area) since it
represents the stretching work that needs to be done to increase the surface area of the liquid by a unit amount.
Discussion Surface tension is the cause of some very interesting phenomena such as capillary rise and insects that can
walk on water.
10-33C What is the capillary effect? What is its cause? How is it affected by the contact angle?
Solution We are to define and discuss the capillary effect.
Analysis The capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube inserted into the liquid . It is
caused by the net effect of the cohesive forces (the forces between like molecules, like water) and adhesive forces (the
forces between unlike molecules, like water and glass). The capillary effect is proportional to the cosine of the contact
angle, which is the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface makes with the solid surface at the point of contact.
Discussion The contact angle determines whether the meniscus at the top of the column is concave or convex.
10-34C A small-diameter tube is inserted into a liquid whose contact angle is 110°. Will the level of liquid in the tube be
higher or lower than the level of the rest of the liquid? Explain.
Solution We are to determine whether the level of liquid in a tube will rise or fall due to the capillary effect.
Analysis The liquid level in the tube will drop since the contact angle is greater than 90, and cos(110) < 0.
Discussion This liquid must be a non-wetting liquid when in contact with the tube material. Mercury is an example of a
non-wetting liquid with a contact angle (with glass) that is greater than 90o.
10-35C Consider a soap bubble. Is the pressure inside the bubble higher or lower than the pressure outside?
Solution We are to analyze the pressure difference between inside and outside of a soap bubble.
Analysis The pressure inside a soap bubble is greater than the pressure outside, as evidenced by the stretch of the
soap film.
Discussion You can make an analogy between the soap film and the skin of a balloon.
10-28
10-36C Is the capillary rise greater in small- or large-diameter tubes?
Solution We are to compare the capillary rise in small and large diameter tubes.
Analysis The capillary rise is inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube, and thus capillary rise is greater in
the smaller-diameter tube.
Discussion Note however, that if the tube diameter is large enough, there is no capillary rise (or fall) at all. Rather, the
upward (or downward) rise of the liquid occurs only near the tube walls; the elevation of the middle portion of the liquid in
the tube does not change for large diameter tubes.
10-37 Determine the gage pressure inside a soap bubble of diameter (a) 0.2 cm and (b) 5 cm at 20°C.
Solution The diameter of a soap bubble is given. The gage pressure inside the bubble is to be determined.
Assumptions The soap bubble is in atmospheric air.
Properties The surface tension of soap water at 20C is s = 0.025 N/m. P0
Analysis The pressure difference between the inside and the outside of a
bubble is given by
4 σs
ΔP bubble =Pi−P0 = Soap
R bubble
P
In the open atmosphere P0= Patm, and thus
ΔP bubble is equivalent to the gage
pressure. Substituting,
D = 0.200 cm:
D = 5.00 cm:
Discussion Note that the gage pressure in a soap bubble is inversely proportional to the radius (or diameter). Therefore,
the excess pressure is larger in smaller bubbles.
10-38E A 2.4-in-diameter soap bubble is to be enlarged by blowing air into it. Taking the surface tension of soap solution
to be 0.0027 lbf/ft, determine the work input required to inflate the bubble to a diameter of 2.7 in.
Solution A soap bubble is enlarged by blowing air into it. The required work input is to be determined.
Properties The surface tension of solution is given to be s = 0.0027 lbf/ft.
Analysis The work associated with the stretching of a film is the surface tension work, and is expressed in differential
form as
δW s =σ s dA s . Noting that surface tension is constant, the surface tension work is simply surface tension multiplied
by the change in surface area,
Air
W s=σ s ( A 2 −A 1 )=2 πσ s ( D22 −D21 )
The factor 2 is due to having two surfaces in contact with air. Substituting, the Soap
required work input is determined to be bubble
W s=2 π (0 .0027 lbf/ft ) ((2 . 7/12 ft )2 −(2 . 4 /12 ft)2 ) (778 .1169Btulbf⋅ft )=2 . 32×10 -7
Btu P
Discussion Note that when a bubble explodes, an equivalent amount of energy

is released to the environment.
10-29
10-39 A 1.6-mm-diameter tube is inserted into an unknown liquid whose density is 960 kg/m3, and it is observed that the
liquid rises 5 mm in the tube, making a contact angle of 15°. Determine the surface tension of the liquid.
Solution A glass tube is inserted into a liquid, and the capillary rise is
measured. The surface tension of the liquid is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 There are no impurities in the liquid, and no contamination on
the surfaces of the glass tube. 2 The liquid is open to the atmospheric air.
Properties The density of the liquid is given to be 960 kg/m 3. The contact Air h
angle is given to be 15.
Analysis Substituting the numerical values, the surface tension is Liquid
determined from the capillary rise relation to be
ρ gRh
σ s=
2cos φ
¿
(960 kg/m3 )(9 . 81 m/s2 )(0 . 0016/2 m )(0 .005 m ) 1 N
2(cos 15 °) (
1 kg⋅m/s2 )
¿ 0 .0195 N/m
Discussion Since surface tension depends on temperature, the value determined is valid at the liquid’s temperature.
10-40 Consider a 0.15-mm diameter air bubble in a liquid. Determine the pressure difference between the inside and
outside of the air bubble if the surface tension at the air–liquid interface is (a) 0.080 N/m and (b) 0.12 N/m.
Solution An air bubble in a liquid is considered. The pressure difference between the inside and outside the bubble is
to be determined.
Properties The surface tension s is given for two cases to be 0.08 and 0.12 N/m.
Analysis Considering that an air bubble in a liquid has only one interface, he pressure difference between the inside
and the outside of the bubble is determined from
2 σs
ΔP bubble =Pi−P0 = Liquid
R
Substituting, the pressure difference is determined to be:

Air
2(0 . 08 N/m )
ΔP bubble = =2133 N/m 2=2 . 13 kPa bubble
(a) s = 0.08 N/m: 0 . 00015/2 m P
2(0 . 12 N/m )
ΔP bubble = =32 00 N/m 2=3 . 20 kPa
(b) s = 0.12 N/m: 0 . 00015/2 m
Discussion Note that a small gas bubble in a liquid is highly pressurized.
The smaller the bubble diameter, the larger the pressure inside the bubble.
10-30
10-41 The surface tension of a liquid is to be measured using a liquid film suspended on a U-shaped wire frame with an
8-cm-long movable side. If the force needed to move the wire is 0.030 N, determine the surface tension of this liquid in air.
Solution The force acting on the movable wire of a liquid film suspended on a U-shaped wire frame is measured. The
surface tension of the liquid in the air is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 There are no impurities in the liquid, and no contamination on the surfaces of the wire frame. 2 The liquid
is open to the atmospheric air.
Analysis Substituting the numerical values, the surface tension is determined from the surface tension force relation
to be
F 0 . 030 N
σ s= = =0 . 19 N/m Liquid
2 b 2(0 . 08 m)
b film F
Discussion The surface tension depends on temperature. Therefore, the value
determined is valid at the temperature of the liquid.
10-42 A capillary tube of 1.2 mm diameter is immersed vertically in water exposed to the atmosphere. Determine how
high water will rise in the tube. Take the contact angle at the inner wall of the tube to be 6° and the surface tension to be
1.00 N/m.
Solution A capillary tube is immersed vertically in water. The height of water rise in the tube is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 There are no impurities in water, and no contamination on the surfaces of the tube.. 2 Water is open to the
atmospheric air.
Analysis The capillary rise is determined from Eq. 2-38 to be
2σs 2× ( 1 N / m ) ×cos 6 °
h= cos ∅= =0.338 m
ρgR ( 1000 kg /m3 ) × ( 9.81 m/s2 ) × ( 0.6× 10−3 m )
10-43E A 0.018-in-diameter glass tube is inserted into mercury, which makes a contact angle of 140° with glass.
Determine the capillary drop of mercury in the tube at 68°F.
Solution A glass tube is inserted into mercury. The capillary drop of mercury in the tube is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 There are no impurities in mercury, and no contamination on the surfaces of the glass tube. 2 The mercury
is open to the atmospheric air.
Properties The surface tension of mercury-glass in atmospheric air at 68F (20C) is obtained from Table 2-4:
s = (0.440 N/m)(0.22482 lbf/N)(0.3048 m/ft) = 0.030151 lbf/ft. To obtain the density of mercury, we interpolate from
Table A-20E at 68F, yielding  = 845.65 lbm/ft3. The contact angle is given to be 140.
Analysis Substituting the numerical values, the capillary drop is determined to be
Air
Mercury h
Thus, the capillary drop is 0.874 in to three significant digits.

Discussion The negative sign indicates capillary drop instead of rise. The drop is
very small in this case because of the large diameter of the tube.
10-31
10-44 A capillary tube is immersed vertically in a water container. Knowing that water starts to evaporate when the
pressure drops below 2 kPa, determine the maximum capillary rise and tube diameter for this maximum-rise case. Take the
contact angle at the inner wall of the tube to be 6° and the surface tension to be 1.00 N/m.
Solution A capillary tube is immersed vertically in water. The maximum capillary rise and tube diameter for the
maximum rise case are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 There are no impurities in water, and no contamination on the surfaces of the tube. 2 Water is open to the
atmospheric air.
Properties The surface tension is given to be s =1 N/m.
Analysis At the liquid side of the meniscus P=2 kPa . Therefore the capillary rise would be
P atm−P ( 101325−2000 ) ×103 Pa

h= = =10.12 m
ρg ( 1000 kg /m3 ) × ( 9.81 m/ s2 )
Then the tube diameter needed for this capillary rise is
2 σs 2× ( 1 N /m ) ×cos 6 °
R= cos ∅= ≅ 2.0 ×10−5 m=20 μm
ρgh ( 1000 kg/m ) × ( 9.81 m/s ) × ( 10.12 m)
3 2
10-32
10-45 Contrary to what you might expect, a solid steel ball can float on water due to the surface tension effect. Determine
the maximum diameter of a steel ball that would float on water at 10°C. What would your answer be for an aluminum ball?
Take the densities of steel and aluminum balls to be 7800 kg/m3 and 2700 kg/m3, respectively.
Solution A steel ball floats on water due to the surface tension effect. The maximum diameter of the ball is to be
determined, and the calculations are to be repeated for aluminum.
Assumptions 1 The water is pure, and its temperature is constant. 2 The ball is dropped on water slowly so that the inertial
effects are negligible. 3 The contact angle is taken to be 0 for maximum diameter.
Properties The surface tension of water at 10C is s = 0.0745 N/m (Table 2-4 by interpolation). The contact angle is
taken to be 0. The densities of steel and aluminum are given to be steel= 7800 kg/m3 and Al= 2700 kg/m3.
W = mg
Analysis The surface tension force and the weight of the ball can be expressed as
F s=πDσ s and W=mg=ρgV =ρgπD 3 /6
When the ball floats, the net force acting on the ball in the vertical direction is zero. Therefore, setting F s=W and solving
for diameter D gives

balls become
D=
√ 6σs
ρg . Substititing the known quantities, the maximum diameters for the steel and aluminum
Dsteel =
√ √
6σs
ρg
=
6(0 . 0745 N/m )
3 2
(7800 kg/m )(9 . 81 m/s ) (
1 kg⋅m/s 2
1N )
=2 . 42×10−3 m=2. 42 mm
Discussion
D Al =
√ √
6σs
ρg
=
6 (0 . 0745 N/m )
3 2
(2700 kg/m )(9 .81 m/s ) (
1 kg⋅m/s2
1N )
=4 .11×10−3 m=4 .11 mm
Note that the ball diameter is inversely proportional to the square root of density, and thus for a given
material, the smaller balls are more likely to float.
10-33
10-46 Nutrients dissolved in water are carried to upper parts of plants by tiny tubes partly because of the capillary effect.
Determine how high the water solution will rise in a tree in a 0.0026-mm-diameter tube as a result of the capillary effect.
Treat the solution as water at 20°C with a contact angle of 15°.
Solution Nutrients dissolved in water are carried to upper parts of plants.

The height to which the water solution rises in a tree as a result of the capillary
effect is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The solution can be treated as water with a contact angle of
15. 2 The diameter of the tube is constant. 3 The temperature of the water
solution is 20C.
Properties The surface tension of water at 20C is s = 0.073 N/m. The
density of water solution can be taken to be 1000 kg/m 3. The contact angle is
given to be 15.
Analysis Substituting the numerical values, the capillary rise is determined
to be
h=
2 σ s cosφ
ρ gR
=
2(0.073 N/m )( cos15° )
(
1 kg⋅m/s 2
(1000 kg/m3 )(9. 81 m/s 2 )(1.3×10−6 m ) 1 N )
=11.1 m
Discussion Other effects such as the chemical potential difference also cause
the fluid to rise in trees.
10-34
Review Problems
10-47 Consider a 55-cm-long journal bearing that is lubricated with oil whose viscosity is 0.1 kg/m⋅s at 20°C at the
beginning of operation and 0.008 kg/m⋅s at the anticipated steady operating temperature of 80°C. The diameter of the shaft
is 8 cm, and the average gap between the shaft and the journal is 0.08 cm. Determine the torque needed to overcome the
bearing friction initially and during steady operation when the shaft is rotated at 1500 rpm.
Solution A journal bearing is lubricated with oil whose viscosity is known. The torques needed to overcome the
bearing friction during start-up and steady operation are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The gap is uniform, and is completely filled with oil. 2 The end effects on the sides of the bearing are
negligible. 3 The fluid is Newtonian.
Properties The viscosity of oil is given to be 0.1 kg/ms at 20C, and 0.008 kg/ms at 80C.
l = fluid
Analysis The radius of the shaft is R = 0.04 m. Substituting the given values, the torque is determined to be
At start up at 20C:
4 π 2 R3 ṅ L 4 π 2 (0 . 04 m)3 (1500/60 s -1 )(0 . 55 m )
T =μ =(0 . 1 kg/m⋅s ) =4 . 34 N⋅m
ℓ 0 .0008 m
During steady operation at 80C:
4 π 2 R3 ṅ L 4 π 2 (0 .04 m )3 (1500/60 s-1 )( 0. 55 m )
T =μ =(0 . 008 kg/m⋅s) =0 . 347 N⋅m
ℓ 0 . 0008 m
Discussion Note that the torque needed to overcome friction reduces considerably due to the decrease in the viscosity
of oil at higher temperature.
10-35
10-48 The diameter of one arm of a U-tube is 5 mm while the other arm is large. If the U-tube contains some water, and
both surfaces are exposed to atmospheric pressure, determine the difference between the water levels in the two arms.
Solution A U-tube with a large diameter arm contains water. The difference between the water levels of the two arms
is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Both arms of the U-tube are open to the atmosphere. 2 Water is at room temperature. 3 The contact angle
of water is zero, = 0.
Properties The surface tension and density of water at 20C are s = 0.073 N/m and  = 1000 kg/m3.
Analysis Any difference in water levels between the two arms is due to surface tension effects and thus capillary rise.
Noting that capillary rise in a tube is inversely proportional to tube diameter there will be no capillary rise in the arm with a
large diameter. Then the water level difference between the two arms is simply the capillary rise in the smaller diameter
arm,
Discussion Note that this is a significant difference, and shows the importance of using a U-tube made of a uniform
diameter tube.
10-49E The analysis of a propeller that operates in water at 60°F shows that the pressure at the tips of the propeller drops
to 0.1 psia at high speeds. Determine if there is a danger of cavitation for this propeller.
Solution The minimum pressure in a pump is given. It is to be determined if there is a danger of cavitation.
Properties The vapor pressure of water at 60F is 0.2563 psia.
Analysis To avoid cavitation, the pressure everywhere in the flow should remain above the vapor (or saturation)
pressure at the given temperature, which is
Pv =Psat@60° F=0. 2563 psia
The minimum pressure in the pump is 0.1 psia, which is less than the vapor pressure. Therefore, there isdanger of
cavitation in the pump.
Discussion Note that the vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature, and the danger of cavitation increases at
higher fluid temperatures.
10-36
10-50 The variation of the dynamic viscosity of water with absolute temperature is given as
T, K µ, Pa⋅s
273.15 1.787 × 10−3
278.15 1.519 × 10−3
283.15 1.307 × 10−3
293.15 1.002 × 10−3
303.15 7.975 × 10−4
313.15 6.529 × 10−4
333.15 4.665 × 10−4
353.15 3.547 × 10−4
373.15 2.828 × 10−4
Using these tabulated data, develop a relation for viscosity in the form of μ = μ(T ) = A + BT + CT2 + DT3 + ET4. Using the
relation developed, predict the dynamic viscosity of water at 50°C at which the reported value is 5.468 × 10−4 Pa⋅s. Compare
your result with the results of Andrade’s equation, which is given in the form where D and B are constants
whose values are to be determined using the viscosity data given.
Solution The variation of the dynamic viscosity of water with absolute temperature is given. Using tabular data, a
relation is to be obtained for viscosity as a 4 th-order polynomial. The result is to be compared to Andrade’s equation in the
B/T
μ=D⋅e
form of .
Properties The viscosity data are given in tabular form as
T(K)  (Pas) 0.0018
273.15 1.78710-3 0.0016
278.15 1.51910-3
283.15 1.30710-3 0.0014
293.15 1.00210-3
303.15 7.97510-4 0.0012
313.15 6.52910-4
0.001

333.15 4.66510-4
353.15 3.54710-4 0.0008
373.15 2.82810-4
0.0006
Analysis Using EES, (1) Define a trivial
function “a=mu+T” in the equation window, (2) 0.0004
select new parametric table from Tables, and
type the data in a two-column table, (3) select 0.0002
270 292 314 336 358 380
Plot and plot the data, and (4) select plot and
click on “curve fit” to get curve fit window.
T
Then specify polynomial and enter/edit equation.
The equations and plot are shown here.
 = 0.489291758 - 0.00568904387T + 0.0000249152104T2 - 4.8615574510-8T3 + 3.5619807910-11T4

 = 0.000001475*EXP(1926.5/T) [used initial guess of a0=1.810-6 and a1=1800 in mu=a0*exp(a1/T)]
At T = 323.15 K, the polynomial and exponential curve fits give

Polynomial: (323.15 K) = 0.0005529 Pas (1.1% error, relative to 0.0005468 Pas)
Exponential: (323.15 K) = 0.0005726 Pas (4.7% error, relative to 0.0005468 Pas)
Discussion This problem can also be solved using an Excel worksheet, with the following results:
Polynomial: A = 0.4893, B = -0.005689, C = 0.00002492, D = -0.000000048612, and E = 0.00000000003562
Andrade’s equation:
10-37
10-38
10-51 Derive a relation for the capillary rise of a liquid between two large parallel plates a distance t apart inserted into
the liquid vertically. Take the contact angle to be f.
Solution A relation is to be derived for the capillary rise of a liquid between two large parallel plates a distance t apart
inserted into a liquid vertically. The contact angle is given to be .
Assumptions There are no impurities in the liquid, and no contamination on the surfaces of the plates.
Analysis The magnitude of the capillary rise between two large parallel plates can be determined from a force balance
on the rectangular liquid column of height h and width w between the plates. The bottom of the liquid column is at the same
level as the free surface of the liquid reservoir, and thus the pressure there must be atmospheric pressure. This will balance
the atmospheric pressure acting from the top surface, and thus these two effects will cancel each other. The weight of the
liquid column is
W=mg=ρgV =ρg( w×t×h) t
Equating the vertical component of the surface tension force to the weight gives
W=F surface → ρg(w×t×h)=2wσ s cos φ

Air h
Canceling w and solving for h gives the capillary rise to be
2 σ s cosφ Liquid
h=
Capillary rise: ρ gt W
Discussion The relation above is also valid for non-wetting liquids (such as
mercury in glass), and gives a capillary drop instead of a capillary rise.
10-39
10-52 A 10-cm-diameter cylindrical shaft rotates inside a 50-cm-long, 10.3-cm-diameter bearing. The space between the
shaft and the bearing is completely filled with oil whose viscosity at anticipated operating temperature is 0.300 N⋅s/m2.
Determine the power required to overcome friction when the shaft rotates at a speed of (a) 600 rpm and (b) 1200 rpm.
Solution A cylindrical shaft rotates inside an oil bearing at a specified speed. The power required to overcome
friction is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The gap is uniform, and is completely filled with oil. 2 The end effects on the sides of the bearing are
negligible. 3 The fluid is Newtonian.
Properties The viscosity of oil is given to be 0.300 Ns/m2.
Analysis (a) The radius of the shaft is R = 0.05 m, and thickness of the oil layer is = (10.3 – 10)/2 = 0.15 cm. The
power-torque relationship is
4 π 2 R3 ṅ L
T =μ
Ẇ=ωT=2π ṅT where, from Chap. 2, ℓ
Substituting, the required power to overcome friction is determined to be
6 π 3 (0 .05 m)3 (600/60 s -1 )2 (0. 50 m) 1 W
Ẇ=μ
6 π 3 R3 ṅ 2 L
ℓ
=(0 .3N⋅s/m2 )
0 . 0015 m (1 N⋅m/s )
=233 W
(b) For the case of ṅ=1200 rpm :

3 3 -1 2
6 π R3 ṅ 2 L
( )
3
6 π (0 .05 m) (1200/60 s ) ( 0. 50 m) 1 W
Ẇ=μ =(0 .3N⋅s/m2 ) =930 W
ℓ 0 . 0015 m 1 N⋅m/s
Discussion Note the power dissipated in journal bearing is proportional to the cube of the shaft radius and to the square
of the shaft speed, and is inversely proportional to the oil layer thickness.
10-40
10-53 Some rocks or bricks contain small air pockets in them and have a spongy structure. Assuming the air spaces form
columns of an average diameter of 0.006 mm, determine how high water can rise in such a material. Take the surface
tension of the air–water interface in that material to be 0.085 N/m.
Solution Air spaces in certain bricks form air columns of a specified diameter. The height that water can rise in those tubes
is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The interconnected air pockets form a cylindrical air column. 2 The air columns are open to the atmospheric
air. 3 The contact angle of water is zero, = 0.
Properties The surface tension is given to be 0.085 N/m, and we take the water density to be 1000 kg/m3.
Air
Brick
h
Mercury
Analysis Substituting the numerical values, the capillary rise is determined to be
h=
2 σ s cosφ
ρ gR
=
2(0 . 085 N/m )(cos0 °)
(1000 kg/m3 )(9 . 81 m/s 2 )(3×10−6 m)(1 kg⋅m/s 2
1N )
=5 . 78 m
Discussion The surface tension depends on temperature. Therefore, the value determined may change with temperature.
10-41
10-54 A fluid between two very long parallel plates is heated in a way that its viscosity decreases linearly from 0.90 Pa⋅s
at the lower plate to 0.50 Pa⋅s at the upper plate. The spacing between the two plates is 0.4 mm. The upper plate moves
steadily at a velocity of 10 m/s, in a direction parallel to both plates. The pressure is constant everywhere, the fluid is
Newtonian, and it is assumed to be incompressible. Neglect gravitational effects. (a) Obtain the fluid velocity u as a func-
tion of y, u(y), where y is the vertical axis perpendicular to the plates. Plot the velocity profile across the gap between the
plates. (b) Calculate the value of the shear stress. Show the direction of the shear stress on the moving plate and on the top
surface of the fluid element adjacent to the moving plate.
Solution A fluid between two long parallel plates is heated as the upper plate is moving. A relation for the fluid velocity is
to be obtained and velocity profile is to be plotted. Also the shear stress is to be calculated and its direction is to be shown.
Assumptions 1 Flow is parallel to plates. 2 Flow is one-dimensional. 3 Pressure is constant. 4 Fluid is Newtonian and
incompressible. 5 Gravitational effect is neglected.
Analysis (a) Taking an infinitesimal fluid element and applying force balance (assuming one dimensional flow),
10-42
The force equilibrium in x direction yields
dτ
=0 → τ=constant (1)
dy
Then, Newton’s law of viscosity yields
du
τ =μ =constant (2)
dy
The viscosity is changing linearly with respect to y. Thus, it can be expressed in the form μ= Ay + B where A, B are
constants.
Using (i) at y = 0, μ=0.90 Pa . s and, (ii) at y = 0.0004 m, μ=0.50 Pa . s ,A, B can be determined and the viscosity
function is found μ=0.90−1000 y
Substituting the viscosity function in equation (3) yields
du du du C
τ =μ =( 0.9−1000 y ) =constant =C → = (3)
dy dy dy 0.9−1000 y
dy
u=C∫ +D
0.9−1000 y
¿ E ln ( 0.9−1000 y ) + D( 4)
where E, D area integration constants to be determined. Using the no-slip boundary conditions: (i) at y = 0, u = 0 and, (ii) at
y = 0.0004 m, u = 10 m/s, E, D can be determined and the velocity function is found as
u ( y )=
10
ln
9
ln( 0.9
0.9−1000 y
(5) )
5
The velocity function is plotted below. The velocity vectors are also shown. For comparison, a linear profile is also plotted.
As seen below, the rate at which velocity increases towards the moving plate is not constant −¿this rate increases as one
approaches the moving plate side. This is expected. The viscosity decreases towards the moving plate. To keep the shear
stress constant (as was founded earlier), the velocity should increase more and more (not a constant rate) as one approaches
the moving plate.
10-43
(b) Using Newton’s law of viscosity
du 10 ( 1000 ) (0.9) 0.9−1000 y

τ =μ =( 0.9−1000 y ) =17,000 Pa(6)
dy 9 2
0.9
ln (0.9−1000 y)
5
As found earlier, the shear stress is constant throughout the flow.
The shear stress directions on the top surface of the fluid element adjacent to the moving plate, and on the moving
plate are:
10-44
Design and Essay Problems
10-55 to 10-59
Solution Students’ essays and designs should be unique and will differ from each other.
10-59 Even though steel is about 7 to 8 times denser than water, a steel paper clip or razor blade can be made to float on
water! Explain and discuss. Predict what would happen if you mix some soap with the water.
Solution We are to explain how objects like razor blades and paper clips can float on water, ev en though they are
much denser than water.
Analysis Just as some insects like water striders can be supported on water by surface tension, surface tension is the
key to explaining this phenomenon. If we think of surface tension like a skin on top of the water, somewhat like a
stretched piece of balloon, we can understand how something heavier than water pushes down on the surface, but the
surface tension forces counteract the weight (to within limits) by providing an upward force. Since soap decreases
surface tension, we expect that it would be harder to float objects like this on a soapy surface; with a high enough soap
concentration, in fact, we would expect that the razor blade or paper clip could not float at all.
Discussion If the razor blade or paper clip is fully submerged (breaking through the surface tension), it sinks.


Cengel FTFS 6e ISM CH 10

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10-1

PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

No-Slip Condition and Classification of Fluid Flows

10-1C Define internal, external, and open-channel flows.

Solution We are to define internal, external, and open-channel flows.

10-5C What is the no-slip condition? What causes it?

Solution We are to define the no-slip condition and its cause.

10-6C What is a boundary layer? What causes a boundary layer to develop?

Solution We are to define a boundary layer, and discuss its cause.

Vapor Pressure and Cavitation

10-7C What is vapor pressure? How is it related to saturation pressure?

10-8C Does water boil at higher temperatures at higher pressures? Explain.

10-10C What is cavitation? What causes it?

Solution We are to define and discuss cavitation.

Solution The minimum pressure in a pump to avoid cavitation is to be determined.

Solution The minimum pressure in a piping system to avoid cavitation is to be determined.

10-14C What is a Newtonian fluid? Is water a Newtonian fluid?

Solution We are to discuss Newtonian fluids.

Solution We are to define and discuss viscosity.

Discussion You can easily verify this by looking at the appendices.

where T is the absolute temperature. Substituting the given values we have

Therefore the viscosity at 100 ℃ is found to be

1.633 ×10−6 √ 373.15 −5

F=Fshear, upper +F shear, lower =7 . 29+3 . 08=10 . 4 N

SAE 30W oil

Noting that , the relative angular speed is

π (0 . 38 N⋅s/m2 )(7 . 854 /s)(0 .30 m)4

Replacing the friction force by the shear force in part (a),

∑ F x =0: F −F cos 20 °−F sin 20 °=0

∑ F y =0 : F cos 20°−F sin20 °−W =0

Analysis (a) The velocity profile is given by

(b) Substitutingthe values we get

F D=4 πμ Lumax=4 π (0 . 0010 kg/m⋅s)(30 m )(3 m/s ) (11 Nkg⋅m/s )=1 . 13 N

10-29 Repeat Prob. 10–28 for

Analysis (a) The velocity profile is given by

(b) Substituting, we get

F D=4 πμ Lumax=4 π (0 .0010 kg/m⋅s)(30 m )(6 m/s ) (11 kg⋅m/s

Solution A frustum shaped body is rotating at a constant

Ẇ sh, total =Ẇ sh, top + Ẇ sh, bottom + Ẇ sh, side=

which is about 92%.

Surface Tension and Capillary Effect

Solution We are to define and discuss surface tension.

Solution We are to define and discuss the capillary effect.

10-36C Is the capillary rise greater in small- or large-diameter tubes?

Discussion Note that when a bubble explodes, an equivalent amount of energy

Substituting, the pressure difference is determined to be:

Thus, the capillary drop is 0.874 in to three significant digits.

P atm−P ( 101325−2000 ) ×103 Pa

for diameter D gives

Solution Nutrients dissolved in water are carried to upper parts of plants.

 = 0.489291758 - 0.00568904387T + 0.0000249152104T2 - 4.8615574510-8T3 + 3.5619807910-11T4

At T = 323.15 K, the polynomial and exponential curve fits give

W=mg=ρgV =ρg( w×t×h) t

W=F surface → ρg(w×t×h)=2wσ s cos φ

(b) For the case of ṅ=1200 rpm :

Analysis Substituting the numerical values, the capillary rise is determined to be

The force equilibrium in x direction yields

(b) Using Newton’s law of viscosity

du 10 ( 1000 ) (0.9) 0.9−1000 y