TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

Manila

INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY

Alen B. Ybaez
2016

Chapter 1:
The Nature of Philosophy

Philosophy
The word Philosophy involves two Greek words
Philo

meaning

knowledge.

Thus

love

and

literally

Sophia

speaking,

meaning
philosophy

means love of wisdom. Philosophy is an attempt to

satisfy this very reasonable desire. Philosophy
signifies a natural and necessary urge in humanbeings to know themselves and world in which they
live, move and have their being.

Philosophy as a science
not based on speculations, opinions, or mere
conjecture
Science of things
philosophy is concerned with everything in the
world as far as human mind can reach
Ultimate principles and causes
studies ultimate or final cause of such things

Known only by natural reason

philosopher uses his natural reason or human
reason particularly reasoning.

The Essence and Meaning of

Philosophy

Essence of Philosophy
Unfortunately,

Philosophy

today

is

not

anymore given serious attention. This reality

happens because of the wonders brought
about by inventions. Basic to Philosophy is the
principle that everything in the world has a
cause. Nothing comes into the world without a
cause.

Philosophy as a Science
This means that Philosophy is not based on

speculations opinions or mere conjecture.

Science is a systematized body of knowledge
based on evidence. Philosophy is a science
and like all the other branches of science, it is
also based on evidence

Science of things
Philosophy is concerned with everything in

the world as far as human mind can reach.

Everything that means nothing is exempted,
from the microscopic particles to the giant
mountains and all of them are the concern of
Philosophy.

Ultimate principle and causes

All branches of science have their own field

of specialization. Zoology for instance, is

concerned with animals; Botany is for plants;
Sociology about people or society, its function
and culture. Now what then is the field of
study of Philosophy? Philosophy studies the
ultimate or final cause of such things.

Known only by natural reason

We use a dissecting instrument to study the

internal organs of a frog. In Philosophy we do

not used equipment, laboratory or anything;
the philosopher uses his natural reason or
human reason particularly reasoning.

The Divisions of
Philosophy

Metaphysics
comes from a Greek word meta which
means
beings;

change

and

concerned

physica
with

the

meaning
principle,

structures, and meanings that underlie all

observable reality.

Theodicy
It is a branch of Philosophy that deals with
the study of supreme beings. It comes from
the Greek word theos which means God and
logos means study.

Aesthetics
Branch of Philosophy that deals with the
philosophical investigation of art, understood
to include all the visual arts, music, literature,
drama and dance.

Epistemology
It is a field of philosophy that deals with the
nature and scope of human knowledge. This
field of study analyses the interactions of
knowledge with truth and beliefs.

Cosmology
The branch of Philosophy dealing with the
origin and general structure of the entire
universe including its parts, elements, and
laws and such characteristics as space, time,
causality and freedom.

Anthropology
A branch of philosophy that deals with the
study of man including his origin, physical and
cultural

development,

biological

characteristics, social customs, and beliefs.

Rational Philosophy
Kant identifies that this philosophy as a
doctrine of the soul and of self-knowledge
which arises from the common and natural
reason

of

men.

It

attempts

to

extend

knowledge beyond possible experience, and

thus employed inferences mired in dialectical
reason.

Political Philosophy
The study of concepts such as liberty,
justice,

property,

rights,

laws

and

enforcement of a legal code by authority.

the

Social Philosophy
A philosophical study of questions about
social behaviour. It addresses a wide range of
subjects,

from

individual

meanings

to

legitimacy of laws, from the social contract to

criteria for revolution, from the functions of
everyday actions to the effects of science on
culture

including

demographics.

the

changes

in

human

Ethics
The branch of philosophy that concerned
with

human

behaviour,

morality,

and

responsibilities of people to each other and to

society.

Logic
It is an art and science of exact reasoning,
or of pure and formal thought, or of the laws
according to which the processes of pure
thinking should be conducted; also known as
the science of formation and application of
general notions.

Chapter 2
The Early Greek Philosophy

Philosophy
As

discipline

is

not

easy

to

define

precisely.
Western Philosophy.
Begins in the Greek cities of Western Asia
Minor named Ionia.

Natural Philosopher
term applied for a student of any of the
sciences
Specialist in ethics
the moral philosophers
Basic to philosophy
principle that everything in the world has a
cause

Arche
These philosophers defined all things by their
quintessential substance which Aristotle, Perhaps
being anachronistic; Source of everything.
Aperion
Means having no limit; a cosmological theory
created by Anaximander in the 6th century BC.

Milesian thinkers
Group of thinkers began to engage in an
extended exploration of the speculative
issues.

Expression

of

Philosophical

thinking,

namely:

Speculative

Thinking

that

expresses

human curiosity about the world, striving to

understand

in

natural

rather

than

supernatural terms on how things really are,

what they are made of, and how they
function.

Practical

Thinking

Is

thinking

that

emphasizes the desire to guide conduct by

comprehending the nature of life and the
place of human beings and human behavior
in the greater scheme of reality.

Critical Thinking which is the hallmark of

philosophy in itself which involves a careful
examination of the foundation upon which
thinking of any sort must rely, trying to
achieve an effective method for assessing
the reliability of position adopted on the
significant issues.

PRE-SOCRATIC PHILOSOPHERS

Thales of Miletus
Thales of Miletus (c. 624 BCE
c. 546 BCE) was an ancient
(Pre-Socratic) Greek philosopher
who is often considered the first
philosopher and the father of
Western

philosophy.

approach

to

questions of

His

philosophical

course cannot compare to modern or even later

Greek philosophers, however, he is the first known
person to use natural explanations for natural
phenomena rather than turning to supernatural world
and his example was followed by other Greek
thinkers who would give rise to philosophy both as a
discipline and science. In addition to being viewed as
the beginner of Western philosophy, Thales of Miletus
is also the first to define general

principles and develop hypotheses. He is

therefore sometimes also referred to as the
father of science although this epithet is
usually used in reference to Democritus,
another prominent ancient Greek philosopher
who formulated the atomic theory that states
that all matter is composed of particles called
atoms.

Anaximander (610 546

B.C.)
was

an

early

Pre-socratic

Philosopher from the Greek city

of Miletus of Ionia (modern-day
Turkey), He was a key figure in
the Milesian School, as a student
of

Thales

and

teacher

Anaximenesand Pythagoras.

of

He was an early proponent ofscience, and is

sometimes considered to be the first true scientist,
and to have conducted the earliest recordedscientific
experiment. He is often considered thefounder of
astronomy, and he tried to observe and explain
different aspects of theuniverseand itsorigins, and
to

describe

relationto

themechanicsof
the

Earth.

He

celestial

bodiesin

made

important

contributions to cosmology, physics,

geometry, meteorology and geography as well

as toMetaphysics. He first man in Greece who
drew map of the known world. He believed
that earth is cylindrical in shape, aloft and not
supported

by

anything.

Aperion is the boundless or the infinite. He

explained wind as fine and moist effluvium of
air massing together.

Anaximenes
Anaximenes
Socratic
who

Greek

ranked

was

Pre-

Philosopher,
among

the

pioneers of the Milesian School,

whose innovative philosophies
have made major contributions
to the Milesian philosophical
inquest into the

arche or first principle of the universe, which

according

to

Anaximenes,

was

the

air.

Anaximenes was the first Greek philosopher to

form a clear distinction between planets and
stars, and to provide scientific explanations to
account for natural events such as thunder,
lightning, rainbows, earthquakes etc. He believed
that air, the principle of life is a primary material.

Pythagoras
Pythagoras of Samos was a
well-known
scientist

mathematician,
and

religious

teacher. He was born in Samos

and is often hailed as the first
great
Pythagoras

mathematician.
is

remembered

today for his famous.

Theorem in geometry, the Pythagoras Theorem.

His

mentors

Anaximander,

were
who

Thales,
inspired

Pherekydes
him

to

and

pursue

mathematics and astronomy. Pythagoras also made

important

discoveries

in

music,

astronomy

and

medicine. He accepted priesthood and performed the

rites that were required in order to enter one of the
temples in Egypt, known as Diospolis.

He set up a brotherhood with some of his

followers, who practiced his way of life and
pursued his religious ideologies. He became
one of the most distinguished teachers of
religion in ancient Greece.

Heraclitus(bornc.540c.480)
Greek

philosopher

remembered for hiscosmology,

in which fire forms the basic
material

principle

of

an

orderlyuniverse. Little is known

about his life, and the one book
he apparently wrote is lost.

Heraclitus was a Greek philosopher who was an

independent thinker and unlike other ancient
philosophers, he is not considered to belong to any
particular

school

of

thought.

Born

into

an

aristocratic family, he described himself as selftaught and was unsparing in his criticism of his
predecessors

and

contemporary

thinkers

and

philosophers. He was a loner who suffered from

bouts of melancholia which prevented

him from completing several of his works. His

personality

was

characterized

by

general

contempt for mankind which coupled with the

obscure nature of his works earned him the
nickname

the

Weeping

Philosopher.

The

ambiguous nature of his writings makes them open

to

several

interpretations

that

are

often

of

conflicting nature. He believed in the ever changing

nature of the universe and the unity of opposites.

His

works

have

been

influential

in

the

development of the concept of Logos which he

considered a principle of order and knowledge.
Regarded as one of the most important preSocratic philosophers, he was famous for departing
from the accepted norms and traditions of his days
and criticizing the generally accepted conventional
wisdom of others who were deemed to be wise
men by the society. Even though his own work was

influenced by the works of his predecessors,

he is regarded as a unique thinker who
contributed immensely to the development of
Western Philosophy.

Parmenides

of

Elea(c.

515

450B.C.)

was an earlyPre-SocraticGreek
philosopher andfounderand chief
representative
of
theEleatic
Schoolof
ancient
Greek
philosophy.
He
is
one
of
the
mostsignificantandinfluential(as
well as the mostdifficultand
obscure)
of
thePreSocraticphilosophers, and he is
sometimes referred to as the
fatherofMetaphysics.

He particularly influencedPlato(and, through

him, the whole ofWestern Philosophy), who
always spoke of him with veneration. Perhaps
his greatest contributionto philosophy was his
method ofreasoned prooffor assertions.

In denying the reality (or even the possibility)

ofchangeapart
Parmenides

of

presented

hisMonist
aturning

philosophy,
pointin

the

history ofWestern Philosophy, and sparked a

philosophicalchallengethat

determined

the

course of enquiries of subsequent philosophers

such

asEmpedocles,Anaxagorasand

Democritus, and anintellectual revolutionthat

still echoes today.

He is the founder of Eleatic school of

Philosophy. He priest of Apollo. He is the main
source of inspiration of Zeno's paradox of
motion. He made the "On Nature. He claimed
that truth cannot be known through sensory
perception

Zeno of Elea(c. 490 - 430B.C.)

was

an

importantPre-

SocraticGreekphilosopher
the

Greek

colony

from

ofEleain

southern Italy. He was aprominent

memberof

theEleatic

Schoolof

ancient Greek philosophy, which

had been founded by Parmenides,
and he subscribed to and defended
theMonistbeliefs ofParmenides.

Arguably

he

did

not

really

attempt

toaddanything positive to the teachings of his

master,Parmenides, and he is best known today
for hisparadoxes of motion. But Aristotlehas
called him the inventor of thedialectic, and no
less

logician

and

historian

thanBertrand

Russellhas credited him with havinglaid the

foundationsof modernLogic.

His philosophy of Monism claimed that many

things which appear to exist are merely a
single eternal reality. His principle was change
or non being is impossible, he is also known
for

propounding

number

of

ingenious

paradoxes. Believed in the thing w/c has no

magnitude cant exist.

Empedocles (c. 490 BC c 430

BC.)
Empedocles was born 2500 years
ago, in approximately 490 BC.
Like many people who lived so
long ago, details of his life are
sketchy. Scholars rely on fragments
from a variety of ancient sources to
learn something of his life and

his ideas.
He is the first philosopher who stated that
there are four primordial elements: earth, air,
fire & water. A politician of Acragus who
represented

the

democratic

group.

He

believed in the element of the forces of Love

(harmony) and Strife (discord).

In his remarkable life Empedocles devised a theory

of natural selection; proposed that everything in
existence is made of different combinations of four
elements: air, fire, wind and earth; recognized that
air has weight; said that the speed of light is finite;
and made a statement equivalent to the modern law
that

mass

is

conserved

in

chemical

reactions.

Empedocles four elements came to be known as the

Aristotelian Elements.

The Science of Empedocles

What we know of Empedocles science comes from
three sources:

references from other ancient scientists and

philosophers, such as Aristotle

fragments of Empedocles lengthy poemOn Nature

fragments of Empedocles lengthy

poemPurifications

Anaxagoras (c.500 - c.428)

Greek philosopher of nature
remembered

for

hiscosmologyand

for

his

discovery of the true cause of

eclipses. He was associated with
the Athenian statesmanPericles.
Only

few

fragments

of

Anaxagorass writings have been

preserved, and several different interpretations of

his work have been made. The basic features,
however, are clear. Hiscosmologygrows out of
the efforts of earlier Greek thinkers who had tried
to explain the physicaluniverseby an assumption
of

single

however,

fundamentalelement.Parmenides,

asserted

that

for

movement

change, and, whereasEmpedoclessought

an assumption could

and
such

not account to resolve this difficulty by positing

four basic ingredients, Anaxagoras posited an
infinite number. Unlike his predecessors, who had
chosen such elements as heat or water as the
basic

substance,

Anaxagoras

included

those

found in living bodies, such as flesh, bone, bark,

and leaf. Otherwise, he asked, how could flesh
come from what is not flesh? He also accounted
for biological

changes, in which substances appear under

new manifestations: as men eat and drink,
flesh, bone, and hair grow. In order to explain
the great amount and diversity of change, he
said that there is a portion of every thing,
i.e., of every elemental stuff, in every thing,
but each is and was most manifestly those
things of which there is most in it.

Everything is infinitely divisible and that

even the smallest portion of matter contains
some of each element. He believed that mind
is something infinite and self controlling. He is
an astronomer and a man of science. He
believed that world was created through the
rotary motion of a spiral.

Leucippus

and

Democritus
Leucippus and Democritus were
the earliest Greek atomists. The
originator

of

the

atomic

theory,

Leucippus (fifth century BCE), must

be considered a speculative thinker
of the first order, but to Democritus
(c. 460c. 370 BCE) must go the

Credit for working out the detailed application

of the theory and supporting it with a subtle
epistemology.

Moreover,

the

range

of

Democritus's researches surpassed that of any

earlier philosopher, and he appears to have
been an original and, for his day, advanced
ethical thinker.

CHAPTER 3
THE SOPHISTS AND SOCRATES

SOPHIST
Denotes

wise

man,

Itinerant

teachers

who

accepted fees in return for instruction in oratory

and rhetoric.

Exponents of the crisis.

Centered

their efforts on the problem of knowledge as well as

on the problem of morality and justice. A class of
teachers, claimed to teach excellence (arte) in the
management of one's own affairs. They are able to
help their students better

themselves

through

acquisition

of

certain

practical skills, filled needs for rhetorical

training

and

their

teaching

proved

that

education can make an individual a more

effective citizen. To teach moral flexibility was
not teaching immorality - They maintained
that all men, and sometimes women, could be
taught rhetoric.

Skepticism the most prominent element in

their

common

philosophy,

they

are

interested in the cultural development of

man as a member of society. Man is a
product if nature, but society and civilization
are artificial human products. They were the
first to show complete indifference to the
problem of the world of matter.

Protagoras
One of the several fifth
Century Greek

thinkers, he

said that man is measure of all

things. He could make weaker
argument appear better; he
said that no one could tell if
the God existed or not.

He has three doctrines namely:

Orthoepeia which is the study of correct use
of words
Knowledge is relative to the knower
We cannot know anything about Gods

Gorgias
A

political

ambassador

seeking military assistance

against Syracuse, delivered
a series of speeches that
dazzled Athenian audiences.
A student of Empedocles
and teacher of Isocrates.

Sicilian philosopher, orator, and rhetorician

one of the founders of sophism.

Associated

with the development of rhetoric in classical

Greece.

Prodicus
A disciple of Protagoras, he
opened a school of rhetoric and
his lectures are about the right
use of words and the accurate
discrimination
synonyms.

between

Plato satirizes him

as a pedantic lecturer on the

niceties of language

According to Philostratus, he was fond of

money and

Aristophanes described him as

the

remarkable

most

of

the

natural

philosophers for wisdom and character. Most

famous work is Choice of Hercules, put to
death

by

Athenians

corrupting their youth.

on

the

charge

of

Thrasymachus
A teacher of rhetoric and
speechwriter in Athens in
the year 427 B.C.. He claims
that if injustice is on a large
enough scale, it is stronger,
freer, ad more masterly than
justice.

Socrates
s

hailed

as

one

of

the

founders of Western philosophy,

however, very little is known
about him as a historical figure
and

philosopher.

The

best

account of life and work of one

of

the

most

influential

philosophers of all times is given

He is the inventor of the so-called Socratic

method or elenchus which remains one of the
most commonly used approaches not only to
answer

the

fundamental

questions

of

philosophy but it also serves as a tool for

scientific research. Ironically, the most famous
Socrates saying is I only know that I know
nothing.

Chapter 4
Plato

Plato(c. 428-427 BC - 348-347

BC)
The most illustrious student
Socrates had in philosophy More nearly systematic thinker
than Socrates - Established his
own school of Philosophy "The
Academy"

Was

more

concerned to establish his views

on metaphysics and epistemology.

Plato is widely considered as one of the greatest
thinkers of all times and is along his mentor
Socrates and his student Aristotle regarded as one
of the founders of Western science and philosophy.
His thought is preserved in 26 dialogues which
profoundly influenced the Western view of the
world. Plato is also renowned as the founder of the
Academy in Athens, the first higher education

institution in the Western world.

Although both life and works of Plato are
surrounded by a number of legends and myths and
despite the fact that many accounts are dubious,
the influence of his thought on science and religion
is perhaps greater than of any other individual.
Directly or indirectly (mainly through Aristotle),
Platos view of the world dominated until

the scientific revolution in the 17th century, while his

arguments to prove that God exists and that human
soul is immortal found their way into Christian
theology.
Plato is also attributed 13 letters of which is best
known

the

so-called

Seventh

Letter.

However,

authenticity of many is disputed which is also the

case with some dialogues that are traditionally
associated with Plato.

Platos

works

encompass

26

dialogues

which are traditionally divided into early,

middle and late period. Some of the most
notable works of early period include:
Apology

of Socrates

Crito
Protagoras
Meno