VIROLOGY,

PARASITOLOGY &
MYCOLOGY

General Virology

Introduction
Virology-the
study
of
viruses
(structure, classification, isolation,
potential uses)
A
virus is a non-cellular particle
made up of genetic material (nucleic
acid) and protein that can invade
living cells.

Size of viruses

Virus Classification

International Committee on Taxonomy of

Viruses

chemical characteristics, genome type,

replication strategy, diseases, vectors,
geographical distribution, host species
nucleotide sequence

order

family

subfamily

genus

species/strain/ty
pe

-virales

-viridae

-virinae

-virus

-virus

mononegavira
les

paramyxovirid
ae

paramyxovirinae

morbilliviru
s

canine distemper
virus

herpesviridae

alphaherpesvirin
ae

varicellovir
us

equid herpesvirus
1

Structure

Nucleic acid surrounded by a capsid coat

4 types:

helical
icosahedral
enveloped
bacteriophage

Helical Virus

Spiral tube of protein (stair case)

Eg. Tobacco mosaic virus, rabies

Icosahedral Virus

Appear spherical at low mag.

They actually have 20 triangular sides
Eg. Hepatitis B

Enveloped Virus

Spherical shape
These viruses highjack a hosts cell
membrane, forming an envelope
Glycoproteins (receptors) on the
surface of the envelope allow the virus
to appear friendly
Eg. HIV, influenza

Bacteriophage (Complex
Viruses)

Hexagonal head bound to a helical tail

Tail fibers act (legs) help to inject DNA
into the host cell
T-4 bacteriophage (infect E.coli)

Bacteriophage - replication

Lytic Cycle - during the lytic cycle a

virus invades a host, produces new
viruses, and destroys the host (lysis)
Viruses that replicate this way are known
as virulent
T phages are virulent

Lysogenic Cycle - sometimes a virus

may infect a host cell and remain
dormant
This type of virus is known as a
temperate virus
Temperate virus DNA will combine with
host DNA creating a prophage

Viral replication

Infection begins when a virus recognizes

and attaches to or enters a host cell
The viral genome takes over the cell,
making it a factory for more viruses
Because they can only replicate with the
help of a host, viruses are known as
obligate intracellular parasites

DNA Viruses:

Some DNA enters a host and makes mRNA

Other DNA may actually insert into a host
cells chromosome (provirus)

RNA Viruses:

Some RNA enters the host and serves

directly as RNA
Other RNA may be transcribed and serve as
a template for more viral DNA

Some RNA viruses (retroviruses) contain

the enzyme reverse transcriptase
This enzyme is used to transcribe viral
RNA into DNA (reversing the normal
process of transcription)
This viral DNA is used to make
moreviruses
HIV is a retrovirus

General Parasitology

General Parasitology

Parasitology area of biology

concerned with the phenomenon of
dependence of one living organism on
another.
Parasite organism that is entirely
dependent on another organism, which
refer to as its host, for all part of its life
cycle and metabolic requirement.
Parasite is divided into two types :
Microparasite and Macroparasite.

Microparasite

Small
Unicellular
Multiplies within its vertebrate host,
often inside cells.
Protoza, Virus, bacteria and

Macroparasite

Large
Multicellular
Has no direct reproduction within its
vertebrate host.
Helminths.

On the basis of their location they may

also be divided into two types :

Ectoparasites.
Endoparasite.

Ectoparasite

Live on the surface of the skin or

temporarily invade the superficial tissues
of the host (eg lice).
Infection by this parasite is known as
infestation

Endoparasite

Organisms that live within the body of

the host.
All protozoan and helminthic parasites of
man are endoparasites.
The invasion of this parasite is known as
infection.
Further subdivided into :

Accidental
Facultative
Eg
Organisms
Hookworms
parasites
parasites
that attack a host where they cannot live or develop further.
Organisms
Acantamoeba
Organism
Toxocara
Describe
the
that
that
non-parasitic
attack
cannot
anexist
stages
without
of aexistence
host
which are lived independently of a
Obligate
Abberant
Free-living
Organism
Echinococcus
parasites
that under favorable circumstances may live either parasitic or free livin

Host

Organism which harbours the parasite

and provides the nourishment and
shelter to the latter.
Definitive host - the host which sexual
reproduction of the parasite takes place.
Intermediate host - host which
alternates with the definitive host and in
which the larval or asexual stages of a
parasite are found. Some parasites
requires two intermediate hosts for
completion of their life cycle.

Paratenic host - Host in which larval

stage of a parasite survive but does not
develop further. It is often not necessary
part of the life cycle.
Reservoir host host which harbours
the parasite and serves as an important
source of infection to other succeptible
hosts.
Vector is an agent, usually an insect,
that transmits an infection from one
human host to another.

Host-parasite relationships

Symbiosis both host and parasite are

so dependent upon each other that one
cannot live without the help of the other.
Commensalism only parasite derives
benefit without causing any injury to the
host.
Parasitism parasite benefits and the
host provides the benefits. the host gets
nothing in return and always suffers from
some injury.

Source of infection

Contaminated soil and water

Freshwater fishes
Crab and crayfishes
Raw or undercooked pork
Raw or undercooked beef
Watercress
Blood-sucking insects
Housefly
Dog
Cat
Man
Autoinfection

Portal of entry into the body

Mouth

The commonest portal of entry of parasite

is oral through contaminated food, water,
soiled fingers or fomites. This mode of
transmission is referred to as faecal-oral
route
Eg : T. saginata, T. solium

Skin

Another important portal of entry.

Parasite penerate the unbroken skin of an
individual walking over faecally
contaminated soil. (S.stercoralis)
Blood-sucking organisms puncture the skin
to feed. (Plasmodium spp.)

hookworm

Sexual contact

Transmitted by sexual contact.

May also be transmitted by anal-oral sexual
practices among male homosexuals.
Trichomonas vaginalis , G. lamblia

Kissing

Transmitted from person-to-person by kissing or

contaminated drinking utensil.
E.gingivalis

Congenital

Transmitted from mother to foetus transplacentally.

Plasmodium spp.

Inhalation

Airborne eggs may be inhaled into pharynx leading

to infection.
E.

vermicularis

Iatrogenic infection

Malaria parasites may be transmitted by

transfusion blood from the donor with
malaria.
Known as transfusion malaria.
Malaria parasite may also be transmitted
by use of contaminated syringes and
needles. May occur in drug addict.

Pathogenocity

A parasite may live in or on the tissues

of its host without causing evident harm.
However, in majority of cases the
parasite has the capacity to produce
damage.
Increase in incidence :

AIDS patients
Immunocompromised patients eg : patient
received cytotoxic drug (cancer patients)
and patients that undergo organ transplant.

Traumatic damage

Relative slight physical damage is produced by entry

of larvae into the skin.
Migration of several helminthic larvae through lung
produced traumatic damage of pulmonary capillaries
leading to extravasation of blood into lung. Similar
damage may occur in cerebral, retina, or renal
capillaries.
Attachment of hookworms to the intestinal wall results
in traumatic damage of the villi and oozing of blood at
the site of injury.
Large worm may cause intestinal obstruction, occlude
the bile duct, and perforate the intestinal wall.

Lytic necrosis

Parasites secrete lytic enzyme which

lyses tissues for its nutritional needs and
helps it to penetrate into the tissues of
colon.
Some cause necrosis to the host cells
during their growth and multiplication.

Neoplasia

Contribute to neoplastic growth such as

cholangiocarcinoma and vesical
carcinoma.

Secondary infection

In some helminthic infections, the

migrating larvae may carry bacteria and
viruses from the intestine to the blood
and tissues leading to secondary
infection.

Protozoa

Unicellular eukaryotic cells.

They may possess pseudopodia, flagella
or cilia as organelles of locomotion.
Have short generation time, high rate of
reproduction and tendency to induce
immunity to reinfection in those host
who survive.
Major ds : Malaria, leishmaniasis and
sleeping sickness.

Life cycle

Involving alternate cycle of asexual

division (schizogony) occuring in man
(intermediate host) and sexual
development (sporogony) occuring in
female anopheles mosquito (definitive
host).

Female Anopheles Mosquito

HUMAN CYCLE

Sporozoites are the infective form of

parasite.
Present in salivary glands of female
anopheles mosquito.
Man get infection by bite of the infected
mosquito which its proboscis pierce the
skin and injected the sporozoites into
blood stream.

Primary

The cycle in MAN comprises of following

stages :

Primary exoerythrocytic
schizogony

Within one hour all sporozoites leave blood

stream and enter liver parenchyma cells.
Sporozoites which elongated, spindle-shaped
bodies become rounded inside liver cells.
They under process of multiple nuclear
cytoplasmic division and develop into
primary exoerythrocytic schizont.
When primary exoerythrocytic schizont
complete, the liver cells ruptures and release
merozoites into blood stream.

Merozoites

Erythrocytic schizogony

Merozoites enter blood stream and invade

blood cells where they multiply at the
expense of the host cells.
Here they pass through the stages of
trophozoites, schizonts and merozoites.
After maturation RBC will ruptures to release
individual merozoites.
This infect other fresh RBC.
The metabolism of malarial parasite largely
dependent on the digestion of Hb of the RBC.

Merozoites

Gametogony

Some merozoites will develop within RBC into

male and female gametocytes known as
microgametocyte and macrogametocyte
respectively.
They develop in the RBC of capillaries of internal
organs like spleen and bone marrow.
Only mature gametocytes are found in
peripheral blood.
Do not cause any harm to human. Just for the
continuance of the sp.
Waiting for the mosquito to take them up.

Secondary exoerythrocytic schizogony

In case of P.vivax and P.ovale, some sporozoites enter

hepatocytes will enter the resting (dormant) stage before
undergoing asexual multiplication. Not in P.falciparum
and P.malariae.
The resting stage of parasite is rounded known as
hypnozoite.
After a period of weeks, months or years hypnozoite are
reactivated to become secondary exoerythrocytic
schizogony and release merozoites infecting RBC,
produced relapse of malaria.
Relapse situation in which the erythrocytic infection is
eliminated but new infection occur by new invasion of
RBC from liver merozoites.

MOSQUITO CYCLE

Sexual cycle actually start in the human

host itself by formation of gametocytes.
Both asexual and sexual form are
ingested by female mosquito during
blood meal from the patient.
In the mosquito only mature sexual form
able to undergo further development
and rest die.

In the stomach of the mosquito from one

microgametocyte 8 thread-like
filamentous structure called
microgametes are formed by the
process of exflagellation.
Macrogametocyte does not show any of
exflagellation. It develop into
macrgametes.
Fertilization occur when microgamete
penetrate the macrogamete.
Zygote formed.

In 24 hrs, zygote lengthens and mature into

ookinete which is motile.
Ookinete penetrate the epithelial lining of the
stomach of mosquito and lie there between the
cells.
Here its develop into oocyst which is rounded
with single nucleus.
Inside this develop sporozoites.
After oocyst is fully mature, it will rupture and
release the sporozoites into the mosquito body
cavity and to the salivary gland.
Cycle begin.

Pathogenicity

Febrile paroxysm 3 stages (cold, hot

and sweating); severe high fever,and
headache
Anaemia mechanical destruction of
parasitized RBC.
Spleenomegaly enlarged spleen due to
massive proliferation of macrophages
which phagocytized infected RBC.

Antimalarial Drugs

Treatment: to
clear
parasitemia

Chloroquine
Fansidar
(Sulfadoxine/
pyrimetamine)
Quinine
Artesunate
Doxycycline
Malarone
Primaquine
Artemesinin

Prophylaxis: to protect from

infection

Chloroquine
Daraprim
Proguanil

Helminths

Aka parasitic worms

Multicellular
Bilaterally symmetrical, elongated, flat
or round.
Belong to two phyla : Platyhelminthes
and nematoda

General characterictic of
Helminths

Macroscopic in size and visible in naked eye.

Almost all helminths produce eggs. There are
excreted in dff secretion or excretion of the
body.
Life cycle may complete in one or more host.
The pathological lesions in helminthic ds are
due to direct damage caused by helminths
and indirect damage by host response.
Cause malnutrition.
Surgery needed to removed the infection.

TAPEWORM

Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm;

unarmed tapeworm of human) and
Taenia solium (pork tapeworm; armed
tapeworm of human)

Life Cycle (T.solium)

Pass its life cycle in two host.

The definitive host is man who
harbours the adult worm.
The intermediate host is pig.
Eggs or gravid proglottids are passed out
with the faeces on the ground. Ingested
by pig.
When they reached duodenum the egg
rupture and liberate oncospheres.

With the help of the hooklets they

penetrate the wall of intestine and enter
messentric lymphatic. Then they reach
general circulation via liver, heart, and
lung.
From general circulation they are filtered
out in striated muscle where they will
develop into bladder worm aka
cycticercus bovis.
Matured cycticercus have armed scolices
(with hooklets)

Cysticerci can live in flesh of pig for

about 8 months.
Man acquires infection by eating raw or
under cooked pig containing cycticerci.
The larvae hatch out in small intestine
and develop into adult worm.
Adult worm lay eggs which pass out in
faeces and cycle begin.

Pathogenicity

Abdominal discomfort
Indigestion
Persistent diarrhoea
Or diarrhoea alternating with
constipation and loss of appetite.
May develop in brain causing the
epileptic attack.

General Mycology

Myco=fungus
logy=studyof

General characteristic

Eukaryotic
Nochlorophyll - nonphotosynthetic
Most multicellular - some
unicellular(yeast)
Nonmotile
Cell walls made of chitin
Lack true roots, leaves and stems
Absorptive heterotrophs

Digest food externally & then absorb it

Hyphae

Body of fungus made of tiny filaments or

tubes called hyphae
Contain cytoplasm and nuclei
Each hyphae is one continuous cell
Some contain cross walls with pores that
allow movement of cytoplasm
Cell wall is made of chitin
A tangled mass of hyphae = mycelium
Rhizoids are root-like parts of fungi that
anchor them to the substrate

Nutrition in Fungi

Saprophytes
Parasites
Mutualists (symbionts)

Saprophytes

Use non-living organic material

Important scavengers in ecosystems
Important in recycling carbon, nitrogen
and essential mineral nutrients

Parasites

Use organic material from living

organisms , harming them in some way
Range of hosts from single celled
diatoms to fungi , to plants to animals to
humans

Mutualists (symbionts)

Fungi that have a mutually beneficial

relationship with other living organ

Many fungi are harmful to

human

Can cause humans disease allergies ,

athletes foot , ringworm , yeast
infections
Cause rot and contamination of foods
Can destroy almost any kind of
manufactured good exception plastics
and some pesticides
Athletes foot
Ringworm

Many Fungi are useful to

humans

Yeastsbaking and brewing

Antibioticspenicillin & cephalosporin
Many organic acids are produced with
the help of fungi eg. Citric acid in Coke is
made help of fungi
Steroids and medicines eg. penicilin-first
antibiotic (Penicillium sp.)