Fundamental Principles of

Convective Heat Transfer Governing

equations
Dr. Om Prakash
Singh
Asst. Prof., IIT Mandi
www.omprakashsingh.com

Course Policy

Course type: Self study mode/Teach others

Contact Hours: 3 hours/week
Credits: 3
Assessment:
Presentations: 20%
Assignment/Project/Wikipedia article: 20%
End Exam- 3 hrs: 30%
Quiz 1, and 2: 20%
Attendance: 10%

Class Hours: 2.00 5 PM Monday

Modes of heat transfer

Heat transfers in three ways:

Conduction
Convection
Radiation

Happinees,

Temperature
difference must
for heat transfer
to occur
(understanding heat transfer
from philosophical point)

Life is all about difference

Dress to
reduce
temperature
difference
Difference in
thinking
creates
excitement,
happiness
sadness etc.
Electricity flow
due potential
difference,

Differenc
e in force
bends a
structure

Einstein
relativity
theory
based on
velocity
difference

Life is all about difference

Brilliant = Your talent talent of average person

Mathematics

Difference

orruption = Black money white

(tendency to create
money
abrupt large difference
in money leads to
corruption)

Modes of Mass transfer

Concentration difference leads to mass transfer (kg/s)
by
Diffusion (solids, liquids, gas)
Melecular phenomenon like heat conduction/diffusion
Convection (Liquid, Gas)
Transfer of mass by bulk motion and diffusion
There
is no Radiation-LIKE
counterpart in Mass transfer
Double-diffusive convection
exhibits both diffusion and
convection phenomenon

Effect of Rayleigh numbers on the evolution

of doublediffusive salt fingers, 2014, O. P.
Singh, J. Srinivasan, Phys. Fluids, 26(6), pp.
1-18

Why study heat transfer?

Design for failure free products (safety)

High temperature in products leads:

- to catastrophic failure
- reduced product life
- human discomfort

Designs are becoming more compact (economy)

- heat dissipating devices closely pact
- high heat concentration
- challenge to remove heat

Fundamental principles

y system should follow the following conservation princip

Mass balance (continuity equation)
Force balances (momentum equations)

Energy balance (laws of thermodynamics)

he Differential Continuity Equation

Mass conservations

To derive the differential continuity equation, the infinitesimal element

of Fig. is needed. It is a small control volume into and from which the
fluid flows. It is shown in the xy-plane with depth dz. Let us assume
that the flow is only in the xy plane so that no fluid flows in the zdirection. Since mass could be changing inside the element, the mass
that flows into the element minus that which flows out must equal the
change in mass inside the element. This is expressed as

he Differential Continuity Equation

Mass conservations

where the products u and v are allowed to change across the

element. Simplifying the above, recognizing that the elemental
control volume is fixed, results in

he Differential Continuity Equation

Mass conservations
Differentiate the products and include the variation in the zdirection. Then the differential continuity equation can be put in the
form

The first four terms form the material derivative so above Eq.
becomes
(4)

providing the most general form of the differential continuity

equation expressed
using rectangular coordinates.

he Differential Continuity Equation

Mass conservations
The differential continuity equation is often written using the vector
operator

so that continuity Eq. takes the form

(6)

where the velocity vector is V = ui + vj + wk. The scalar V is called

the divergence of the velocity vector.

he Differential Continuity Equation

Mass conservations
For an incompressible flow, the density of a fluid particle remains
constant as it travels through a flow field, that is,

so it is not necessary that the density be constant. If the density is

constant, as it
often is, then each term in above Eq. is zero. For an incompressible
flow, Eqs. (4)
and (6) also demand that

Problem
Air flows with a uniform velocity in a pipe with the velocities
measured along the centerline at 40-cm increments as shown. If
the density at point 2 is 1.2 kg/m3, estimate the density gradient at
point 2.

Ans: /x = 0.3 kg/m4

Problem

Conditions for Incompressible Flow

Consider a steady velocity field given by V = (u, v, w) = a(x 2y +
y2)i + bxy2j + cxk , where a, b, and care constants. Under what
conditions is this flow field incompressible?
Ans: a = - b

he Navier-Stokes Equations

onservation of momentum

Rectangular stress
components on a fluid
element

Stresses exist on the faces of an infinitesimal, rectangular fluid

element, as shown in Fig for the xy-plane.
Similar stress components act in the z-direction.
The normal stresses are designated with and the shear stresses with
.
There are nine stress components: .
If moments are taken about the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis,
respectively, they would show that

The Navier-Stokes Equations

Conservation of momentum
So, there are six stress components that must be related to the
pressure and velocity components. Such relationships are called
constitutive equations; they are equations that are not derived but
are found using observations in the laboratory.
Next, apply Newtons second law to the element of Fig., assuming
no shear stresses act in the z-direction (well simply add those in
later) and that gravity acts in the z-direction only:

These are simplified to

The Navier-Stokes Equations

Conservation of momentum
If the z-direction
equations become

components

are

included,

the

differential

(12)

assuming the gravity term gdxdydz acts in the negative zdirection.

In many flows, the viscous effects that lead to the shear stresses
can be neglected and the normal stresses are the negative of the
pressure. For such inviscid flows, Above Eq. takes the form

The Navier-Stokes Equations

Conservation of momentum
In vector form they become the famous Eulers equation,

which is applicable to inviscid flows.

For a constant-density, steady flow, above Eq. can be
integrated along a streamline to provide Bernoullis equation.
Constitutive equations relate the stresses to the velocity and
pressure fields. For a Newtonian isotropic fluid, they have been
observed to be

(15)

The Navier-Stokes Equations

Conservation of momentum
For most gases, Stokes hypothesiscan be used: = -2/3 . If the above
normal stresses are added, there results

showing that the pressure is the negative average of the three

normal stresses in
most gases, including air, and in all liquids in which . V = 0.
If Eq. (15) is substituted into Eq. (12) using = -2/3 there
results

The Navier-Stokes Equations

Conservation of momentum
where gravity acts in the negative z-direction and a homogeneous
fluid has been
assumed so that, e.g., /x=0.
Finally, if an incompressible flow is assumed so that . V = 0, the
Navier-Stokes
Equations result:

where the z-direction is vertical. If we introduce the scalar operator

called the Laplacian, defined by

The Navier-Stokes Equations

Conservation of momentum
Navier-Stokes equations can be written in vector form as

The three scalar Navier-Stokes equations and the continuity

equation constitute the four equations that can be used to find
the four variables u,v,w, and p provided there are appropriate
initial and boundary conditions.
The equations are nonlinear due to the acceleration terms, such
as uu/x on the left-hand side; consequently, the solution to
these equation may not be unique. For example, the flow between
two rotating cylinders can be solved using the Navier-Stokes
equations to be a relatively simple flow with circular streamlines;
it could also be a flow with streamlines that are like a spring
wound around the cylinders as a torus; and, there are even more
complex flows that are also solutions to the Navier-Stokes
equations, all satisfying the identical boundary conditions.

The Navier-Stokes Equations

Conservation of momentum
The Navier-Stokes equations can be solved with relative ease for
some simple geometries.
But, the equations cannot be solved for a turbulent flow even
for the simplest of examples; a turbulent flow is highly unsteady
and three-dimensional and thus requires that the three velocity
components be specified at all points in a region of interest at
some initial time, say t =0.
Such information would be nearly impossible to obtain, even for
the simplest geometry.
Consequently, the solutions of turbulent flows are left to the
experimentalist and are not attempted by solving the equations.

Problem
Couette Flow between a Fixed and a Moving Plate
Using Navier-Stokes equation,
velocity of the moving plate

derive the equation of

Solution
Consider two-dimensional incompressible plane (/z = 0) viscous
flow between parallel plates a distance 2h apart, as shown in Fig..
We assume that the plates are very wide and very long, so that
the flow is essentially axial,u 0 but v = w = 0. The present case
is Fig. a, where the upper plate moves at velocity V but there is
no pressure gradient. Neglect gravity effects. We learn from the
continuity equation that

Thus there is a single nonzero axial-velocity component which

varies only across the channel. The flow is said to be fully
developed (far downstream of the entrance). Substitute u = u(y)
into the x-component of the Navier-Stokes momentum equation for
two-dimensional (x, y) flow:

Most of the terms drop out, and the momentum equation simply
reduces to

The two constants are found by applying the no-slip condition at

the upper and lower plates:

Therefore the solution for this case (a), flow between plates
with a moving upper wall, is

This is Couette flowdue to a moving wall: a linear velocity profile

with no-slip at each wall, as anticipated and sketched in Fig. a.

Problem
Flow due to Pressure Gradient between Two Fixed Plates
Determine velocity profile
Case (b) is sketched in Fig.b. Both plates
are fixed (V= 0), but the pressure varies in
the x direction. If v= w= 0, the continuity
equation leads to the same conclusion as
case (a), namely, that u= u(y) only. The xmomentum
equation
changes
only
because the pressure is variable:

Also, since v= w= 0 and gravity is neglected, the y- and z- momentum

equations
lead to

Thus the pressure gradient is the total and only gradient:

Why did we add the fact that dp/dx is constant? Recall a useful
conclusion from the theory of separation of variables: If two
quantities are equal and one varies only with y and the other
varies only with x, then they must both equal the same
constant.
Otherwise they would not be independent of each other.
Why did we state that the constant is negative? Physically, the
pressure must decrease in the flow direction in order to drive
the flow against resisting wall shear stress.
Thus the velocity profile u(y) must have negative curvature
everywhere, as anticipated and sketched in Fig. b.

The solution
integration:

to

above

Eq.is

accomplished

by

double

The constants are found from the no-slip condition at each wall:

Thus the solution to case (b), flow in a channel due to

pressure gradient, is

The flow forms a Poiseuille parabola of constant negative curvature.

The maximum velocity occurs at the centerline y= 0:

Problem
Water flows from a reservoir in between two closely aligned parallel
plates, as shown. Write the simplified equations needed to find the
steady-state velocity and pressure distributions between the two
plates. Neglect any z-variation of the distributions and any gravity
effects. Do not neglect v(x, y).

Solution
Continuity eqn.
The
differential
momentum equations,
recognizing that

are simplified as follows

neglecting pressure variation in the y-direction since the plates are

assumed to be
a relatively small distance apart. So, the three equations that
contain the three variables u, v, and p are

To find a solution to these equations for the three variables, it would be necessary
to use the no-slip conditions on the two plates and assumed boundary conditions
at the entrance, which would include u(0, y) and v(0, y). Even for this rather
simple geometry, the solution to this entrance-flow problem appears, and is, quite
difficult. A numerical solution could be attempted.

Material Derivative (or Total derivative)

The Material Derivative, also called the Total Derivative or Substantial
Derivative is useful as a bridge between Lagrangian and Eulerian
descriptions.
Definition of the material derivative - The material derivative of
some quantity is simply defined as the rate of change of that
quantity following a fluid particle. It is derived for some arbitrary
fluid property Q as follows:

In this derivation, dt/dt = 1 by definition, and since a fluid particle is being

followed, dx/dt = u, i.e. the x-component of the velocity of the fluid particle.
Similarly, dy/dt = v, and dz/dt = w following a fluid particle.
Note that Q can be any fluid property, scalar or vector. For example, Q can be a
scalar like the pressure, in which case one gets the material derivative or
substantial derivative of the pressure. In other words, dp/dt is the rate of
change of pressure following a fluid particle. Or, using the same equations
above, Q can be the velocity vector, in which case one gets the material
derivative of the velocity, which is defined as the material acceleration, i.e. the
rate of change of velocity following a fluid particle.

Material Derivative (or Total derivative)

Note also the notation, DQ/DT, which is used by some authors to
emphasize that this is a material or total derivative, as opposed to
some partial derivative. DQ/DT is identical to dQ/dt.
The material derivative is a field quantity, i.e. it is expressed in the
Eulerian frame of reference as a function of space and time (x,y,z,t).
Thus, at some given spatial location (x,y,z) and at some given time
(t), DQ/Dt = dQ/dt = the material derivative of Q, and is defined as
the total rate of change of Q with respect to time as one follows
whatever fluid particle happens to be at that location at that instant
of time.
Q changes for two reasons: First, if the flow is unsteady, Q changes
directly with respect to time. This is called the local or unsteady rate
of change of Q.
Second, Q changes as the fluid particle migrates or convects to a
new location in the flow field. This is called the convective or
advective rate of change of Q.

Material Derivative (or Total derivative)

Example - the material acceleration, following a fluid particle - The
material acceleration can be derived as follows:

The first term on the right hand side is called the local
acceleration or the unsteady acceleration. It is only non-zero in
an unsteady flow.
The last three terms make up the convective acceleration, which
is defined as the acceleration due to convection or movement of the
fluid particle to a different part of the flow field. The convective
acceleration can be non-zero even in a steady flow! In other words,
even when the velocity field is not a function of time (i.e. a steady
flow), a fluid particle is still accelerated from one location to another.

N-S Equation in various flow situations

The Navier-Stokes
equations for
incompressible flow
involve four basic
quantities:
Local (unsteady)
acceleration.
Convective
acceleration.
Pressure gradients.
Viscous forces.
The ease with which
solutions can be obtained
and the complexity of the
resulting flows often
depend on which
quantities are important
for a given flow.

(steady laminar flow)

(impulsively started)
(boundary layer)
(inviscid, impulsively started)
(inviscid)
(steady viscous flow)

(unsteady flow)

Steady laminar flow

Steady viscous laminar flow in a

horizontal pipe involves a
balance between the pressure
forces along the pipe and
viscous forces.

The local acceleration is zero

because the flow is steady.

The convective acceleration is

zero because the velocity
profiles are identical at any
section along the pipe.

Pressure gradient and Viscous

forces

0 p 2u ,

2
dp R
r
u
1

dx
4

velocity profile is independent of x

2

Flow past an impulsively started flat plate

Flow past an impulsively started

flat plate of infinite length
involves a balance between the
local (unsteady) acceleration
effects and viscous forces. Here,
the development of the velocity
profile is shown.
The pressure is constant
throughout the flow.

The convective acceleration is

zero because the velocity does
not change in the direction of the
flow, although it does change
with time.

Local acceleration and Viscous

forces

u
2u ,
t
/ ,

u V0 1 erf

4t

Impulsively started flow of an inviscid fluid

Impulsively started flow of an

inviscid fluid in a pipe involves a
balance between local (unsteady)
acceleration effects and pressure
differences.

The absence of viscous forces

allows the fluid to slip along the
pipe wall, producing a uniform
velocity profile.

The convective acceleration is zero

because the velocity does not vary
in the direction of the flow.
The local (unsteady) acceleration is
not zero since the fluid velocity at
any point is a function of time.

Local acceleration and Pressure

gradient

u
p

,
t
x
u u(t )
15

Boundary layer flow along a flat plate

Boundary layer flow along a finite

flat plate involves a balance
between viscous forces in the
region near the plate and
convective acceleration effects.

grows
The boundary
layer thickness
in the downstream
direction.
The local acceleration is zero
because the flow is steady.

Convective acceleration and

Viscous forces
2

u.u u
u u ( x, y )

Inviscid flow past an airfoil

Inviscid flow past an airfoil

involves a balance between
pressure gradients and
convective acceleration.

Since the flow is steady, the local

(unsteady) acceleration is zero.

Since the fluid is inviscid (=0)

there are no viscous forces.
Convective acceleration and
Pressure gradient

u.u p
u u ( x, y )

Steady viscous flow past a cylinder

Steady viscous flow past a

circular cylinder involves a
balance among convective
acceleration, pressure gradients,
and viscous forces.
For the parameters of this flow
(density, viscosity, size, and
speed), the steady boundary
conditions (i.e. the cylinder is
stationary) give steady flow
throughout.
For other values of these
parameters the flow may be
unsteady.

Convective acceleration,
Pressure gradient and Viscous
forces
2

u.u p u

16

Unsteady flow past an airfoil

Unsteady flow past an airfoil at a

large angle of attack (stalled) is
governed by a balance among
local acceleration, convective
acceleration, pressure gradients
and viscous forces.

A wide variety of fluid mechanics

phenomena often occurs in
situations such as these where
all of the factors in the NavierStokes equations are relevant.
Local acceleration, Convective
acceleration, Pressure gradient
and Viscous forces

u
u.u p 2u
t

he Differential Energy Equation

Most problems in an introductory fluid mechanics course involve
isothermal fluid flows in which temperature gradients do not exist.
So, the differential energy equation is not of interest.
The study of flows in which there are temperature gradients is
included in a course on heat transfer. For completeness, the
differential energy equation is presented here without derivation.
In general, it is

where K is the thermal conductivity.

For an incompressible ideal gas flow it becomes

he Differential Energy Equation

For a liquid flow it takes the form

where is the thermal diffusivity defined by = K/cp

he Differential Energy Equation

When dealing with extremely viscous flows of the type encountered
in lubrication problems or the piping of crude oil, the model above is
improved by taking into account the internal heating due to viscous
dissipation,

In three dimensions, the viscous dissipation function is expressed

as
follows:

End