Distribution

Systems
CHAPTER 12

Distribution Systems
That part of power system which
distributes electric power for local use
is known as distribution system
In general, the distribution system is
the electrical system between the
sub-station fed by the transmission
system and the consumers meters. It
generally
consists
of
feeders,
distributors and the service mains

Distribution Systems
Feeders:
A feeder is a conductor which connects
the sub-station (or localised generating
station) to the area where power is to
be distributed.
Generally, no tappings are taken from
the feeder so that current in it remains
the same throughout.
The main
consideration in the design of a feeder
is the current carrying capacity

Distribution Systems
Distributor:
A distributor is a conductor from which
tappings are taken for supply to the
consumers.
AB, BC, CD and DA are the distributors.
The current through a distributor is not
constant because tappings are taken at
various places along its length. While
designing a distributor, voltage drop
along
its
length
is
the
main
consideration since the statutory limit
of voltage variations is 6% of rated

Distribution Systems
Service mains:
A service mains is generally a small
cable
which
connects
the
distributor
to
the
consumers
terminals.

Classification of Distribution
Systems
A distribution system may be classified according to
I. Nature of Current
II. Type of Construction
III. Scheme of Connection

Nature of Current:
.According to nature of current, distribution system may be classified as
.(a) D.C. distribution system
.(b) A.C. distribution system.
.Now-a-days, A.C. system is universally adopted for distribution of electric
power as it is simpler and more economical than direct current method

Classification of Distribution
Systems
Type of Construction:
According to type of construction, distribution system may be
classified as
(a) overhead system
(b) underground system.
The overhead system is generally employed for distribution as it is
5 to 10 times cheaper than the equivalent underground system. In
general, the underground system is used at places where overhead
construction is impracticable or prohibited by the local laws

Classification of Distribution
Systems
Scheme of Connection:
According to scheme of connection, the distribution
system may be classified as
(a) radial system
(b) ring main system
(c) inter-connected system.
Each scheme has its own advantages and disadvantages

A.C. Distribution Systems

Now-a-days electrical energy is generated, transmitted and
distributed in the form of alternating current.
One important reason for the widespread use of alternating
current in preference to direct current is the fact that alternating
voltage can be conveniently changed in magnitude by means of
a transformer.
Transformer has made it possible to transmit A.C. power at high
voltage and utilise it at a safe potential.
High transmission and distribution voltages have greatly reduced
the current in the conductors and the resulting line losses

A.C. Distribution Systems

In general, the A.C. distribution system is the electrical
system between the stepdown substation fed by the
transmission system and the consumers meters. The
A.C. distribution system is classified into
I. Primary distribution system
II. Secondary distribution system.

A.C. Distribution Systems

Primary distribution system:
It is that part of A.C. distribution system which operates at
voltages somewhat higher than general utilisation and handles
large blocks of electrical energy than the average low-voltage
consumer uses.
The voltage used for primary distribution depends upon the
amount of power to be conveyed and the distance of the
substation required to be fed. The most commonly used primary
distribution voltages are 11 kV, 66 kV and 33 kV. Due to
economic considerations, primary distribution is carried out by
3phase, 3-wire system.

A.C. Distribution Systems

A.C. Distribution Systems

Secondary distribution system:
It is that part of A.C. distribution system which includes the range of voltages at
which the ultimate consumer utilises the electrical energy delivered to him. The
secondary distribution employs 400/230 V, 3-phase, 4-wire system.
The primary distribution circuit delivers power to various substations, called
distribution substations. The substations are situated near the consumers
localities and contain stepdown transformers. At each distribution substation, the
voltage is stepped down to 400 V and power is delivered by 3-phase,4-wire A.C.
system. The voltage between any two phases is 400 V and between any phase
and neutral is 230 V.
The single phase domestic loads are connected between any one phase and the
neutral, whereas 3-phase 400 V motor loads are connected across 3- phase lines
directly

D.C Distribution System

It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost exclusively
generated, transmitted and distributed as A.C.
However, for certain applications, D.C. supply is absolutely necessary.
For instance, D.C. supply is required for the operation of variable
speed machinery (i.e., D.C. motors), for electrochemical work and for
congested areas where storage battery reserves are necessary.
For this purpose, A.C. power is converted into D.C. power at the
substation by using converting machinery e.g., mercury arc rectifiers,
rotary converters and motor-generator sets. The D.C. supply from the
substation may be obtained in the form of (i) 2-wire or (ii) 3-wire for
distribution

D.C Distribution System

2-wire D.C. system:
As the name implies, this system of distribution consists of two wires.
One is the outgoing or positive wire and the other is the return or negative
wire. The loads such as lamps, motors etc. are connected in parallel
between the two wires.

This system is never used

for transmission purposes
due to low efficiency but
may
be
employed
for
distribution of D.C. power

D.C Distribution System

3-wire D.C. system:
It consists of two outers and a middle or neutral wire
which is earthed at the substation. The voltage between
the outers is twice the voltage between either outer and
neutral
wire. advantage
The
principal
of this system is that it
makes
available
two
voltages at the consumer
terminals viz., V between
any outer and the neutral
and 2V between the

Methods of Obtaining 3-Wire D.C

System
There are several methods of obtaining 3-wire D.C.
system. However, the most important ones are:
I. Two Generator Model
II. 3-wire D.C. generator
III. Balancer set

Methods of Obtaining 3-Wire D.C

System
Two generator method:
In this method, two shunt wound
D.C. generators G1 and G2 are
connected in series and the neutral
is obtained from the common point
between generators.
Each generator supplies the load on
its own side. Thus generator G 1
supplies a load current of I1 ,
whereas generator G2 supplies a
load current of I2 .

Methods of Obtaining 3-Wire D.C

System
Two generator method:
The difference of load currents
on the two sides, known as out
of balance current (I1 - I2) flows
through the neutral wire. The
principal disadvantage of this
method is that two separate
generators are required

Methods of Obtaining 3-Wire D.C

System
3-wire D.C. generator:
The above method is costly on account of the
necessity of two generators. For this reason, 3wire D.C. generator was developed
It consists of a standard 2-wire machine with
one or two coils of high reactance and low
resistance,
connected
permanently
to
diametrically opposite points of the armature
winding. The neutral wire is obtained from the
common point

Methods of Obtaining 3-Wire D.C

System
Balancer set:
The 3-wire system can be
obtained from 2-wire D.C.
system by the use of
balancer set. G is the main
2-wire D.C. generator and
supplies power to the whole
system.

Methods of Obtaining 3-Wire D.C

System
Balancer set:
The balancer set consists of two
identical D.C shunt machines A
and B coupled mechanically with
their armatures and field windings
joined in series across the outers.
The junction of their armatures is
earthed and neutral wire is taken
out from here. The balancer set
has the additional advantage that
it
maintains
the
potential

Overhead Vs Underground
System
The distribution system can be overhead or underground.
Overhead lines are generally mounted on wooden,
concrete or steel poles which are arranged to carry
distribution transformers in addition to the conductors.
The underground system uses conduits, cables and
manholes under the surface of streets and sidewalks.
The choice between overhead and underground system
depends upon a number of widely differing factors.
Therefore, it is desirable to make a comparison between
the two

Overhead Vs Underground
System
Public safety:
The underground system is more safe than overhead
system because all distribution wiring is placed
underground and there are little chances of any hazard.
Initial cost:
The underground system is more expensive due to the high
cost of trenching, conduits, cables, manholes and other
special equipment. The initial cost of an underground
system may be five to ten times than that of an overhead
system.

Overhead Vs Underground
System
Flexibility:
The overhead system is much more flexible than the underground
system. In the latter case, manholes, duct lines etc., are
permanently placed once installed and the load expansion can
only be met by laying new lines. However, on an overhead
system, poles, wires, transformers etc., can be easily shifted to
meet the changes in load conditions.
Faults:
The chances of faults in underground system are very rare as the
cables are laid underground and are generally provided with
better insulation.

Overhead Vs Underground
System
Appearance:
The general appearance of an underground system is better as
all the distribution lines are invisible. This factor is exerting
considerable public pressure on electric supply companies to
switch over to underground system.
Fault location and repairs:
In general, there are little chances of faults in an underground
system. However, if a fault does occur, it is difficult to locate and
repair on this system. On an overhead system, the conductors
are visible and easily accessible so that fault locations and
repairs can be easily made.

Overhead Vs Underground
System
Current carrying capacity and voltage drop:

An overhead distribution conductor has a considerably higher current

carrying capacity than an underground cable conductor of the same
material and cross-section. On the other hand, underground cable
conductor has much lower inductive reactance than that of an
overhead conductor because of closer spacing of conductors.
Useful life:

The useful life of underground system is much longer than that of an

overhead system. An overhead system may have a useful life of 25
years, whereas an underground system may have a useful life of
more than 50 years.

Overhead Vs Underground
System
Maintenance cost:
The maintenance cost of underground system is very low as
compared with that of overhead system because of less chances
of faults and service interruptions from wind, ice, lightning as well
as from traffic hazards.
Interference with communication circuits:
An overhead system causes electromagnetic interference with the
telephone lines. The power line currents are superimposed on
speech currents, resulting in the potential of the communication
channel being raised to an undesirable level. However, there is no
such interference with the underground system.

Connection Scheme of Distribution

Systems
All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant
voltage system. In practice, the following distribution
circuits are generally used :
I. Radial System
II. Rang Main System
III.Interconnected System

Connection Scheme of Distribution

Systems
Radial System:
In this system, separate feeders
radiate from a single substation and
feed the distributors at one end only.
Figure shows a single line diagram of a
radial system for D.C. distribution
where a feeder OC supplies a
distributor AB at point A. Obviously,
the distributor is fed at one end only
i.e., point A is this case.

Connection Scheme of
Distribution Systems
Radial System:
Figure shows a single line
diagram of radial system for
A.C. distribution.
The radial
system is employed only when
power is generated at low
voltage and the substation is
located at the center of the load

Connection Scheme of Distribution

Systems
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the lowest initial cost.
However, it suffers from the following drawbacks:
a. The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily
loaded.
b. The consumers are dependent on a single feeder and single distributor.
Therefore, any fault on the feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the
consumers who are on the side of the fault away from the substation.
c. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected
to serious voltage fluctuations when the load on the distributor
changes.

Due to these limitations, this system is used for short distances only

Connection Scheme of
Distribution Systems

Connection Scheme of Distribution

Systems
Ring main system:
In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers
form a loop. The loop circuit starts from the substation busbars, makes a loop through the area to be served, and
returns to the substation.
Figure shows the single line diagram of ring main system
for A.C. distribution where substation supplies to the closed
feeder LMNOPQRS. The distributors are tapped from
different points M, O and Q of the feeder through
distribution transformers

Connection Scheme of
Distribution Systems
Ring main system:
The ring main system has the following advantages:
a. There are less voltage fluctuations at consumers terminals.
b. The system is very reliable as each distributor is fed via
*two feeders. In the event of fault on any section of the
feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained. For example,
suppose that fault occurs at any point F of section SLM of
the feeder. Then section SLM of the feeder can be isolated
for repairs and at the same time continuity of supply is
maintained to all the consumers via the feeder SRQPONM.

Connection Scheme of Distribution

Systems
Ring main system:

Connection Scheme of Distribution

Systems
Interconnected system:
When the feeder ring is energized by two or more than two
generating stations or substations, it is called inter-connected
system.
Figure shows the single line diagram of interconnected
system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied by
two substations S1 and S2 at points D and C respectively.
Distributors are connected to points O, P, Q and R of the
feeder ring through distribution transformers.

Connection Scheme of Distribution

Systems
Interconnected system:
The interconnected system has the following
advantages:
a. It increases the service reliability.
b. Any area fed from one generating station during
peak load hours can be fed from the other
generating station. This reduces reserve power
capacity and increases efficiency of the system.

Requirements of a Distribution
System
A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain
an electric power supply within the requirements of
various types of consumers.
Some of the requirements of a good distribution system
are :
I. Proper voltage
II. Availability of power on demand
III. Reliability

Requirements of a Distribution
System
Proper voltage:
One important requirement of a distribution system is that voltage variations
at consumers terminals should be as low as possible.
The changes in voltage are generally caused due to the variation of load on
the system. Low voltage causes loss of revenue, inefficient lighting and
possible burning out of motors. High voltage causes lamps to burn out
permanently and may cause failure of other appliances. Therefore, a good
distribution system should ensure that the voltage variations at consumers
terminals are within permissible limits.
The statutory limit of voltage variations is 6% of the rated value at the
consumers terminals. Thus, if the declared voltage is 230 V, then the highest
voltage of the consumer should not exceed 244 V while the lowest voltage of
the consumer should not be less than 216 V.

Requirements of a Distribution
System
Availability of power on demand:
Power must be available to the consumers in any amount that
they may require from time to time. For example, motors may
be started or shut down, lights may be turned on or off, without
advance warning to the electric supply company.
As electrical energy cannot be stored, therefore, the distribution
system must be capable of supplying load demands of the
consumers.
This necessitates that operating staff must
continuously study load patterns to predict in advance those
major load changes that follow the known schedules.

Requirements of a Distribution
System
Reliability:
Modern industry is almost dependent on electric power for its
operation. Homes and office buildings are lighted, heated, cooled
and ventilated by electric power.
This calls for reliable service. Unfortunately, electric power, like
everything else that is man-made, can never be absolutely reliable.
However, the reliability can be improved to a considerable extent by
a. interconnected system
b. reliable automatic control system
c. providing additional reserve facilities.

Design Considerations in
Distribution System
Good voltage regulation of a distribution network is
probably the most important factor responsible for
delivering good service to the consumers.
For this purpose, design of feeders and distributors
requires careful consideration.
a. Feeders
b. Distributors

Design Considerations in
Distribution System
Feeders:
A feeder is designed from the point of view of its
current carrying capacity while the voltage drop
consideration is relatively unimportant.
It is because voltage drop in a feeder can be
compensated by means of voltage regulating
equipment at the substation.

Design Considerations in
Distribution System
Distributors:
A distributor is designed from the point of view of the
voltage drop in it.
It is because a distributor supplies power to the
consumers and there is a statutory limit of voltage
variations at the consumers terminals ( 6% of rated
value).
The size and length of the distributor should be such
that voltage at the consumers terminals is within the
permissible limits.