CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO
QUALITY

INTRDUCTION
What Is Quality?

Different scholars give different interpretations

to the term quality:
for engineers it is conformance to specifications,
for users it is fitness for use,
for marketing it is the degree of excellence at an acceptable
price that will influence the market share.
for customer service a quality product is that with less
customer complaint

CONTI.
Quality is fitness for purpose -but what does
that mean?
One commonly used definition of quality, which originated
with one of the pioneers of quality control, Dr J. M. Juran, uses
the idea of fitness for purpose.
Example
Take the case of a Jaguar car. One of the most important purposes
of a Jaguar (or any other luxury car) is to impress other people.
For somebody running a business, for example, a Jaguar is
intended to convey the message that the business is successful
and profitable.

Conti.
Crosby believes that it is Conformance to requirements or
specification and reliability as a test of quality
Once a specification is established, quality can be said to be a
matter of ensuring conformance to specification.
The two serious weaknesses in this and in any
other definition, which is based on conformance
to a specification are:
1. It sets a level which is considered to be
good enough,
2. It results in an emphasis on inspection. All
the work goes into ensuring that nothing
goes out of the specification.

Conti.
Quality
The meaning of quality in fact, remains a term that is
easily misunderstood. Some used the term to refer luxury
and merit and some others to mean excellence and value.
The term is also being used to qualify a quality product
as superior in all aspects to others in its class.
Quality is based up on customer actual experience

with the product or service, measured against his

requirements.

Conti.
Quality is meeting customer requirements and
this has been expressed in many ways by the
quality experts in the field:
Deming says that "Quality should be aimed at the
needs of customer, present and future

British Standard, BS4778 explains it as The

totality of features and characteristics of a
product or service that bear on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs

Conti.
These views to quality refer to one way or the other, to the following 8
dimensions of quality i.e. the quality of a product can be evaluated in
several ways.
It is often very important to differentiate these different dimensions of
quality. Garvin (1987) provides an excellent discussion of eight
components of dimensions of quality. We summarize key points
concerning these dimensions of quality as follows:
Performance,
Reliability,
Conformance,
Durability,
Serviceability,
Features
Aesthetic, and
Perceived quality.

Conti.
Performance (will the product do the intended job?)
Potential customers usually evaluate a product to determine if it
will perform certain specific functions and determine how well
it performs them.

Reliability (how often does the product fail?)

Some product require some repair over their service time e.g
automobiles, computers ,mobiles etc.
For example, you should expect that an automobile will require
occasional repair, but if the car requires frequent repair, we say
that it is unreliable.
it ensurs the ability to retain quality over a period of time.
This is an industry in which the customers view of quality is
greatly impacted by the reliable dimension of quality.

Conti.
Durability (how long does the product last?)
This is the effective service life of the product.
Customers obviously want products that perform satisfactorily
over a long period of time. Again, the automobile and major
appliance industries are examples of business where this
dimensions of quality is very important to most customers.

Serviceability (how easy is it to repair the product?)

There are many industries where the customers view of quality
is directly influenced by how quickly and economically a
repair of routine maintenance activity can be accomplished.

Conti.
Aesthetics (what does the product look like?)
This is the visual appeal of the product, often taking into account
factors such as style, color, shape, packaging alternatives,
tactile characteristics, and other sensory features.
For example, soft drink beverage manufacturers have relied on
visual appeal of their packaging to differentiate their product
from other competitors.
Features (what does the product do?)
Usually, customers associate high quality with products that have
added features; that is those that have features beyond this
basic performance of the competition.
For example, your mobile has addition features such as
memory,camera,radio,TV others mobiles did not have.

Conti.
Perceived Quality (what is the reputation of the company or its
product?)
In many cases, customers rely on the past reputation of the
company concerning quality of its products. This reputation is
directly influenced by failures of the products that are highly
visible to the public or that require product recalls, and by how
the customer is reported.
Example:
if you make regular business trips using a particular airline,
and the flight almost always arrives on time and the airline
company does not lose or damage your luggage, you will
probably prefer to fly on that carrier instead of its competitors.

Conti.
Conformance to standards (is the product made exactly as the
designer intended?)
We usually think of a high-quality product as one that exactly
meets the requirements placed on it.
For example, how well does the new battery on your mobile?
Manufactured parts that do not exactly meet the designers
requirements can cause significant quality problems when they
are used as the components of a more complex assembly. And
automobile consists of several thousand parts. If each one is
just slightly too big or too small, many of the components will
not fit together properly, and the vehicle (or its major
subsystems) may not perform as the designer intended.

CONTI.

CONTI.

WHAT IS THE SECRET

BEHIND THE SUCCESS OF

BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS?

CONTI.

Quality products & services

Customer Satisfaction

Customer satisfaction

Survival

Customer satisfaction

Competitiveness

Customer satisfaction

Excellency

Conti.
A comprehensive definition of quality is that product or service
which fulfills an aggregate requirement of customers, in all
aspects, at present and in the future and which customers
can buy it.
Thus the closer this conformation indicates the higher the degree
of quality.
We see from the foregoing discussion that quality is indeed a
multifaceted entity. Consequently, a simple answer to questions
such as what is quality? or what is quality improvement? is
not easy. The traditional definition of quality is based on the
viewpoint that products and service must meet the equipment
of those who use them.

The Objective of Quality

The central objective of Quality is to eliminate waste by cutting

manufacturing variance to the minimum. This is equally applicable to the

manufacturing as well as to the service giving industries.
Manufacturing variance can be generated throughout the whole closed loop of
the company;
Marketing.
Engineering
Purchasing
Manufacturing Engineering
Field service and Erection, therefore quality is not one department
responsibilty,it is the responsibility of everyone.
The commitment starts with top manangement and spreads
throughout the organization.the quality assurance team must
evaluate and oversee each departments responsibility in
producing a quality product or service. The following are some
specific responsibility associated with the various departments
or units with an organization.

Conti.

Fig .responsibilities of different departments in the closed loop of a

company to ensure quality

Conti.
Marketing

Determines the needs and requirements of

the customer.

they supply the information on the price

that the customers is willing to pay.
data obtained here has an impact on the
product quality design.
means of obtaining information

market surveys conducted via questionaires

feedback from sales representatives

customer complaints

Conti.
Product design and development(engineering)
develop product specification
determine the raw materials to be used
decide on the performance characteristics of the product

Conti.
A specification is the minimum requirement according to
which a producer or service provider makes and delivers the
product and service to the customer. In setting specification
limits, the following should be considered:

The users and/or customers needs

Requirements relating to product safety and health

hazards provided for in the statutory and regulatory

requirements
Requirements provided for national and/or international
standards
The competitors product specifications, in order to gain
marketing advantages

Conti.
In designing the product, the capacity of processes and
machines should be kept in mind. It is also necessary to
maintain a balance between cost and value realization.
The clearer the specification, the better the possibility
of creating and delivering quality products.
The specifications and drawings produced by the
designer should show the quality standard demanded
by the customer or marketplace in clear and precise
terms. Every dimension should have realistic
tolerances and other performance requirements should
have precise limits of acceptability so that the
production team can manufacture the product strictly
according to specification and drawings.

Conti.
To achieve the above, those responsible for design, production and

quality should be consulted from the sales negotiation stage onwards.

The overall design of any product is made up of many individual
characteristics. For example these may be:
Dimensions, such as length, diameter, thickness or area;
Physical properties, such as weight, volume or strength;
Electrical properties, such as resistance, voltage or current;
Appearance, such as finish, color or texture;
Functional qualities, such as output or kilometer per liter;
Effects on service, such as taste, feel or noise level.

Manufacturing drawings and specifications are prepared by the

designers and these should indicate to the production team precisely
what quality is required and what raw materials should be used.

Conti.
Purchasing
Obtains the raw materials and components for the product.it
selects vendors whose products meet certain quality
requirements.

Conti.
Manufacturing engineering
is responsible in determine the details of manufacturing process.
After the design, including the manufacturing drawings, has been reviewed
and finalized, it is time to plan for manufacture. This will include the
following steps:
Deciding on the method of manufacture.
Providing the necessary machines, plant, tooling and other equipment for
manufacturing process
Obtaining and training suitable operators.
Planning inspection and shop floor quality control.

Conti.
Manufacturing
is responsible for producing a quality product.
It must control the operations, process parameters, and operators performance
to achieve the desired level of quality.

Conti.
Inspection and test
Is responsible for appraising the quality of incoming raw
materials and components as well as the quality of the
manufactured product or service.
It also specifies the type of inspection devices to use and the
procedures to follow to measure the quality characteristics of
interest.

Conti.
Packaging and shipping
concerns itself with how the product is packaged and
transported to the customer.
This function serves to protect the quality of the product during
the process of storage and shipment.

Conti.
Field service and eraction (customer service)

is responsible for installation,maintenance,and repair of products.

Its purpose is to help the consumer get the most out of the
product and to assist the customer when requested.
This department conducts customer training programs about the
product. And it deals with warranty cost and seeks feed backs
from customers on their satisfaction level.

Conti.
Quality Characteristics
elements define the intended quality level of a product or
service.
Categorized into
Structural characteristics
(length of the part,weight,strength,viscocity)
Sensory Characteristics
(taste of good food,smell,beauty of model)
Time-oriented characteristics
( measures as a warranty, reliability and maintainability)
Ethical characteristics
( include honesty,courtesy,friendliness)

QUALITY COST
Many organizations now formally evaluate the cost associated with quality.
There are several reasons why the cost of quality should be explicitly
considered in an organization. These include the following:
1. The increase in the cost of quality because of the increase in the complexity
of manufactured products associated with advances in technology
2. Increasing awareness of life-cycle costs, including maintenance, spare parts,
and the cost of field failures
3. Quality engineers and managers can most effectively communicate quality
issues in a way that management understands.

Conti.
Every time work is redone, the cost of quality increases. Examples include:
The reworking of a manufactured item
The retesting of rework product
The rebuilding of a process

As a result, quality costs have emerged as a financial control tool for

management and as an aid in identifying opportunities for reducing
quality costs.

CONTI.
Generally speaking, quality costs are those categories of costs that are
associated with producing, identifying, avoiding, or repairing products that
do not meet requirements. Many manufacturing and service organizations
use four categories of quality costs: prevention costs, appraisal costs,
internal failure costs, and external failure costs which are defined by
American society of quality control (ASQC) (1971).
Prevention cost
The costs of all activities specifically designed to prevent poor quality in
products or services (Broadly speaking, prevention costs are all costs
incurred in an effort to make it right the first time.) such as:
Quality planning
Costs associated with the creation of the overall quality plan, the inspection
plan, the reliability plan, the data system, and all specialized plans and
activities of the quality-assurance function. the preparation of manuals and
procedures used to communicate the quality plan; and the costs of auditing
the system.

Conti.
New products review
cost incurred during design and development of new product
Product/process design.
Costs incurred during the design of the product or the selection of the
production processes that are intended to improve the overall quality of the
product.
Process control
The cost of process-control techniques, such as control charts.
Burn-in
The cost of preshipment operation of the product to prevent early-life failures
in the field.
Training
The cost of developing, preparing, implementing, operating, and maintaining
formal training programs for quality.

Conti.
Quality data acquisition and analysis.
The cost of running the quality data system to acquire data on product and
process performance; also the cost of analyzing these data to identify
problems. It includes the work of summarizing and publishing quality
information for management.

Appraisal costs
are those costs associated with measuring, evaluating, or auditing products,
components, and purchased materials to ensure conformance to the
standards and performance requirements that have been imposed.
Inspection and test of incoming material
Costs associated with the inspection and testing of all material.
Product inspection and test
The cost of checking the conformance of the product throughout its various
stages of manufacturing

Conti.
Materials and services consumed
The cost of material and products consumed in a destructive test.
Maintaining accuracy of test equipment
The cost of operating a system that keeps the measuring instruments and
equipment in calibration.

Conti.
Failure costs
are costs resulting from products or services not conforming to requirements
or customers needs .
failure costs are divided into internal and external failure categories.
Internal Failure Costs

Internal failure costs are incurred when products, components,

materials, and services fail to meet quality requirements, and
this failure is discovered prior to delivery of the product to the
customer.
Scarp: The net loss of labor, material, and overhead resulting
from defective product that cannot economically be repaired or
used.

Conti.
Rework:
The cost of correcting nonconforming units so that they meet
specifications.
Retest:
The cost of reinspection (retesting) of products that have undergone
rework or other modifications.
Failure analysis:
The cost incurred to determine the causes of product failures.
Downtime:
The cost of idle production facilities that results from nonconformance
to requirements.
Downgrading/off-specing:
The price differential between the normal selling price and any selling
price that might be obtained for a product that does not meet the
customers requirements.

Conti.
External failure
costs occur when the product does not perform satisfactorily
after it is delivered to the customer.
Complaint adjustment :
All costs of investigation and adjustment of justified complaints
attributable to the nonconforming product.
Returned product/material.
All costs associated with receipt, handling, and replacement of the
nonconforming product or material that is returned from the
field.
Warranty charges:
All costs involved in service to customers under warranty
contracts.

QUALITY CONTROL
The Need for Total Quality Control
If a defective product enters in the market, it
will cause:
customer dissatisfaction,
A customer who is satisfied with quality will tell 8 people
about it; a dissatisfied customer will tell 22 (A.V.
Feigenbaum, Quality Progress, February 1986, p. 27)

unnecessary expenditure for warranty, and

Having a quality product increases market share, resulting in

better profits

Conti.
Quality control
may generally be defined as a system that is used to
maintain a desired level product or service.
This task may be achieved through different measures such as
planning ,design, use of proper equipment and
procedures,inspection,and taking corrective action in case a
deviation is observed between the product,service,or process
output and a specified standard.

Conti.
To produce products/services that consumers
will buy happily;
Quality dimensions,
Costs (i.e. sales price and profit),
Delivery (i.e. production volumes and sales volumes), and
Safety (including social and environmental factors) must be

comprehensively controlled.

Conti.
Methods of Quality control
may be divided into three
1.off-line quality control
2.statistical process control
3.acceptance sampling

Conti.
Off-line quality control
deals with measures to select and choose controllable
product and process parameters in such a way that the
deviation between the product or process output and the
standard will be minimized.
much this task is accomplished through the product and process
design.
The goal is to come up with a design within a constraints of
resources and environmental parameters such that when
production takes place, the out put meets the standard.
The product and process parameters are set before production
begins.
Example. Design of experiment and Taguchi methods

Conti.
Statistical process control
involves comparing the output of a process or a service with a
standard and taking remedial actions in case of a discrepancy
between the two.
It also involves determining whether a process can produce a
product that meets desired specifications or requirements.
On-line statistical process control means that information is
gathered about the product,process,or service while it is
functional. When the output differs from a determined norm,
corrective actions on real-time is taken in that operational
phase.

conti.
Acceptance sampling plans
this branch of quality control deals with inspection of the product
or service. When 100% inspection of all items is not feasible, a
decision has to be made on how many items should be sampled
or whether the batch should be sampled at all.
The information obtained from the sample is used to decide
whether to accept or reject the entire batch or lot.

Conti.
Since real quality control can be achieved by marshalling all of a
companys strengths, this kind of quality control is termed as
Total Quality Control (TQC).
Implementing TQC requires the participation of all departments,
the involvement of every employee at all levels and a
comprehensive implementation of quality control.

Conti.
TQC consists essentially of developing, controlling, and assuring
the quality of products and services.
However, we can expand the definition of TQC to mean

improving the quality of everything, i.e. creating a high quality

company; high quality man, machine, material and
information.

QUALITY IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Quality Improvement
Quality improvement is the reduction of variability in
processes and products.
Alternatively, quality improvement is also seen as waste
reduction.
The underlying concept of quality improvement techniques

is to ensure, in a cost efficient manner, that the product

shipped to customers meets their specifications.

Conti.
The P-D-S-A cycle, promoted by Deming, is the basis
for continuous improvement.

END?