Thermal Physics

Topic 3.2 Thermal

Properties of Matter

Heat Capacity/Thermal
Capacity

When substances undergo the same

temperature change they can store or
release different amounts of energy
They have different Heat Capacities
Heat capacity = Q / T in JK-1
Q = the change in thermal energy in
joules
T = the change in temperature in Kelvin

Defined as the amount of energy to

change the temperature of a body by
unit temperature
Applies to a specific BODY

Heat Capacity - 2

A body with a high heat capacity

will take in thermal energy at a
slower rate than a substance with
a low heat capacity because it
needs more time to absorb a
greater quantity of thermal
energy

They also cool more slowly

because they give out thermal
energy at a slower rate

Specific Heat Capacity

Defined as the amount of thermal

energy required to produce unit
temperature rise in unit mass of
the MATERIAL

Unit mass is normally 1kg, and

unit temperature rise is normally
1K

Specific Heat Capacity = Q /

(mT)
in J kg -1 K-1
where m is the mass of the material

For an object made of

1specific material then
Heat Capacity = m x Specific
Heat Capacity

Specific Heat Capacity

-2

Unit masses of different

substances contain
different numbers of molecules
of different types
of different masses

If the same amount of internal

energy is added to each unit
mass
it is distributed amongst the
molecules

Specific Heat capacity

-3

The average energy change

of each molecule will be
different for each substance

Therefore the temperature

changes will be different

So the specific heat

capacities will be different

Methods of finding the

S.H.C

Two methods
Direct
Indirect

Direct Method Liquids

Using a calorimeter of known

Heat Capacity

(or Specific Heat Capacity of

the material and the mass of
the calorimeter)

Because
Heat Capacity = Mass
x Specific Heat

Capacity

SHC of Liquids

Stirrer

To joulemeter
or voltmeter
and ammeter
Thermometer
Calorimeter
Heating coil
Liquid
Insulation

Calculations - Liquids

Electrical Energy input is equal to

the thermal energy gained by the
liquid and the calorimeter this is
the assumption that we are
making

Electrical energy = V x I x t
Energy gained by liquid = ml cl
Tl

Energy gained by calorimeter =

mc cc Tc

Calculations - Liquids
-2
Using conservation of energy
Electrical energy in = thermal
energy gained by liquid +
thermal energy gained by
calorimeter
V x I x t = ml cl Tl + mc cc
Tc

The only unknown is the

specific heat capacity of the
liquid

Direct Method - Solids

Using a specially prepared block

of the material

The block is cylindrical and has 2

holes drilled in it
one for the thermometer and one
for the heater
Heater hole in the centre, so the
heat spreads evenly through the
block
Thermometer hole, way between
the heater and the outside of the
block, so that it gets the averge
temperature of the block

SHC of Solids
To joulemeter
or voltmeter
and ammeter
Insulation
Thermometer
Heating coil
Solid
Insulation

Calculations - Solids

Again using the conservation

of energy
Electrical Energy input is
equal to the thermal energy
gained by the solid

Electrical energy = V x I x t

Energy gained by solid = m s

cs Ts

Calculations - Solids
-2

V x I x t = ms cs Ts

The only unknown is the

specific heat capacity of the
solid

Indirect Method

Sometimes called the method of

mixtures

In the case of solid, a known

mass of solid is heated to a
known temperature (usually by
immersing in boiling water for a
period of time)

Then it is transferred to a known

mass of liquid in a calorimeter of
known mass

Indirect Method
cont..

The change in temperature is

recorded and from this the
specific heat capacity of the solid
can be found

Energy lost by block = Energy

gained by liquid and calorimeter

mb cb Tb = mw cw Tw + mc cc Tc
the SHC of water and the
calorimeter are needed

Apparatus

Thermometer
Beaker
Boiling Water
Block

Heat

Thermome
Calorimete
Water
Block
Insulation

Indirect Method
cont.

In the case of a liquid

A hot solid of known specific

heat capacity is transferred
to a liquid of unknown
specific heat capacity

A similar calculation then

occurs

Phases (States) of
Matter

Matter is defined as anything

that has mass and occupies
space
There are 4 states of matter
Solids, Liquids, Gases and
Plasmas
Most of the matter on the
Earth in the form of the first 3
Most of the matter in the
Universe is in the plasma
state

Macroscopic

Macroscopic properties are

all the observable behaviours
of that material such as
shape, volume,
compressibility

The many macroscopic or

physical properties of a
substance can provide
evidence for the nature of
that substance

Macroscopic
Characteristics

Characteristics Solid

Liquid

Gas

Shape

Definite

Variable

Variable

Volume

Definite

Definite

Variable

Compressibilty

Almost
Very Slightly Highly
Incompressible Compressible Compressible

Diffusion

Small

Slow

Fast

Comparative
Density

High

High

Low

These will help to explain

what is happening at the
atomic level, and this part of
the model will be interpreted
later

Microscopic
Characteristics

Characteristics

Solid

KE

Vibrational

PE

High

Liquid

Gas

Mostly
Vibrational Translational
Rotational
Higher
Some
Rotational
Higher
Translational
Vibrational
Higher

Highest

Fluids
Liquids
Gases
are both fluids
Because they FLOW

Arrangement of
Particles - 1

Solids
Closely packed
Strongly bonded to neighbours
held rigidly in a fixed position
the force of attraction between
particles gives them PE

Arrangement of
Particles - 2

Liquids
Still closely packed
Bonding is still quite strong
Not held rigidly in a fixed
position and bonds can break
and reform
PE of the particles is higher
than a solid because the
distance between the particles
is higher

Arrangement of
Particles - 3

Gases
Widely spaced
Only interact significantly on
closest approach or collision
Have a much higher PE than
liquids because the particles
are furthest apart

Changes of State

A substance can undergo

changes of state or phase
changes at different
temperatures

Pure substances have

definite melting and boiling
points which are
characteristic of the
substance

Changes of State - 2

The moving particle theory

can be used to explain the
microscopic behaviour of
these phase changes
When the solid is heated the
particles of the solid vibrate at
an increasing rate as the
temperature is increased
The vibrational KE of the
particles increases

Changes of State -3
At the melting point a temperature is
reached at which the particles
vibrate with sufficient thermal energy
to break from their fixed positions
and begin to slip over each other
As the solid continues to melt more
and more particles gain sufficient
energy to overcome the forces
between the particles and over time
all the solid particles are changed to
a liquid
The PE of the system increases as
the particles move apart

Changes in State - 4
As the heating continues the
temperature of the liquid rises due
to an increase in the vibrational,
rotational and translational energy
of the particles
At the boiling point a temperature is
reached at which the particles gain
sufficient energy to overcome the
inter-particle forces and escape into
the gaseous state. PE increases.
Continued heating at the boiling
point provides the energy for all the
particles to change

Heating Curve
Temp / oC
Liquid - gas
phase change

Solid - liquid
phase change

Gas

Liquid
Solid

Time /min

Changes of State
Thermal energy added

sublimation
melting
SOLID

vaporisation
LIQUID

GAS

Freezing/solidification condensation

Thermal energy given ou

Evaporation

The process of evaporation

is a change from the liquid
state to the gaseous state
which occurs at a
temperature below the
boiling point

The Moving Particle (Kinetic)

theory can be applied to
understand the evaporation
process

Explanation

A substance at a particular
temperature has a range of
particle energies

So in a liquid at any instant,

a small fraction of the
particles will have KE
considerably greater than the
average value

So
If these particles are near the
surface of the liquid, they will
have enough KE to
overcome the attractive
forces of the neighbouring
particles and escape from
the liquid as a gas
This energy is needed as
gases have more PE than
liquids.

Cooling
Now that the more energetic
particles have escaped
The average KE of the
remaining particles in the
liquid will be lowered
Since temperature is related
to the average KE of the
particles
A lower KE infers a lower
temperature

Cool

This is why the temperature of

the liquid falls as an evaporative
cooling takes place
A substance that cools rapidly is
said to be a volatile liquid
When overheating occurs in a
human on hot days, the body
starts to perspire
Evaporation of the perspiration
cools the body

Factors Affecting The

Rate

Evaporation can be increased

by
Increasing temperature
(more particles have a higher KE)
Increasing surface area
(more particles closer to the
surface)
Increasing air flow above the
surface
(gives the particles somewhere to
go to)

Latent Heat

The thermal energy which a

particle absorbs in melting,
vaporising or sublimation or
gives out in freezing,
condensing or sublimating is
called Latent Heat because
it does not produce a change
in temperature

Latent Heat cont.

When thermal energy is

absorbed/released by a body, the
temperature may rise/fall, or it
may remain constant
If the temperature remains constant
then a phase change will occur as
the thermal energy must either
increase the PE of the particles as
they move further apart
or decrease the PE of the particles
as they move closer together

Definition

The quantity of heat energy

required to change one
kilogram of a substance from
one phase to another,
without a change in
temperature is called the
Specific Latent Heat of
Transformation
Latent Heat = Q / m
J kg -1

in

Types of Latent Heat

Fusion
Vaporisation
Sublimation

The latent heat of fusion of a

substance is less than the
latent heat of vaporisation or
the latent heat of sublimation

Questions

When dealing with questions

think about
where the heat is being given
out
where the heat is being
absorbed
try not to miss out any part

Methods of finding
Latent Heat
Using similar methods as for
specific heat capacity
The latent heat of fusion of
ice can be found by adding
ice to water in a calorimeter

Apparatus

Block of ice

Thermome
Calorimete
Water
Block of ice
Insulation

The change in temperature is

recorded and from this the latent
heat of fusion of the ice can be
found
Energy gained by block melting =
Energy lost by liquid and
calorimeter
mb Lb = mw cw Tw + mc cc Tc
the SHC of water and the
calorimeter are needed

The latent heat of vaporisation

of a liquid could be found by an
electrical method

Latent Heat of
Vaporisation
To joulemeter
or voltmeter
and ammeter
Insulation
Thermometer
Heating coil
Liquid in Calorimeter

The initial mass of the liquid is

recorded
The change in temperature is
recorded for heating the liquid to
boiling
The liquid is kept boiling
The new mass is recorded
Energy supplied by heater = energy
to raise temperature of liquid +
energy use to vaporise some of the
liquid
(The calorimeter also needs to be
taken in to account.
V I t = ml clTl+ me Le + mc ccTc

Pressure

Pressure can be explained by the

collisions with the sides of the
container
If the temperature increases, the
average KE of the particles
increases
The increase in velocity of the
particles leads to a greater rate of
collisions and hence the pressure
of the gas increases as the
collisions with the side have
increased
Also the change in momentum is
greater, therefore greater force

Pressure continued
When a force is applied to a
piston in a cylinder
containing a volume of gas
The particles take up a
smaller volume
Smaller area to collide with
And hence collisions are
more frequent with the sides
leading to an increase in
pressure

Also, as the piston is being

moved in
It gives the particles colliding
with it more velocity
Therefore they have more KE
Therefore the temperature of the
gas rises.

Collisions
Because the collisions are
perfectly elastic
There is no loss of KE as a
result of the collisions

An Ideal Gas
Is a theoretical gas that
obeys the gas laws
And thus fit the ideal gas
equation exactly

Real Gases

Real gases conform to the gas

laws under certain limited
conditions
But they condense to liquids
and then solidify if the
temperature is lowered
Furthermore, there are
relatively small forces of
attraction between particles of
a real gas
This is not the case for an
ideal gas

The Kinetic Theory of

Gases
When the moving particle
theory is applied to gases it
is generally called the kinetic
theory
The kinetic theory relates the
macroscopic behaviour of an
ideal gas to the microscopic
behaviour of its molecules or
atoms

Macroscopic
Behaviour

The large number of

particles ensures that the
number of particles moving
in all directions is constant at
any time

Boyles Law
States that the pressure of a
fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume at
constant temperature
P 1/V or PV = constant

When the conditions are

changed
P1V1 = P2V2

The Experiment

Bourdon Pressure
gauge
Volume of
dry air

Air from
foot pum

oil

What to do
A column of trapped dry air in
a sealed tube by the oil
The pressure on this volume
of air can be varied by
pumping air in or out of the
oil reservoir to obtain
different pressures
Wait to allow the temperature
to return to room
temperature

The Results
P

PV

1/ V

Charles Law
States that the volume of a
fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant
pressure
V T or V/T = constant

When the conditions are

changed
V1/T1 = V2/T2

The Experiment
Tap 1

Fixed mass
of gas

Mercury in U tu

Water reservoi

Tap 2 Tap 3

What to do
Fill the mercury column with
mercury using the right hand
tube (tap 1 open, tap 2
closed)
With tap 1 open drain some
mercury using tap 2, then
close tap 1 and 2. To trap a
fixed mass of gas
Fill the jacket with water
(make sure tap 3 is closed)

and then
Change the temperature of
the water by draining some
water from tap 3 and adding
hot water
Equalise the pressure by
leveling the columns using
tap 2
Read the volume from the
scale

The Results
V

A value for
absolute zero

T oC

TK

The Pressure Law

States that the pressure of a
fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant
volume
P T or P/T = constant

When the conditions are

changed
P1/T1 = P2/T2

The Experiment

Bourdon gau

Ice
Fixed
Mass of
gas

Water

Heat

What to do
Change the temperature of
the water by heating it
Record the pressure of the
gas

The Results
P

A value for
absolute zero

T oC

TK

Absolute Zero and the

Kelvin Scale
Charles Law and the Pressure
Law suggest that there is a
lowest possible temperature that
substances can go
This is called Absolute Zero
The Kelvin scale starts at this
point and increases at the same
scale as the Celsius Scale

Therefore -273oC is
equivalent to 0 K
1oC is the same as 1 K
To change oC to K, add 273
To change K to oC, subtract
273

Combining the Laws

The gas laws can be
combined to give a single
equation
For a fixed mass of gas its
pressure times its volume
divided by its absolute
temperature is a constant
PV/T = k
So that P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2

The Ideal Gas

Equation
PV = nRT
Where n is the number of
moles
R is the universal gas
constant
8.31 J mol-1
K-1

An Ideal Gas
Is a theoretical gas that
obeys the gas laws
And thus fit the ideal gas
equation exactly

Real Gases

Real gases conform to the gas

laws under certain limited
conditions
But they condense to liquids
and then solidify if the
temperature is lowered
Furthermore, there are
relatively small forces of
attraction between particles of
a real gas
This is not the case for an
ideal gas

The Kinetic Theory of

Gases
When the moving particle
theory is applied to gases it
is generally called the kinetic
theory
The kinetic theory relates the
macroscopic behaviour of an
ideal gas to the microscopic
behaviour of its molecules or
atoms

The Postulates

Gases consist of tiny particles

called atoms or molecules
The total number of particles in a
sample is very large
The particles are in constant
random motion
The range of the intermolecular
forces is small compared to the
average separation

The Postulates
continued
The size of the particles is
relatively small compared
with the distance between
them
Collisions of a short duration
occur between particles and
the walls of the container
Collisions are perfectly
elastic

The Postulates
continued
No forces act between the
particles except when they
collide
Between collisions the
particles move in straight
lines
And obey Newtons Laws of
motion

Macroscopic
Behaviour

The large number of

particles ensures
that the number of
particles moving in
all directions is
constant at any time

Pressure

Pressure can be explained by

the collisions with the sides of
the container
If the temperature increases,
the average KE of the particles
increases
The increase in velocity of the
particles leads to a greater
rate of collisions and hence
the pressure of the gas
increases as the collisions with
the side have increased
Also the change in momentum
is greater, therefore greater
force

Pressure continued
When a force is applied to
a piston in a cylinder
containing a volume of
gas
The particles take up a
smaller volume
Smaller area to collide
with
And hence collisions are
more frequent with the
sides leading to an
increase in pressure

Also, as the piston is being

moved in
It gives the particles colliding
with it more velocity
Therefore they have more KE
Therefore the temperature of the
gas rises.

Collisions
Because the collisions are
perfectly elastic
There is no loss of KE as a
result of the collisions