Dr Jagadanand G, NIT Calicut

Modern power electronics area truly began with advent of

Thyristors.
One of the first developments was the publication of the P-N-P-N

transistor switch concept in 1956 by J.L. Moll and others at Bell

Laboratories.
However, engineers at General Electric quickly recognized its

significance to power conversion and control and within nine

months announced the first commercial Silicon Controlled Rectifier
in 1957.
This had a continuous current carrying capacity of 25A and a

blocking voltage of 300V.

Thyristors (also known as the Silicon Controlled Rectifiers or

SCRs) have come a long way from this modest beginning and now
high power light triggered thyristors with blocking voltage in excess
of 6kv and continuous current rating in excess of 4kA are available.

 They have reigned supreme for two entire decades in the history

of power electronics.
Along the way a large number of other devices with broad

similarity with the basic thyristor (invented originally as a phase

control type device) have been developed.

They include, inverter grade fast thyristor, Silicon Controlled

Switch (SCS), light activated SCR (LASCR), Asymmetrical
Thyristor (ASCR) Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT), Diac,
Triac and the Gate turn off thyristor (GTO).

From the construction and operational point of view a thyristor is

a four layer, three terminal, minority carrier semi-controlled
device.

It can be turned on by a current signal but can not be

turned off without interrupting the main current.

It can block voltage in both directions but can conduct

current only in one direction.

During conduction it offers very low forward voltage drop

due to an internal latch-up mechanism.

Thyristors have longer switching times (measured in tens

of s) compared to a BJT.

This, coupled with the fact that a thyristor can not be

turned off using a control input, have all but eliminated
thyristors in high frequency switching applications
involving a DC input (i.e, choppers, inverters).

However in power frequency ac applications where the

current naturally goes through zero, thyristor remain popular
due to its low conduction loss, its reverse voltage blocking
capability and very low control power requirement.

In fact, in very high power (in excess of 50 MW) AC DC

(phase controlled converters) or AC AC (cyclo-converters)
converters, thyristors still remain the device of choice.

It is a three terminal device with an anode terminal A, a

cathode terminal K and a control or gate terminal G.

Structurally it is similar to a BJT with an extra p layer at

anode.

The primary crystal is of lightly doped n- type on either side of

which two p type layers with doping levels higher by two orders of
magnitude are grown.

Depletion layer spreads mainly into the lightly doped n- region, (As
in the case of power diodes and transistors) .

The thickness of this layer is therefore determined by the required

blocking voltage of the device.

However, due to conductivity modulation by carriers from the

heavily doped p regions on both side during ON condition the ON
state voltage drop is less.

The outer n+ layers are formed with doping levels higher then both
the p type layers.

The top p layer acts as the Anode terminal while the bottom n+
layers acts as the Cathode.

The Gate terminal connections are made to the bottom p layer.

When the anode-cathode voltage is negative, ie., anode is negative W

R T cathode, the junctions J1 and J3 are reverse biased and J2 is
forward biased, there is no way to turn on the device!

When the device is forward biased (with gate open) ie. With anodecathode voltage positive, it can be seen that junctions J1 and J3 are
forward biased and J2 is reverse biased.
The SCR blocks forward voltages.

This is a unique property of thyristor which makes it possible to be

used in phase control applications.
However, if forward bias is increased, junction J2 can breakdown and
due to device latch up (which will be explained in a short while) the
device turns ON and acts in a manner similar to a diode.

Explained in terms of the Two Transistor Analogy

J1 & J3 are forward biased while J reverse biased. Now,

2

Where 1 & are current gains of Q & Q respectively while I

&I
are
2
1
2
co1
co2
reverse saturation currents of the CB junctions of Q & Q respectively.
1
2

Now, Ic1 + Ic2 = IK

and IA = IK
Adding expressions for Ic1 and Ic2, and equating it to IA ,

Where Ico = Ico1 + Ico2 is the total reverse leakage current of J2

As long as VAK is small Ico is very low and both 1 & 2 are much lower than
unity.

Hence, total anode current IA is only slightly greater than Ico .

As VAK is increased up to the avalanche break down voltage of J2, Icostarts

increasing rapidly due to avalanche multiplication process.

As Icoincreases both 1 & 2 increase and 1 + 2 approaches unity.

Under this condition large anode current starts flowing, restricted only by the
external load resistance.

However, voltage drop in the external resistance causes a collapse of voltage

across the thyristor.

The Col - Base junctions of both Q1 & Q2 become forward biased and the total
voltage drop across the device settles down to approximately equivalent to a
diode drop.

The thyristor is said to be in ON state.

Just after turn ON if Ia is larger than a specified current called the

Latching Current IL, 1 and 2 remain high enough to keep the
thyristor in ON state.

The only way the thyristor can be turned OFF is by bringing IA

below a specified current called the holding current (IH) where
upon 1 & 2 starts reducing.

The thyristor can regain forward blocking capacity once excess

stored charge at J2 is removed by application of a reverse voltage
across A & K (ie, K positive with respect A).

It is possible to turn ON a thyristor by application of a positive

gate current (flowing from gate to cathode) without increasing the
forward voltage across the device up to the forward break-over
level.

With a positive gate current :

IK = IA + I G

Obviously with sufficiently large IG the thyristor can be Turned ON

for any value of Ico (and hence VAK).
This is called gate assisted turn on of a Thyristor.
This is the usual method by which a Thyristor is Turned ON.

When a reverse voltage is applied across a thyristor (i.e, cathode

positive with respect to anode.) junctions J1 and J3 are reverse
biased while J2 is forward biased.
o

Only a small leakage current (in mA) flows

The junction J3 has a very low reverse break down voltage since
both the n+ and p regions on either side of this junction are heavily
doped.

Therefore, the applied reverse voltage is almost entirely

supported by junction J1 . The maximum value of the reverse
voltage is restricted by
o
o

a) The maximum field strength at junction J1 (avalanche break

down)
b) Punch through of the lightly doped n- layer.

Since the p layers on either side of the n- region have

almost equal doping levels the avalanche break down
voltage of J1 & J2 are almost same.

Therefore, the forward and the reverse break down

voltage of a thyristor are almost equal.
If the reverse voltage is increased, then at a critical
breakdown level called reverse breakdown voltage VBR,
an avalanche will occur at J1 and J3, increasing the
current sharply.
If this current is not limited to a safe value, power
dissipation will increase to a dangerous level that may
destroy the device.

 If a positive gate current is applied during reverse bias

condition, the junction J3 becomes forward biased.
In fact, the transistors Q1 & Q2 now work in the reverse
direction with the roles of their respective emitters and

collectors interchanged.
However, the reverse 1 & 2 being significantly

smaller than their forward counterparts latching of the

thyristor does not occur.
However, reverse leakage current of the thyristor

increases considerably increasing the OFF state power

loss of the device.

Up to the break down voltage of J1 the reverse current of

the thyristor remains practically constant and increases
sharply after this voltage.

Thus, the reverse characteristics of a thyristor is similar

to that of a single diode.

 If a forward voltage is suddenly applied across a reverse

biased thyristor, there will be considerable redistribution

of charges across all three junctions.
The resulting current can become large enough to
satisfy the condition 1 + 2 = 1 and consequently turn
on the thyristor.
This is called dv/dt turn on of a thyristor and should be
avoided.

With the gate open or shorted to the cathode, the device is OFF
and no current flows from anode to cathode, except for a very low
leakage current.

When an external positive current pulse is applied to the gate, it

becomes the base current of the npn transistor Q2.

Then the collector current of Q2 supplies base current to the pnp

transistor Q1.

The collector current of Q1 then increases the base current of

Q2 and so on.

This regenerative action maintains the device in the conducting

state and the gate signal may then be removed.

V-I characteristic of an SCR with gate open

The device continues to conduct till the anode voltage is less

positive than the cathode voltage (like a diode!).

The device characteristics with gate current as a parameter

for different gate current levels.

Once the device is ON, gate looses complete control and device
cannot be turned OFF from the gate.

The SCR can be switched off only if the anode current is brought
below the holding current value for that SCR.

The ON state device drop is in the range of 1 to 2 V (higher than

the diode).

V I Characteristics with gate current applied

V I Characteristics with gate current applied

With ig = 0, VAK has to increase up to forward break

over voltage VBRF before significant anode current starts
flowing.

However, at VBRF forward break over takes place and

the voltage across the thyristor drops to VH (holding
voltage).

Beyond this point voltage across the thyristor (VAK)

remains almost constant at VH (1-1.5v) while the anode
current is determined by the external load.

After Turn ON the thyristor is no more affected by the

gate current.
Hence, any current pulse (of required magnitude) which is
longer than the minimum needed for Turn ON is sufficient
to effect control.
The minimum gate pulse width is decided by the external
circuit and should be long enough to allow the anode current
to rise above the latching current (IL) level.
Once the thyristor is ON the only way to turn it OFF is by
bringing the thyristor current below holding current (IH).
The gate terminal has no control over the turn OFF process.

In ac circuits with resistive load this happens automatically

during negative zero crossing of the supply voltage.

This is called natural commutation or line commutation.

In dc circuits some arrangement has to be made to ensure
this condition.
This process is called forced commutation.

During reverse blocking if ig = 0 then only reverse

saturation current (Is) flows until the reverse voltage
reaches reverse break down voltage (VBRR).

At this point current starts rising sharply.

Large reverse voltage and current generates excessive

heat and destroys the device.

If ig > 0 during reverse bias condition the reverse

saturation current rises.

This can be avoided by removing the gate current while

the thyristor is reverse biased.

The static output i-v characteristics of a thyristor depends strongly on the junction
temperature

The gate circuit of a thyristor behaves like a poor quality diode

with high on state voltage drop and low reverse break down
voltage.

This characteristic usually is not unique even within the same

family of devices and shows considerable variation from device to
device.

Therefore, manufacturers data sheet provides the upper and lower

limit of this characteristic s.

Each thyristor has maximum gate voltage limit (Vgmax), gate

current limit (Igmax) and maximum average gate power dissipation
limit P(gav/Max).

These limits should not be exceeded in order to avoid permanent

damage to the gate cathode junction.

There are also minimum limits of Vg (Vgmin) and Ig (Igmin) for reliable
turn on of the thyristor.
A gate non triggering voltage (Vng) is also specified by the
manufacturers of thyristors.
All spurious noise signals should be less than this voltage Vng in order
to prevent unwanted turn on of the thyristor.

The useful gate drive area of a thyristor is then b c d e f g h.

Referring to the gate drive circuit in the inset

the equation of the load line is given by
Vg = E Rg ig
A typical load line is shown by the line S1 S2

The actual operating point will be some

where between S1 and S2 depending on the particular device.
For optimum utilization of the gate ratings the load line should be
shifted forwards the PgavMax curve without violating VgMax or IgMax
ratings.
For a dc source E, cf represents the optimum load line from which
optimum values of E & Rg can be determined.

It is however customary to trigger a thyristor using

pulsed voltage & current.
Maximum power dissipation curves for pulsed operation
(Pgm) allows higher gate current to flow which in turn
reduces the turn on time of the thyristor.
The value of Pgm depends on the pulse width (TON) of
the gate current pulse.

TON should be larger than the turn on time of the

thyristor.
For TON larger than 100 s, average power dissipation curve

should be used.
For TON less than 100 s the relationship should be maintained is:

The magnitude of the gate voltage and current required for

triggering a thyristor is inversely proportional to the junction
temperature.

The gate cathode junction also has a maximum reverse (i.e, gate
negative with respect to the cathode) voltage specification.
If there is a possibility of the reverse gate cathode voltage
exceeding this limit a reverse voltage protection using diode as
should be used.

A thyristor has a maximum average gate power dissipation limit of 0.2 watts. It is
triggered with pulsed gate current at a pulse frequency of 10 KHZ and duly ratio of
0.4. Assuming the gate cathode voltage drop to be 1 volt. Find out the allowable
peak gate current magnitude.
On period of the gate current pulse is

Ther efore, pulsed gate power dissipation limit Pgm can be used.

Peak Working Forward OFF state voltage (VDWM):

It specifics the maximum forward (i.e, anode positive
with respect to the cathode) blocking state voltage that a
thyristor can withstand during working.

It is useful for calculating the maximum RMS voltage of

the ac network in which the thyristor can be used.
A margin for 10% increase in the ac network voltage
should be considered during calculation.

Peak repetitive off state forward voltage (VDRM):

It refers to the peak forward transient voltage that a thyristor
can block repeatedly in the OFF state.
This rating is specified at a maximum allowable junction
temperature with gate circuit open or with a specified
biasing resistance between gate and cathode.

This type of repetitive transient voltage may appear across a

thyristor due to commutation of other thyristors or diodes
in a converter circuit.

Peak non-repetitive off state forward voltage (VDSM):

It refers to the allowable peak value of the forward

transient voltage that does not repeat.

This type of over voltage may be caused due to

switching operation (i.e, circuit breaker opening or
closing or lightning surge) in a supply network.

Its value is about 130% of VDRM.

However, VDSM is less than the forward break over

voltage VBRF.

Peak working reverse voltage (VDWM):

It is the maximum reverse voltage (i.e, anode negative with respect
to cathode) that a thyristor can with stand continuously. Normally,
it is equal to the peak negative value of the ac supply voltage.

Peak repetitive reverse voltage (VRRM):

It specifies the peak reverse transient voltage that may occur
repeatedly during reverse bias condition of the thyristor at the
maximum junction temperature.
Peak non-repetitive reverse voltage (VRSM):
It represents the peak value of the reverse transient voltage that
does not repeat. Its value is about 130% of VRRM
. However, VRSM is less than reverse break down voltage VBRR.

Maximum RMS current (Irms):

Heating of the resistive elements of a thyristor such as metallic

joints, leads and interfaces depends on the forward RMS current
Irms.

RMS current rating is used as an upper limit for dc as well as

pulsed current waveforms.

This limit should not be exceeded on a continuous basis.

Maximum average current (Iav):

It is the maximum allowable average value of the forward current

such that :

i. Peak junction temperature is not exceeded

ii. RMS current limit is not exceeded

Forward average current derating characteristics shows Iav as a

function of the case temperature (Tc ) with the current conduction angle
as a parameter.
The current wave form is assumed to be formed from a half cycle sine
wave of power frequency

Maximum Surge current (ISM):

o

It specifies the maximum allowable non repetitive current the

device can withstand.

The device is assumed to be operating under rated blocking

voltage, forward current and junction temperation before the surge
current occurs.

Following the surge the device should be disconnected from the

circuit and allowed to cool down.

Surge currents are assumed to be sine waves of power frequency

with a minimum duration of

cycles.

Maximum Surge current (ISM):

o

Manufacturers provide at least three different surge current ratings

for different durations.

Alternatively a plot of IsM Vs. applicable cycle numbers may also

be provided.

Maximum Squared Current integral (i2dt):

This rating in terms of A2S is a measure of the energy the device

can absorb for a short time (less than one half cycle of power
frequency).

This rating is used in the choice of the protective fuse connected

in series with the device.
Latching Current (IL):

After Turn ON, the gate pulse must be maintained until the
anode current reaches this level.

Otherwise, upon removal of gate pulse, the device will turn off.

Holding Current (IH):

The anode current must be reduced below this value to turn off
the thyristor.

The latching current of a thyristor circuit below is 50 rnA. The

duration of the firing pulse is 50 us. Will the thyristor get fired?
Solution: As the SCR is triggered, the current will rise exponentially in
the inductive circuit.

= 9.99mA
Since the calculated circuit current value is less than the given latching current
value of the SCR, it will not get fired.

If the latching current in the circuit shown below is 4 mA, obtain the
minimum width of the gating pulse required to properly turn-on the
SCR.
di
The circuit equation is, V = L
dt

where i is the latching current and t is the pulse-width.

Integrating on both sides,

The minimum width of the gating pulse required to properly turn-on the SCR is 4 us.

A typical V-I characteristic for a thyristor in ON state is shown in

Below. Compute the average power-loss due to the rectangular current
pulses of Iav = 100A, for conduction angles equal to
(a) 180 (b) 360
Let Im be the current during conduction and zero otherwise.
Hence, Iav = (Im / 360) where is the conduction angle.
For =180o , Im = Iav x 360/ = (100 x360)/180 = 200A
From the figure,
the corresponding Vr = 1.8 V
Hence, average power loss
(Pgav ) = (1.8 x 200) x (180/360) = 180 W
(b). For = 360, Im = Iav = 100A
From the figure, the corresponding Vr = 1.5 V
Average power loss = 1.5 x 100 = 150 W.

Maximum Forward voltage drop (VF):

Usually specified as a function of the instantaneous forward

current at a given junction temperature.
Average power dissipation (Pav):

Specified as a function of the average forward current (Iav) for

different conduction angles.

The current wave form is assumed to be half cycle sine wave (or
square wave) at power frequency.

Gate current to trigger (IGT):

Minimum value of the gate current below which reliable turn on of

the thyristor can not be guaranteed.

Usually specified at a given forward break over voltage.

Gate voltage to trigger (VGT):

Minimum value of the gate cathode forward voltage below which

reliable turn on of the thyristor can not be guaranteed.

It is specified at the same break over voltage as IGT.

Non triggering gate voltage (VGNT):

Maximum value of the gate-cathode voltage below which the

thyristor can be guaranteed to remain OFF.

All spurious noise voltage in the gate drive circuit must be below
this level.

Peak reverse gate voltage (VGRM):

Maximum reverse voltage that can appear between the gate and
the cathode terminals without damaging the junction.

Average Gate Power dissipation (PGAR):

Average power dissipated in the gate-cathode junction should not

exceed this value for gate current pulses wider than 100 s.
Peak forward gate current (IGRM): The forward gate current
should not exceed this limit even on instantaneous basis.

Example:
A thyristor has a maximum average current rating 1200 Amps for a
conduction angle of 180. Find the corresponding rating for = 60.
Assume the current waveforms to be half cycle sine wave.

The form factor of half cycle sine waves for a conduction angle is given by

Since RMS current rating should not be exceeded for any firing angle, (RMS value
gives power loss, I2rms * R),
Average Current at 60o = IRMS / (FF at 60o)
,

During Turn on and Turn off process a thyristor is

subjected to different voltages across it and different
currents through it.

The time variations of the voltage across a thyristor and

the current through it during Turn on and Turn off
constitute the switching characteristics of a thyristor.

Turn on Switching Characteristics :

A forward biased thyristor is turned on by applying a

positive gate voltage between the gate and cathode

Delay time (td) , Rise time (tr) and Spread time (tp)

The waveforms of the gate current (ig), anode current (iA) and anode
cathode voltage (VAK) in an expanded time scale during Turn on.
(The reference circuit and the associated waveforms are shown in the
inset.)

The total switching period being much smaller compared to the cycle
time, iA and VAK before and after switching will appear flat in the
expanded view.

There is a transition time tON from forward OFF state to forward ON

state.

Transition time is called the thyristor Turn ON time and can be divided
into three separate intervals

Delay time (td)

Rise time (tr)
Spread time (tp)

Delay time (td):

After switching on the gate current the thyristor will start to

conduct over the portion of the cathode which is closest to the gate.

This conducting area starts spreading at a finite speed until the

entire cathode region becomes conductive.

Time taken by this process constitute the Turn ON delay time of a

thyristor.

It is measured from the instant of application of the gate current to

the instant when the anode current rises to 10% of its final value
(or VAK falls to 90% of its initial value).

Typical value of td is a few micro seconds.

Rise time (tr):

For a resistive load, rise time is the time taken by the anode
current to rise from 10% of its final value to 90% of its final value.

At the same time the voltage VAK falls from 90% of its initial value
to 10% of its initial value.

However, current rise and voltage fall characteristics are strongly

influenced by the type of the load.

For inductive load the voltage falls faster than the current.

While for a capacitive load VAK falls rapidly in the beginning.

However, as the current increases, rate of change of anode voltage

substantially decreases.

 If the anode current rises too fast it tends to remain

confined in a small area.
Can give rise to local hot spots and damage the
device.
Therefore, it is necessary to limit the rate of rise of the
di
ON state current A by using an inductor in series with

the device.

dt

Usual values of maximum allowable

of 20-200 A/s.

di A
dt

is in the range

Spread time (tp):

It is the time taken by the anode current to rise from 90% of

its final value to 100%.
During this time conduction spreads over the entire cross
section of the cathode of the thyristor.
The spreading interval depends on the area of the cathode
and on the gate structure of the thyristor.

Once the thyristor is on, and its anode current is above the latching
current level, the gate loses control.

It can be turned off only by reducing the anode current below

holding current.

The turn off time tq of a thyristor is defined as the time between the
instant anode current becomes zero and the instant the thyristor
regains forward blocking capability.

If forward voltage is applied across the device during this period

the thyristor turns on again.

During turn off time, excess minority carriers from all the four
layers of the thyristor must be removed.

Accordingly tq is divided in to two intervals, the reverse recovery

time (trr) and the gate recovery time (tqr).

The variation of anode current and anode cathode voltage with time during turn off operation on
an expanded scale.

The anode current becomes zero at time t1 and starts growing in the
negative direction with the same Adidt till time t2.

This negative current removes excess carriers from junctions J1 & J3.

At time t2 excess carriers densities at these junctions are not

sufficient to maintain the reverse current and the anode current starts
decreasing.

The value of the anode current at time t2 is called the reverse

recovery current (Irr).

The reverse anode current reduces to the level of reverse saturation

current by t3.

Total charge removed from the junctions between t1 & t3 is called the
reverse recovery charge (Qrr).

Fast decaying reverse current during the interval t2 - t3 coupled with

the

di
dt

limiting inductor may cause a large reverse voltage spike

(Vrr) to appear across the device.

This voltage must be limited below the VRRM rating of the device.

Up to time t2 the voltage across the device (VAK) does not change
substantially from its on state value.

However, after the reverse recovery time, the thyristor regains reverse
blocking capacity and VAK starts following supply voltage vi.

At the end of the reverse recovery period (trr) trapped charges still exist
at the junction J2 which prevents the device from blocking forward
voltage just after trr.

These trapped charges are removed only by the process of

recombination.

The time taken for this recombination process to complete (between t3

& t4) is called the gate recovery time (tgr).

The time interval tq = trr + tgr is called device turn off time of the
thyristor.

No forward voltage should appear across the device before the time tq to avoid its
inadvertent turn on.

A circuit designer must provide a time interval circuit turn off time tc (tc > tq)
during which a reverse voltage is applied across the device.

The reverse recovery charge Qrr is a function of the peak forward current before
di
turn off and its rate of decrease A .
dt
di
Manufacturers usually provide plots of Qrr as a function of A for different
dt
values of peak forward current.

They also provide the value of the reverse recovery current Irr for a given IA and
di A
.
dt
Alternatively Irr can be evaluated from the given Qrr characteristics following
similar relationships as in the case of a diode.

As in the case of a diode the relative magnitudes of the time intervals t1 - t2 and
t2 - t3 depends on the construction of the thyristor.

In normal recovery converter grade thyristor they are almost equal for a
specified forward current and reverse recovery current.

However, in a fast recovery inverter grade thyristor the interval t2 - t3 is

negligible compared to the interval t1- t2.

This helps reduce the total turn off time tq of the thyristor (and hence allow them
to operate at higher switching frequency).

However, large voltage spike due to this snappy recovery will appear across the
device after the device turns off.

Typical turn off times of converter and inverter grade thyristors are in the range
of 50-100 s and 5-50 s respectively.

Thyristor is the device of choice at the very highest power levels.

At these power levels (several hundreds of megawatts) reliability of the thyristor

power converter is of prime importance.

Therefore, suitable protection arrangement must be made against possible

overvoltage, overcurrent and unintended turn on for each thyristor.

At the highest power level (HVDC transmission system) thyristor converters

operate from network voltage levels in excess of several hundreds of kilo volts
and conduct several tens of kilo amps of current.

They usually employ a large number of thyristors connected in series parallel

combination.

For maximum utilization of the device capacity it is important that each device
in this series parallel combination share the blocking voltage and on state current
equally.

Special equalizing circuits are used for this purpose.

 For the circuit shown below, obtain an expressions for (i)

turn on power loss and (ii) conduction power loss of the
thyristor as a function of the firing angle . Neglect turn
on delay time and spread time and assume linear

variation of voltage and current during turn on period.

Also assume constant on state voltage VH across the
thyristor.

For a firing angle , the forward bias voltage across the thyristor just before
turn on is
VON = 2 Vi Sin
; Vi = RMS value of supply voltage.
Current after the thyristor turns ON for a resistive load is
ION = VON / R= 2 (Vi /R) Sin
Neglecting delay and spread time and assuming linear variation of voltage
and current during turn on, expression for instantaneous values during turn
on are:
VON
Vak

ia
0

ION

tON

Total switching
energy loss
during turn ON

EON occurs once every cycle. If the supply frequency is f then average turn on power
loss is given by.
(ii) If the firing angle is the thyristor conducts for - angle. Instantaneous current
through the device during this period is

(tON & VH have been neglected for simplicity. )

As Vak =VH during ON time, total conduction energy loss over one cycle is

The Triac is a member of the thyristor family.

Unlike a thyristor which conducts only in one direction (from anode to cathode) a
triac can conduct in both directions.

Thus a triac is similar to two back to back (anti parallel) connected thyristosr but
with only three terminals.

As in the case of a thyristor, the conduction of a triac is initiated by injecting a

current pulse into the gate terminal.

The gate looses control over conduction once the triac is turned on.

The triac turns off only when the current through the main terminals become
zero.
Therefore, a triac can be categorized as a minority carrier, and bidirectional semi-

controlled device.

They are extensively used in residential lamp dimmers, heater control and for
speed control of small single phase series and induction motors.

As the Triac can conduct in both the directions the terms anode and
cathode are not used for Triacs.
The three terminals are marked as MT1 (Main Terminal 1), MT2 (Main
Terminal 2) and the gate by G.
The gate terminal is near MT1 and is connected to both N3 and P2 regions
by metallic contact.
Similarly MT1 is connected to N2 and P2 regions while MT2 is connected
to N4 and P1 regions.

Note the
N3-P2-N1-P1 SCR
and
N4-P1-N1-P2 SCR. :
Two SCRs connected
anti-parallel.

Since a Triac is a bidirectional device and can have its terminals at

various combinations of positive and negative voltages, there are four
possible electrode potential combinations as given below

1. MT2 positive with respect to MT1, G positive with respect to MT1

2. MT2 positive with respect to MT1, G negative with respect to MT1

3. MT2 negative with respect to MT1, G negative with respect to MT1

4. MT2 negative with respect to MT1, G positive with respect to MT1

The triggering sensitivity is highest with the combinations 1 and 3 and are
generally used.
However, for bidirectional control and uniforms gate trigger mode
sometimes trigger modes 2 and 3 are used.
Trigger mode 4 is usually avoided.

Mode 1

Mode 3 .

In trigger mode-1 the gate current flows mainly through the P2 N2 junction like an
ordinary thyristor.
When the gate current has injected sufficient charge into P2 layer the triac starts
conducting through the P1 N1 P2 N2 layers like an ordinary thyristor.
In the trigger mode-3 the gate current Ig forward biases the P2 P3 junction and a large
number of electrons are introduced in the P2 region by N3. Finally the structure P2 N1
P1 N4 turns on completely.

From a functional point of view a triac is similar to two thyristors

connected in anti parallel.

Therefore, it is expected that the V-I characteristics of Triac in the 1st

and 3rd quadrant of the V-I plane will be similar to the forward
characteristics of a thyristors.

With no signal to the gate the triac will block both half cycle of the
applied ac voltage provided its peak value is lower than the break over
voltage (VBO) of the device.

However, the turning on of the triac can be controlled by applying

the gate trigger pulse at the desired instance.

Mode-1 triggering is used in the first quadrant where as Mode-3

triggering is used in the third quadrant.

As such, most of the thyristor characteristics apply to the triac (ie,

latching and holding current).

However, in a triac the two conducting paths (from MT1 to MT2 or from
MT1 to MT1) interact with each other in the structure of the triac.

Therefore, the voltage, current and frequency ratings of triacs are

considerably lower than thyristors.

At present triacs with voltage and current ratings of 1200V and 300A
(rms) are available.

Triacs also have a larger on state voltage drop compared to a thyristor.

Manufacturers usually specify characteristics curves relating rms device
current and maximum allowable case temperature .

Curves relating the device dissipation and RMS on state current are also
provided for different conduction angles.

Unlike a thyristor a triac gets limited time to turn off due to

bidirectional conduction. As a result the triacs are operated only at
power frequency.

Switching characteristics of a triac is similar to that of a thyristor.

Turn off of a triac is extremely sensitive to temperature variation and

may not turn off at all if the junction temperature exceeds certain limit.

Problem may arise when a triac is used to control a lagging power

factor load.

At the current zero instant (when the triac turns off) a reverse voltage
will appear across the triac since the supply voltage is negative at that
instant.

The rate of rise of this voltage is restricted by the triac junction

capacitance only.

The resulting (dv/dt) may turn on the triac again.

Similar problem occurs when a triac is used to control the power

to a resistive element which has a very low resistance before
normal working condition is reached.

If such a load (e.g. incandescent filament lamp) is switch on at

full supply voltage, very large junction capacitance charging
current will turn ON the device.

To prevent such condition an R-C snubber is generally used

across a triac.

The triac should be triggered carefully to ensure safe operation.

For phase control application, the triac is switched on and off in

synchronism with the mains supply so that only a part of each half cycle
is applied across the load.

To ensure clean turn ON the trigger signal must rise rapidly to provide
the necessary charge.

A rise time of about 1 s will be desirable.

Diac is a two terminal device without any gate.

It is also a bi-directional switch.

The breakdown voltage is generally kept low (~30V) as it is

generally used as a threshold device in triac control applications.

The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch

that can be turned on in both forward and reverse polarities.

The DIAC gains its name from the contraction of the

words DIode Alternating Current.

The DIAC is widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIAC

when used in AC switches. DIACs are mainly used in dimmer
applications and also in starter circuits for florescent lamps.

The DIAC is essentially a diode that conducts after a 'break-over'

voltage, designated VBO, is exceeded.

When the device exceeds this break-over voltage, it enters the

region of negative dynamic resistance.

This results in a decrease in the voltage drop across the diode with
increasing voltage.

Accordingly there is a sharp increase in the level of current that is

conducted by the device.

The diode remains in its conduction state until the current through it
drops below what is termed the holding current, which is normally
designated by the letters IH.

Below the holding current, the DIAC reverts to its high-resistance (nonconducting) state.
Its behaviour is bi-directional and therefore its operation occurs on both
halves of an alternating cycle.

The DIAC can be fabricated as either a two layer or a five layer

structure.

In the three layer structure the switching occurs when the junction
that is reverse biased experiences reverse breakdown.

The three layer version of the device is the more common and can
have a break-over voltage of around 30 V.

Operation is almost symmetrical owing to the symmetry of the

device.

A five layer DIAC structure is also available.

This does not act in quite the same manner, although it produces an
I-V curve that is very similar to the three layer version.
It can be considered as two break-over diodes connected back to
back.

A triac gate triggering circuit using a diac and an R-C timing

network
In this circuit as Vi increases voltage across C1 increases due to current
flowing through load, R1, R2 and C1. The voltage drop across diac D1
increases until it reaches its break over point. As D1 conducts a large current
pulse is injected into the gate of the triac. By varying R2 the firing can be
controlled from zero to virtually 100%.

Forward Voltage Triggering :

When anode-to-cathode forward voltage is increased with gate

circuit open, the reverse biased junction J2 will have an avalanche
breakdown at a voltage called forward breakover voltage Vso.

At this voltage, a thyristor changes from OFF state (high voltage

with low leakage current) to ON-state characterised by a low
voltage across it with large forward current.

The forward voltage-drop across the SCR during the ON state is

of the order of 1 to 1.5 V and increases slightly with load current.

Thermal Triggering (Temperature Triggering)

Like any other semiconductor, the width of the depletion layer of

a thyristor decreases on increasing the junction temperature.

Thus, in a thyristor when the voltage applied between the anode

and cathode is very near to its breakdown voltage, the device can
be triggered by increasing its junction temperature.

By increasing the temperature to a certain value (within the

specified-limits), a situation comes when the reverse biased
junction collapses making the device conduct.

This method of triggering the device by heating is known as the

thermal triggering process.

Radiation Triggering (Light Triggering):

In this method, as the name suggests, the energy is imparted by

radiation.

Thyristor is bombarded by energy particles such as neutrons or

photons.

With the help of this external energy, electron-hole pairs are

generated in the device, thus increasing the number of charge
carriers.

This leads to instantaneous flow of current within the device and

the triggering of the device. For radiation triggering to occur, the
device must have high value of rate of change of voltage (dv/dt).

Light activated silicon controlled rectifier (LASCR) and light

activated silicon controlled switch (LASCS) are the examples of
this type of triggering.

dv/dt Triggering :

We know that with forward voltage across the anode and

cathode of a device, the junctions J1 and J3 are forward
biased, whereas the junction J2 becomes reverse biased.

This reverse biased junction, Z, has the characteristics of

a capacitor due to charges existing across the junction.

If a forward voltage is suddenly applied, a charging

current will flow tending to turn the device ON.
If the voltage impressed across the device is denoted by
V, the charge by Q and the capacitance by Cj, then,

dC j
dQ d
dV
ic
(C jV ) C j
V
dt dt
dt
dt

The rate of change of junction capacitance may be negligible as

the junction capacitance is almost constant.

The contribution to charging current by the later term is negligible.

The above Eq. will reduces to

ic C j

dV
dt

Therefore, if the rate of change of voltage across the device is

large, the device may turn-on even though the voltage appearing
across the device is small.

Gate Triggering
This is the most commonly used method for triggering SCRs.

In laboratory almost all the SCR devices are triggered by this

process.
By applying a positive signal at the gate terminal of the device, it
can be triggered much before the specified breakover voltage.
The conduction period of the SCR can be controlled by varying the
gate signal within the specified values of the maximum and
minimum gate currents.
For gate triggering; a signal is applied between the gate and the
cathode of the device.

Three types of signals can be used for this purpose. They are
either d.c. signals, pulse signals or ac signals.

D.C. Gate Triggering

In this type of triggering, a d.c. voltage of proper magnitude and

polarity is applied between the gate and the cathode of the device
in such a way that the gate becomes positive with respect to the
cathode.

When the applied voltage is sufficient to produce the required gate

current, the device starts conducting.

One drawback of this scheme is that both the power and control
circuits are d.c. and there is no isolation between the two.

Another disadvantage of this process is that a continuous d.c.

signal has to be applied, at the gate causing more gate power loss.

A.C. Gate Triggering

A C source is most commonly used for the gate signal in all

application of thyristor control adopted for a.c. applications.

This scheme provides the proper isolation between the power and
the control circuits.

The firing angle control is obtained very conveniently by

changing the phase angle of the control signal.

However, the gate drive is maintained for one half cycle after the
device is turned ON, and a reverse voltage is applied between the
gate and the cathode during the negative half cycle.

The drawback of this scheme is that a separate transformer is

required to step down the a.c. supply, which adds to the cost.

Ref.: M D Singh - PE

The term commutation basically means the transfer of current

from one path to another.

In thyristor circuits, this term is used to describe process of

transferring current from one thyristor to another.

It is not possible for a thyristor to turn itself OFF.

The circuit in which it is connected must reduce the thyristor

current to zero to enable it to turn-off.

'Commutation is the term to describe the methods of achieving

this.

A thyristor can only operate in two modes: it is either in the

OFF state, i.e., open circuit, or in the ON state, i.e., short circuit.

By itself it cannot control the level of current or voltage in a

circuit.

Control can only be achieved by variation in the time thyristors

when switched ON and OFF.

Commutation is central to this switching process.

All thyristor circuits, therefore, involve the cyclic or sequential

switching of thyristors.

Natural Commutation

The simplest and most widely used method of commutation

makes use of the alternating, reversing nature of a.c. voltages to
effect the current transfer.
In a.c. circuits, the current always passes through zero every half
cycle. As the current passes through natural zero, a reverse voltage
will
simultaneously appear across the device. This immediately turnsoff the device.
This process is called as natural commutation since no external
circuit is required for this purpose.
This method may use a.c. mains supply voltages or the a.c.
voltages generated by local rotating machines or resonant circuits.
The line commutated converters and inverters comes under this
category.

Forced Commutation

Once thyristors are operating in the ON state, carrying forward

current, they can only be turned OFF by reducing the current
flowing through themto zero for sufficient time to allow the
removal of charged carriers.

In case of d.c. circuits, for switching off the thyristors, the forward
current should be forced to be zero by means of some external
circuits.

The process is called forced commutation and the external circuits

required for it are known as commutation circuits.

The components (inductance and capacitance) which constitute the

commutating circuits are called as commutating components.

A reverse voltage is developed across the device by means of a

commutating circuit that immediately brings the forward current in
the device to zero, thus turning off the device.

Producing reliable commutation is a difficult problem to be tackled

while designing chopper and inverter circuits.

The most important stage in the designing process is choosing a

forced turn-off method and deciding its components.

The classification of the methods of forced commutation is based

on the arrangement of the commutating components and the manner
in which zero current is obtained in the SCR.

There are six basic methods of commutation by which thyristors

may be turned OFF.

Class A-self Commutation by Resonating the Load

This is also known as resonant commutation.
This type of commutation circuit using L-C components-in-serieswith the load .
In this process of commutation, the forward current passing
through the device is reduced to less than the level of holding
current of the device.
Hence this method is also known as the current commutation
method.

The load RL is in parallel

with the capacitor

Load RL is in series with

the Capacitor

The load resistance RL and the commutating components are so

selected that their combination forms an underdamped resonant
circuit.

When such a circuit is excited by a d.c. source, an oscillating

current will be obtained across the device.

This current has zero value at a point, where the device is

automatically turned OFF.

Beyond this point, the current is reversed in nature which assures

definite commutation of the device.

The thyristor when ON, carries only the charging current of

capacitor C, which will soon decay to a value, less than the
holding current of the device, when capacitor C is charged up to
the supply voltage Edc

This simultaneously switches off the thyristor.

The time for switching off the device is determined by the

resonant frequency which in turn depends on the values of the
commutating components Land C, and the total load resistance.

This type of commutation circuits are most suitable for high

frequency operation, i.e., above 1000 Hz, because of the need for
an L-C resonant circuit which carries the full load current.

This commutation circuit is used in series inverter.

Class B-Self Commutation by an LC Circuit

The LC resonating circuit is across the SCR and not in series with the load.

Initially, as soon as the supply voltage Edc is applied, the

capacitor C starts getting charged with its upper plate positive
and the lower plate negative, and it charges up to the voltage
Edc.

When thyristor T is triggered, the circuit current flows in two

directions:

(l) The load curr nt IL flows through the path Edc + - T - RL Edc (-), and
(2) Commutating current Ic.
The moment thyristor T is turned ON, capacitor C starts
discharging through the path C+ - L - T- C-. When the capacitor
C becomes completely discharged, it starts getting charged with
reverse polarity.

Due to the reverse voltage, a commutating current Ic starts

flowing which opposes the load current IL.

When the commutating current Ic is greater than the load

current IL, thyristor T becomes turned OFF.

When the thyristor T is turned OFF, capacitor C again starts

getting charged to its original polarity through L and the load.

Thus, when it is fully charged, the thyristor will be ON again.

Thus, the thyristor after getting ON for sometime automatically

gets OFF and after remaining in OFF state for sometime, it again
gets turned ON by gate pulse.

This process of switching ON and OFF is a continuous process.

The desired frequency of ON and OFF states can be obtained by

designing the commutating components as per the requirement.

The main application of this process is in d.c. chopper circuits,

where the thyristor is required to be in conduction state for a
specified duration and then to remain in the OFF state also for a
specified duration.

In this Class B commutation method, the commutating component

does not carry the load current.

Both Class A and Class B turn-off circuits are self-commutating

types, that is in both of these circuits the SCR turns-off
automatically after it has been turned on.

Class C-Complementary Commutation (Switching a Charged

Capacitor by a Load Carrying SCR)

In this method, the main thyristor (SCR T1) that is to be

commutated is connected in series with the load.

An additional thyristor (SCR T2),called the complementary

thyristor is connected in parallel with the main thyristor.

Circuit Operation:
(a) Mode 0: [Initial-state of circuit]:
Initially, both the thyristors are OFF. Therefore, the states of
the devices are T1 is OFF, T2 is OFF, and EC1 = 0
(b) Mode 1:

When a triggering pulse is applied to the gate of T1, the thyristor

T1 is triggered.

Therefore, two circuit current, namely, load current IL and

charging current Ic start flowing. Their paths are:

Load current IL

Edc + - R1 - T1 EdcCharging current Ic :

Edc+ - R2 - C+ - C- -T1 - EdcCapacitor C will get charged by the supply voltage Edc with the
polarity shown.

Their paths are:

Load current IL

Edc + - R1 - T1 EdcCharging current Ic :

Edc+ - R2 - C+ - C- -T1 - EdcCapacitor C will get charged by the supply voltage Edc with the
polarity shown.

The states of circuit components becomes

T1 is ON, T2 is OFF, EC1 = Edc

Mode 2:

When a triggering pulse is applied to the gate of T2, T2 will be

turned on.

As soon as T2 is ON, the negative polarity of the capacitor C is

applied to the anode of T1 and simultaneously, the positive
polarity of capacitor C is applied to the cathode.

This causes the reverse voltage across the main thyristor

T1 and immediately turns it off.

Charging of capacitor C now takes place through the load and its
polarity becomes reverse. Therefore, charging path of capacitor
C becomes

Edc+ - R1 - C+ - C- - T2(a-k) - EdcHence, at the end of Mode 2, the states of the devices are
T1 is OFF, T2 is ON,
Ec1 = - Edc

Mode 3:

Now, when thyristor T1 is triggered, the discharging current of

capacitor turns the complementary thyristor T2 OFF.

The state of the circuit at the end of this Mode 3 becomes

T1 is ON, T2 is OFF, and Ec1 = Edc

Therefore, this Mode 3 operation is equivalent to Mode 1

operation.

Sure and reliable commutation is the other characteristic of this

method.

toff = 0.6931 R1 C
Obtain minimum toff
from data sheet. For a
given load R1, C can
be obtained.
Also,

Class D-Auxiliary Commutation (AnAuxiliary SCR Switching a

Charged Capacitor)
In this commutation method, an auxiliary thyristor (T2) is required to
commutate the main thyristor (T1).

Here, inductor L is necessary

to ensure the correct polarity on
capacitor C.
Thyristor TI and load resistance RL
form the power circuit.
L, D and T2 form the
commutation circuit.

Assuming ideal thyristors and

the lossless components

Mode 0: {Initial Operation] When the battery Edc is connected, no

current flows as both thyristors are OFF.
Hence, initially, the state of the circuit components becomes

T1 is OFF ; T2 is OFF; Ec = 0

Mode 1:

Initially, SCR T2 must be triggered first in order to charge the

capacitor C with the polarity shown.

This capacitor C has the charging path

Edc+ - C+ - C- - T2 - RL- Edc-

As soon as capacitor C is fully charged, SCR T2 turns-off.

This is due to the fact that, as the voltage across the capacitor
increases, the current through the thyristor T2 decreases since
capacitor C and thyristor T2 form the series circuit.

Hence the state of circuit components at the end of Mode 1

becomes:

T1 is OFF, T2 is OFF, Ec = Edc

Mode 2:

When thyristor T1 is triggered, the current flows in two paths:

(a) Load current IL flows through circuit Edc+ - T1 - RL Edc

(b) Commutation current (Capacitor-discharges through) flows
through

C+ - T1 - L - D - C

After the capacitor C has completely discharged, its polarity will

be reversed, i.e., its upper plate will acquire negative charge and
the lower plate will acquire positive charge.

Reverse discharge of capacitor C will not be possible due to the

blocking diode D.

Therefore, at the end of Mode 2, the state of the circuit components

becomes

T1 is ON, T is OFF, Ec = -Edc

Mode 3:

When the thyristor T2 is triggered, capacitor C starts discharging

through the path C+ - T2 (a-k) - T1(k-a) - C

When this discharging current (commutating current Ic) becomes

more than the load current IL , thyristor T1 goes OFF.

At the end of Mode 3, the state of circuit component becomes

T1 is OFF, T2 is ON

Again, capacitor C will charge to the supply voltage with the

polarity shown and hence SCR T2 gets OFF.
Therefore, thyristors T1 and T2 both get OFF, which is equivalent
to Mode 0 operation.

This type of commutation circuit is very versatile as both time

ratio and pulse width regulation is readily incorporated.
The commutation energy may readily be transferred to the load
and so high efficiency is possible.

Class E-External Pulse Commutation

In Class E commutation method, the reverse voltage is applied to the
current carrying thyristor from an external pulse source.

The commutating pulse is applied through a pulse-transformer

which is suitably designed to have tight coupling between the
primary and secondary.

It is also designed with a small air gap so as not to saturate when

a pulse is applied to its primary.

It is capable of carrying the load-current with a small voltage

drop compared to the supply voltage.

When the commutation of T1 is desired, a pulse of duration equal

to or slightly greater than the turn-off time specification of the
thyristor is applied.

When the SCR T1 is triggered, current flows through the load RL

and the pulse transformer secondary.
When a pulse of voltage Ep from the pulse-generator is applied to
the primary of the pulse transformer, the voltage induced in the
secondary appears across thyristor T1 as a reverse voltage (-Ep)
and turn it off.
Since the induced pulse is of high frequency, the capacitor offers
almost zero impedance.
After T1 is turned off, the load current decays to zero.
Earlier to the commutation, the capacitor voltage remains at a
small value of about 1 V.
This type of commutation method is capable of very high
efficiency as minimum energy is required and both time ratio and
pulse width regulation are easily incorporated.
However, equipment designers have neglected this class for the
designing of power circuits.

Class F- a.c. Line Commutation

If the supply is an alternating voltages, load current will flow during
the positive half cycle.
During the negative half cycle, the SCR will turn-off due to the
negative polarity across it.
The duration of the half cycle must be longer than the turn-off
time of the SCR.
The maximum frequency at which this circuit can operate depends on
the turn-off time of SCR.

The basic requirements for the successful firing of a thyristor are that
the current
supplied to the gate should:
(i) be of adequate amplitude and sufficiently short rise time.
(ii) be of adequate duration.
(iii) occur at a time when the main circuit conditions are favourable to
conduction.

Pulse transformers are often used to couple a trigger pulse generator to

a thyristor in order to obtain electrical isolation between the two
circuits.

The transformers commonly used for thyristor control are either

1:1 two-winding or 1:1:1 three winding types.

The series resistor R either reduces the SCR holding current or

balances gate currents in a three-winding transformer connected
to two SCRs

The series diode D prevents reverse gate current in the case of

ringing or reversal of the pulse transformer output voltage.

The diode also reduces holding current of the SCR.

In some cases where high noise levels are present, it may be

necessary to load the secondary of the transformer with a resistor
to prevent false triggering.