ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Tutor: Makongoro,M
Learning Objectives

Describe the location and structure of the
pituitary gland, and explain its structural and
functional relationships with the hypothalamus.
Describe the location and structure of each of the
endocrine glands.

Learning Objectives
Identify the hormones produced by each of the
endocrine glands
Describe the functions of the hormones produced
by the kidneys, heart, thymus, testes, ovaries and
adipose tissue.
Explain how hormones interact to produce
coordinated physiological responses.
Nervous System
Nervous system performs short term
crisis management
The nervous system sends electrical
messages to control and coordinate the
body
Nerve impulse is delivered by the axon
of a nerve cell called neuron

Intercellular Communication
Endocrine versus Nervous system
Endocrine System
Endocrine system regulates long term
ongoing metabolic activity
The endocrine system uses chemicals
messenger called hormones to
communicate.
Hormones alter metabolic
activities of tissues
A hormone is secreted by a group of
specialized cells called gland
Hormones are transported by the blood
vessels
Paracrine communication involves
chemical messengers between cells
within one tissue
Includes all cells and endocrine tissues that produce hormones or
paracrine factors
Following are important endocrine glands
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Pineal Gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Thymus
Adrenal Gland
Gonads (testes/ovaries)
Pancreatic Islet
Heart
Kidney
Digestive Tract
Endocrine system
The Endocrine System
Based on their chemical structure hormones are
classified into three general classes (groups) of
hormones.
1) Amino acid derivatives hormones e.g. epinephrine
Structurally similar to amino acids
2) Peptide hormones e.g. insulin
Chains of amino acids
3) Lipid derivatives hormones e.g. eicosanoids and
steroid hormones (prostaglandin is an example of a
steroid hormone)
Hormone structure
A Structural Classification of Hormones
Hormones Transportation
Hormones can be
Freely circulating
Rapidly removed from bloodstream
Bound to transport proteins e.g. albumin or
globulin
Each hormones shape is specific and can be
recognized by the corresponding target cells


The binding sites on the target cells are called
hormone receptors.
Receptors for peptide hormones, are located
on the surface of cell membranes because they
can not cross the membrane to enter the cell
Thyroid and steroid hormones can cross the
membrane and bind to receptors in the
cytoplasm or nucleus
Mechanisms of hormone action
G Proteins and Hormone Activity
Hormones that
can not cross the
membrane (e.g.
Peptide
hormones) bind
to the receptor on
the surface of the
cell
Binding of
hormones to the
receptor activate
secondary
messenger (in
this figure
binding of
hormone
activates G
protein, and
activated G
protein activates
adenylcyclase
or activate PDE
or activates PLC

Hormone Effects on Gene Activity
Hormones that
can cross the
membrane (e.g.
steroid
hormones) bind
to the receptor
inside the cell, at
the cytoplasm, or
they will enter the
nucleus and bind
to the receptor at
the nucleus and
initiate
transcription)
Hypothalamus regulates the activity of the
nervous and endocrine systems
Hypothalamus secrets regulatory hormones
(releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones)
that control the activity of the pituitary gland
Releasing/inhibiting hormones secreted by the
hypothalamus either stimulate or inhibit
activity of pituitary gland
Control of endocrine activity
Three Methods of Hypothalamic Control over
the Endocrine System
The pituitary gland is called the master gland
but it is under the control of the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland control many
other endocrine functions.
Pituitary Gland releases nine important peptide
hormones
All nine bind to membrane receptors and use
cyclic AMP as a second messenger
Pituitary gland is divided into posterior and
anterior lobe
The Pituitary Gland
The Anatomy and Orientation of the Pituitary
Gland
Anterior lobe of pituitary gland produces 7
hormones
1) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
TSH triggers the release of thyroid hormones by the thyroid
glands
Thyrotropin releasing hormone promotes the release of TSH
2) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
ACTH stimulates the release of glucocorticoids by the adrenal
gland
Corticotrophin releasing hormone causes the secretion of ACTH
3) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
FSH stimulates follicle development and estrogen secretion in
females and sperm production in males
Hormones of the adenohypophysis
The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
4) Leutinizing hormone (LH)
LH causes ovulation and progestin (progesterone) production in
females and androgen (testosterone) production in males
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GNRH) promotes the secretion
of FSH and LH
5) Prolactin (PH)
PH stimulates the development of mammary glands and milk
production
6) Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin)
GH stimulates cell growth and replication through release of
somatomedins or IGF
Growth-hormone releasing hormone
(GH-RH)
Growth-hormone inhibiting hormone
(GH-IH)
7) Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
Stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
The anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland secretes two
hormones: Antiduretic Hormone and Oxytocin.
1) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Decreases the amount of water lost at the
kidneys
Elevates blood pressure
2) Oxytocin
Stimulates contractile cells in mammary glands
Stimulates smooth muscle cells in uterus
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland
(neurohypophysis)
Thyroid gland is located near the thyroid cartilage of the larynx
The two lobes of thyroid gland is connected by an isthmus
Microscopically it has 2 distinct population of cells: Flicular Cell
(produce thyroid hormone) and C cell (produce calcitonin)
Thyroid gland release several hormones such as thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3)
Thyroid hormones (T4 and T3) are transported by to thyroid binding
globulins (TBG), and albumin
Functions of Thyroid hormones include:
Increasing ATP production, when bound to mitochondria.
Activating genes that control energy utilization, when bound to
receptors
Exert a calorigenic effect
C cells of thyroid gland produce calcitonin
Calcitonin helps to regulate calcium concentration in body fluids

The thyroid
The Thyroid Gland
Four parathyroid glands embedded in the
posterior surface of the thyroid gland
Chief cells produce parathyroid hormone (PTH)
in response to lower than normal calcium
concentrations
Parathyroid hormones plus calcitriol are primary
regulators of calcium levels in healthy adults
Parathyroid glands
The Homeostatic Regulation of Calcium Ion
Concentrations
When calcium levels decrease in the
blood, parathyroid glands produce
PTH
PTH increase blood calcium level
by:
1. Releasing stored calcium
from the bones
2. Stimulating production of
calcitriol at the kidney.
Calcitriol increases
absorption of calcium by
the digestive system
3. Enhance reabsorption of
calcium by the kidneys
When calcium levels increase in the
blood, thyroid glands produce
calcitonin.
Calcitonin decreases blood
calcium level by:
1. Increasing excretion of
calcium by the kidneys
2. Increase calcium deposition
in the bones
3. Stop osteoclast
Manufactures steroid hormones derived from
cholesterol (corticosteroids).
Corticosterioid hormones are divided into 3
functional groups
Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)
Regulate mineral and salt balance by renin-
angiotensis-aldosterone system
Glucocorticoids (cortisol and cortisone)
Regulate glucose levels i.e. they increase
gluconeogenesis and decrease protein
synthesis
Decrease inflammation response
Androgens also called sex hormones
The Adrenal Glands
Adrenal cortex
The Adrenal Glands
Adrenal medulla
Responsible for flight-or-fight response
Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine
Contains pinealocytes
Synthesize melatonin
Suggested functions include inhibiting
reproductive function, protecting against damage
by free radicals, setting circadian rhythms
(biological clock)
Pineal gland
Clusters of endocrine cells within the pancreas
called Islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islets
Alpha cells secrete glucagons
Glucagon raises blood glucose by increasing the rates
of glycogen breakdown and glucose manufacture by
the liver
Beta cells secrete insulin
Insulin lowers blood glucose by increasing the rate of
glucose uptake and utilization
Delta cells secrete GH-IH
F cells secrete pancreatic polypeptide
The Pancreas
The pancreatic islets
Diabetes
Type I Insulin dependent diabetes
Caused by autoimmune destruction of beta
cells
Type II non insulin dependent diabetes
Caused by body resisting the effects of insulin
at its receptor.
Symptoms: Polyuria (inreased frequency of
urination), polydipsia (increased thirst)
The Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentrations
Produce calcitriol and erythropoietin (EPO) and the enzyme rennin
Calcitriol = stimulates calcium and phosphate ion absorption along
the digestive tract
EPO stimulates red blood cell production by bone marrow
Renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I
Angiotensin I is converted to angiotensin II at the lungs
Agiotensin II:
1. Stimulates production of aldosterone by the adrenal glands
2. Stimulates release of ADH by the pituitary gland
3. Promotes thirst
4. Elevates blood pressure

The kidneys
Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys
Endocrine Functions of the Kidneys
The Heart
Specialized muscle cells produce natriuretic peptides in
response to high blood pressure
Natriuretic peptide generally has the opposite actions
of angiotensin II
The Intestine
Produce hormones important to the coordination of
digestive activities
The Thymus
Produces thymosins
Help develop and maintain normal immune defenses
The heart, The intestines and the Thymus
Interstitial cells of the testes produce testosterone
Most important sex hormone in males
In females, oocytes develop in follicles
Follicle cells produce estrogens
After ovulation, the follicle cells form corpus
luteum. Corpus luteum releases a mixture of
estrogens and progesterone
The gonads
Normal growth requires the interaction of several
endocrine organs
Six hormones are important
GH
Thyroid hormones
Insulin
PTH
Calcitriol
Reproductive hormones
Hormones and growth
Leptin, a feedback control for appetite
Resistin, which reduces insulin sensitivity
Adipose tissues secrete
Many hormones affect the CNS
Changes in the normal mixture of hormones
significantly alters intellectual capabilities,
memory, learning and emotional states
Hormones and behavior