Theoretical Perspectives in

Sociology
By Suparna Majumdar Kar
Theoretical Perspectives:
Theory is a general explanation of how two or
more facts are related to each other
Provides a framework for observations
Guides interpretation of reality
Theoretical perspectives guide perception and
research within the discipline
Two broad perspectives
Macro Sociology
Focus on broad features
Social institutions
Social classes
Relations between
groups
Adopted by
Functionalist theory
Conflict theory
Micro Sociology
Focus on narrower areas
Analyze social life
Focus on social
interaction
Adopted by
Symbolic interaction
Dramaturgy
Ethnomethodology
Social Construction of
Reality
Structural Functionalism
Views society as a complex system whose parts work together to
promote solidarity and stability


functionalism is an approach that attempts to relate the parts of
society to the whole, and to relate one part to another.


Sees.. society as analogous to a biological organism and attempts to
explain particular social structures in terms of the needs of society
as a whole
Structural Functionalism
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Organic Analogy
Evolutionary perspective
Growth
Differentiation
Integration
Adaptation
Society can be considered a living organism in which some
are more apt to deal with social dynamics and, therefore,
adapt better to changes in the environment.


Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Social Solidarity


Social integration and social control hold society together.
People view themselves as unified wholes, which helps
them stay within the boundaries of their social
structures rules and laws.
Structural Functionalism
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979)



Society is a grand interrelated
system in which each individual
is instrumental in keeping
the system functional. If one individual falters, society as a
whole will suffer.
AGIL Model
Adaptation:
the problem of acquiring sufficient resources
Goal Attainment:
the problem of settling and implementing goals
Integration:
the problem of maintain solidarity or coordination among
the subunits of the system
Latency:
The problem of creating, preserving, and transmitting the
system's distinctive culture and values

Structural Functionalism
Talcott Parsons
Pattern Variables
affectivity vs. affective-neutrality
self-orientation vs. collectivity orientation
universalism vs. particularism
achievement vs. ascriptive role behavior
specificity vs. diffuseness

Structural Functionalism
Robert Merton (1910-2003)
Multiple functions
Manifest
Latent
Dysfunctions
Every action in society has manifest
functions (factors that lead to an
expected consequence) and latent functions (factors that
lead to an unforeseen or unexpected consequence)
Conflict Perspective
Views Society as..
..an arena of inequality that generates conflict and
change related to the unequal distribution of
resources, such as:
Money
Power
Education
Social Prestige..
Conflict Perspective
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
The history of all hitherto existing society is the
history of class struggles.


Historical Materialism


Superstructure
Base
Thesis
Antithesis
Synthesis
Primitive
Communism
Ancient Society
Feudal Society

Capitalist Society

Socialism

Communism
Symbolic Interaction
Emphasise how individuals act consciously, do
not only react
Emphasis on social construction of the world
Focus on meanings underlying behaviour and
its interpretation
Significance of social context
Example: Language and its use
G.H.Mead : Construction of Self
I spontaneous, instinctive
Me socially constructed
The Self comprises of I and Me
The Self emerges from the dialogue between I
and Me
Within humans, Me dominates I
Behavior is socially constructed

Stereotypes
Assumptions, either true or false, based on
previous associations
Influence our behavior
Personal space and interaction
Public Distance
Social Distance
Personal Distance
Intimate Distance
Dramaturgical perspective
Goffman: Presentation of Self in Everyday Life
Front Stage
Back Stage
Role performance
Impression management / face saving
Sign vehicles
Social setting, Scenery
Appearance, Props, Costumes
Manner


Ethnomethodology
Garfinkel:
Uncover peoples underlying background assumptions
Study of methods used by people to construct social order
Breaching experiments
Bargaining in a supermarket (Spar, Spencers..)
Picking things from other peoples carts
Acting like a lodger in your parent's home
Riding the elevator facing the back wall/sitting down on the
floor

Social Construction of Reality
Process by which people use
background assumptions
life experiences
to define what is real for them
This construction in turn influences our actions
Example: Swine flu epidemic and germs as a reality
Sociology in Focus Gender and Language: You Just Dont
Understand!
When they are lost, men grumble to themselves and perhaps blame their
partners but avoid asking for directions. For their part, women cant
understand why men refuse help when they need it.
Deborah Tannen (1990) explains that men typically define most everyday
encounters as competitive. Therefore, getting lost is bad enough without
asking for help, which lets someone else get one up. By contrast,
because women have traditionally had a subordinate position, they find
it easy to ask for help. Sometimes, Tannen points out, women ask for
assistance even when they dont need it.
The problem here is that what one partner intends by a comment is not
always what the other hears in the words.

A similar gender-linked problem common to couples involves
what women consider trying to be helpful and men call
nagging. Consider the following exchange (adapted from Adler,
1990):
Sybil: Whats wrong, honey?
Harold: Nothing.
Sybil: Something is bothering you. I can tell.
Harold: I told you nothing is bothering me. Leave me alone.
Sybil: But I can see that something is wrong.
Harold: OK. Just why do you think something is bothering me?
Sybil: Well, for one thing, youre bleeding all over your shirt.
Harold: (now irritated) Yeah, well, it doesnt bother me.
Sybil: (losing her temper) WELL, IT SURE IS BOTHERING ME!
Harold: Fine. Ill go change my shirt.

To Sybil, her opening question is an effort at cooperative problem solving. She can see
that some thing is wrong with Harold (who has cut himself while doing yard work),
and she wants to help him. But Harold interprets her pointing out his problem as
belittling him, and he tries to close off the discussion.
Sybil, believing that Harold would be more positive if he understood that she just wants
to be helpful, repeats her question. This reaction sets in motion a vicious circle in
which Harold, who feels his wife is trying to make him feel incapable of taking care of
himself, responds by digging in his heels. This response, in turn, makes Sybil all the
more sure that she needs to do something. And around it goes until somebody gets
really angry. In the end, Harold agrees to change his shirt but still refuses to discuss
the original problem.
Defining his wifes concern as nagging, Harold just wants Sybil to leave him alone.
For her part, Sybil fails to understand her husbands apparent lack of concern for
himself or her and so she walks away convinced that he is a stubborn grouch.


QUESTIONS?