DATA TRANSMISSION

Chapter 2 Data Transmission

TRANSMISSION TERMINOLOGY

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM/MEDIA Guided or Unguided DIRECT LINK

Transmission path between two devices in which signals propagate DIRECTLY from transmitter to receiver with NO INTERMEDIATE DEVICES OTHER THAN REPEATERS OR AMPLIFIERS Applicable to BOTH guided and unguided media

TRANSMISSION TERMINOLOGY
POINT-TO-POINT
GUIDED transmission medium There exist a DIRECT LINK between 2 devices Only 2 devices share link

MULTIPOINT
GUIDED transmission medium There exist a DIRECT LINK between multiple devices

TRANSMISSION TERMINOLOGY
SIMPLEX
One direction One station is the receiver and the other is the transmitter
e.g. Television

HALF-DUPLEX
Either direction, but only one way at a time
e.g. police radio

FULL-DUPLEX
Both directions at the same time
e.g. telephone

TIME DOMAIN CONCEPTS

T YPES OF SIGNAL
Viewed as a function of time, and EM signal can be either continuous or discrete
Continuous Signal Analog Signal
One in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time No breaks or discontinuities in the signal

Discrete Signal - Digital signal

Maintains a constant level & then changes to another constant level

T YPES OF SIGNAL

Periodic signal
Pattern repeated over time
Sine wave, square wave Satisfies the criteria s(t+T) = s(t)

Aperiodic signal
Pattern not repeated over time

SINE WAVE
A sine wave is the fundamental continuous signal The general formula for a sine wave is s(t) = A sin(2 ft + ) Peak Amplitude (A)
maximum strength of signal Measure in volts

Frequency (f)
Rate of change of signal Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second Period = time for one repetition (T) T = 1/f

Phase ( )
Relative position in time

VARYING SINE WAVES S(T) = A SIN(2 FT + )

WAVELENGTH
Distance occupied by one cycle Distance between two points of corresponding phase in two consecutive cycles Represented by Assuming signal velocity v = vT for a particular signal f = v c = 3*10 8 m/s (speed of light in free space)

FREQUENCY DOMAIN CONCEPTS

FREQUENCY DOMAIN CONCEPTS

In general, signal is made up of many frequencies

Components are sine waves Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any signal is made up of component sine waves Can plot frequency domain functions

ADDITION OF FREQUENCY COMPONENTS

Representation of one individual frequency component

Addition of individual frequency components gives

ADDITION OF FREQUENCY COMPONENTS

FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY lowest frequency of the periodic waveform to whom other frequencies are integer multiples (also called First Harmonic) PERIOD OF THE TOTAL SIGNAL is equal to the period of the fundamental frequency

TIME DOMAIN VS FREQUENCY DOMAIN REPRESENTATION

Peak Amplitude is represented on Y-Axis

X-Axis represents frequency components of a sinusoid

DC Component (Component of Zero frequency

Fo r e ac h s i g n al , t h er e i s a T IM E D OM A I N F U N C T I ON s (t ) t h at s p ec i fi e s the A M P LIT U D E o f t h e s i g n al at e ac h i n s t a nt i n time S i m i l ar l y, t h er e i s a F R E Q U E N C Y D OM A I N F U N C T I ON S (f ) that s p eci fi e s the CONSTITUENT FREQUENCIES of the signal.

SPECTRUM & BANDWIDTH

Spectrum
range of frequencies contained in signal

Absolute bandwidth
width of spectrum

Effective bandwidth
Often just bandwidth Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the energy

DC Component
Component of zero frequency

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DATA RATE AND BANDWIDTH

T h e d u r a t i o n o f e a c h p u l s e b e l ow i s 1 / ( 2 f 1) o r T D a t a R a te = 2 f 1 o r 2 b p s

The duration of each pulse in the left side is 1 / ( 2 f 1) o r T What are the frequency component of this s i g n a l ? T H E S Q U A R E W AV E H A S U N L I M I T E D FREQUENCY COMPONENT AND THUS UNLIMITED B ANDWIDTH E F FECTIVE B ANDWIDTH! If we will limit is to only 3 frequency component, if f1 = 1MHz, then BW = 4MHz and data rate is 2Mbps (1 bit for every 0.5usec) BW is directly proportional to Data Rate

ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

The term analog and digital is a term used frequently in at least 3 context namely: DATA
Entities that convey meaning

SIGNALS
Electric or electromagnetic representations of DATA Signaling is the act of propagating the signal along a suitable medium

TRANSMISSION
Communication of data by propagation and processing of signals

ANALOG VS DIGITAL DATA VS SIGNAL

Generally, analog data are a function of time and occupy a limited frequency spectrum. Such data can be represented by an electromagnetic signal occupying the same spectrum. Digital data can be represented by digital signals, with a different voltage level for each of the two binary digits.

ANALOG SIGNAL REPRESENTING ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA

Digital data can also be represented by analog signals by use of a MODEM (modulator/demodulator). The MODEM converts a series of binary (twovalued) voltage pulses into an analog signal by encoding the digital data onto a carrier frequency.

CONVERSION OF VOICE SIGNAL INTO ANALOG SIGNAL

voice frequencies becomes the input of a conversion-device

Loudness of voice frequency is the amplitude of the input signal

DIGITAL SIGNAL REPRESENTING ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA

Analog data can be represented by digital signals. The device that performs this function for voice data is a CODEC (coder-decoder). In essence, the CODEC takes an analog signal that directly represents the voice data and approximates that signal by a bit stream. At the receiving end, the bit stream is used to reconstruct the analog data.

CONVERSION OF BINARY INPUT TO DIGITAL SIGNAL

ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

Both analog and digital signals may be transmitted on suitable transmission media

ANALOG TRANSMISSION ANALOG MODULATION

means of transmitting analog signals without regard to their content the signals may represent analog data (e.g., voice) or digital data (e.g., binary data that pass through a modem) the analog signal will become weaker (attenuated) after a certain distance AMPLIFIERS
boost the energy of the signal in order to achieve longer distances Also boosts the noise component

As more amplifiers are added, signal become more distorted For analog data, such as voice, quite a bit of distortion can be tolerated and the data remain intelligible. However, for digital data, cascaded amplifiers will introduce errors.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

DIGITAL TRANSMISSION DIGITAL MODULATION
Concern with the content of the signal can be transmitted only a limited distance before attenuation endangers the integrity of the data. REPEATERS
Used to achieve greater distances for digital transmission repeater receives the digital signal, recovers the pattern of 1s and Os, and retransmits a new signal, thereby overcoming the attenuation The same technique may be used with an analog signal if it is assumed that the signal carries digital data. The repeater recovers the digital data from the analog signal and generates a new, clean analog signal. Thus, noise is not cumulative.

ADVANTAGE OF DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

Digital tec hnology. The advent of large -scale integration (LSI) and ver y large scale integration (VLSI) technology has caused a continuing drop in the cost and size of digital circuitr y. Analog equipment has not shown a similar drop. Data integrity. With the use of repeater s rather than amplifier s, the ef fects of noise and other signal impairments are not cumulative. It is possible, then, to transmit data longer distances and over lesser quality lines by digital means while maintaining the integrity of the data. Capacity utiliz ation. It has become economical to build transmission links of ver y high bandwidth, including satellite channels and connecti ons involving optical fiber. A high degree of multiplexing is needed to ef fectively utilize such capacity, and this is more easily and cheaply achieved with digital ( time division) rather than analog (frequency -di visi on) techniques. Security and privacy. Encr ypti on techniques can be readily applied to digital data and to analog data that have been digitized . Integration . By treating both analog and digital data digitally, all signals have the same form and can be treated similarly. Thus, economies of scale and convenience can be achieved by integrating voice, video, and digital data.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS

TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS
With any communications system, it must be recognized that the received signal will dif fer from the transmitted signal due to various transmission impairments. Analog Signals Degradation of signal quality Digital Signals Bit errors Most Significant Impairments
Attenuation Delay distortion Noise

ATTENUATION
The strength of a signal falls of f with distance over any transmission medium. For guided media, this reduction in strength, or attenuation, is generally logarithmic and is thus typically expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance. For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance and of the makeup of the atmosphere. Attenuation introduces three considerations for the transmission engineer. DESIGNER NEEDS TO ADDRESS PROBLEMS:
Received signal strength must be enough to be detected Must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error Attenuation is an increasing function of frequency
Equalizer circuit Amplifiers that amplify high frequencies more than low frequencies

HOW DIGITAL SIGNALS ARE ATTENUATED

2 voltage levels to represent binary 0 and binary 1

Revived waveform is rounded and small

DELAY DISTORTION
Unique to GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA Propagation velocity through a guided medium varies with frequency Different frequency components experience dif ferent delays but they eventually arrive BUT at dif ferent time Particularly critical for digital data consider that a sequence of bits is being transmitted, using either analog or digital signals Because of delay distortion, some of the signal components of one bit position will spill over into other bit positions, causing INTERSYMBOL INTERFERENCE which is a major limitation to maximum bit rate over a transmission control Equalizing techniques can also be used for delay distortion.

NOISE
Additional unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between transmission and reception Noise may be divided into four categories :
Thermal Intermodulation Crosstalk Impulse

NOISE - THERMAL
Due to thermal agitation of electrons Function of temperature thus it is distributed across the frequency spectrum Referred to as WHITE NOISE It CANNOT be eliminated Sets an upper bound on the performance of the communication system

N = kTW
N = noise power density, watts/hertz k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 X 10-23 Joules/deg Kelvin (J/K) T = temperature, degrees Kelvin W = bandwidth, Hertz

NOISE - INTERMODULATION
When signals at different frequencies share the same transmission medium Signals are produced at a frequency that is the sum or dif ference of the two original frequencies, or multiples of those frequencies. For example, the mixing of signals at Produced when there is some nonlinearity in the transmitter, receiver, or intervening transmission system. Normally, these components behave as LINEAR SYSTEM; that is, the output is equal to the input, times a constant. In a NONLINEAR SYSTEM, the output is a more complex function of the input. Such nonlinearity can be caused by component malfunction or the use of excessive signal strength. It is under these circumstances that the sum and dif ference terms occur.

NOISE - CROSSTALK
Crosstalk has been experienced by anyone who, while using the telephone, has been able to hear another conversation It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths It can occur by ELECTRICAL COUPLING between nearby twisted pair or, rarely, coax cable lines carrying multiple signals. It can also occur when unwanted signals are picked up by microwave antennas; although highly directional, microwave energy does spread during propagation It is of the same order of magnitude (or less) as thermal noise.

NOISE - IMPULSE

Noncountinuous, irregular pulses or spikes in short duration but of RELATIVELY HIGH AMPLITUDE External electromagnetic disturbance such as lightning and faults and flaws in the communication system Minor annoyance for analog signal but it is a MAJOR source of error for digital data e

CHANNEL CAPACIT Y
We have seen that there are a variety of impairments that distor t or corrupt a signal. For digital data, the question that then arises is to what extent these impairments limit the data rate that can be achieved . The rate at which data can be transmitted over a given communication path, or channel, under given conditions, is referred to as the channel capacity. There are four concepts here that we are tr ying to relate to each other:
Data Rate
Rate at which data can be communicated, bps

Bandwidth
This is the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as constrained by the transmitter and by the nature of the transmission medium, expressed in cycles per second, or hertz.

Noise
Average level of noise in the communication path

BER
The rate at which errors occur, where an error is the reception of a 1 when a 0 was transmitted, or the reception of a 0 when a 1 was transmitted.

CHANNEL CAPACIT Y
The problem we are addressing is this:
Communications facilities are expensive, and, in general, the greater the bandwidth of a facility, the greater the cost.

The limitations arise from the physical properties of the transmission medium or from deliberate limitations at the transmitter on the bandwidth to prevent interference from other sources. Accordingly, we would like to make as ef ficient use as possible of a given bandwidth. For digital data, this means that we would like to get as high a data rate as possible at a particular limit of error rate for a given bandwidth. The main constraint on achieving this ef ficiency is NOISE.

CASE 1: NOISEFREE CHANNEL NYQUIST THEOREM

I n t h i s e nv i r o nm e n t , t h e l i m i t a t io n o n d a t a r a te i s s i m p l y t h e b a n d w i d t h o f t h e signal. A f o r m ul a t i o n o f t h i s l i m it a t i o n , d u e to N y q u i s t , s t a te s t h a t i f t h e r a te o f s i g n al t r a n s m i s s i o n i s 2 W, t h e n a s i g n a l w i t h f r e q u e n c i e s n o g r e a te r t h a n W i s s u f f i ci e n t to c a r r y t h e d a t a r a te . T h e c o nv e r se i s a l s o t r u e : G i v e n a b a n d w i d t h o f W, t h e h i g h e s t s i g n a l r a te t h a t c a n b e c a r r i e d i s 2 W. T h i s l i m i t a t io n i s d u e to t h e e f f e c t o f i n te r s y m b o l i n te r fe r e n c e , s u c h a s i s p r o d uc e d b y d e l ay d i s to r t io n . W i t h m u l t i leve l s i g n a l in g , t h e N y q u i s t f o r m ula t i o n b e c o m e s :

C = 2Wlog2 M
C = datarate, bps W = bandwidth, Hertz M = number of discrete signals or voltage levels S o , f o r a g i v e n b a n d w i d t h , t h e d a t a r a te c a n b e i n c r e a s e d b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e n u m b e r o f d i f fe r e n t s i g n a l s . H o w ev er, t h i s p l a c e s a n i n c r e a s e d b u r d e n o n t h e r e c e i ve r : I n s te a d o f d i s t i n g uis h i n g o n e o f t w o p o s s i b l e s i g n a l s d u r i n g e a c h s i g n a l t i m e , i t m u s t d i s t i n g uis h o n e o f M p o s s i b le s i g n a l s . N o i s e a n d o t h e r i m p a i r m e n t s o n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n l i n e w i l l l i m it t h e p r a c t i c al v a l u e of M. T h u s , a l l o t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l , d o u b li n g t h e b a n d w i d t h d o ub l e s t h e d a t a r a te .

CASE 2: WITH NOISE AND ERROR RATE SHANNON CAPACIT Y FORMULA

T h e h i g h e r t h e d a t a r a te , t h e m o r e d a m a g e t h a t u nw a n te d n o i s e c a n d o . Fo r a g i v e n l ev e l o f n o i s e , w e w o u l d ex p ec t t h a t a g r e a te r s i g n a l s t r e n g t h w o u l d i m p rov e t h e a b i l i t y to c o r r e c t l y r e c e i v e d a t a i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f n o i s e . T h e key p a r a m ete r i nv o l v e d i n t h i s r e a s o n i n g i s t h e s i g n a l - to - n o i s e r a t i o ( S N R ) , w h i c h i s t h e r a t i o o f t h e p o w e r i n a s i g n a l to t h e p o w e r c o n t a i n e d i n t h e n o i s e t h a t i s p r e s e n t a t a p a r t i cul a r p o i n t i n t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n Ty p i c a l ly, t h i s r a t i o i s m e a s u r e d a t a r e c e i ve r, a s i t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t a n a t te m p t i s m a d e to p r o c e s s t h e s i g n a l a n d e l i m i n a te t h e u nw a n te d n o i s e . Fo r c o nv e n i e nc e , t h i s r a t i o i s o f te n r e p o r te d i n d e c i b el s : S N R d b = 10 l o g 10 ( s i g n a l/ n o i s e ) S h a n n o n C a p a c i t y f o r m ul a s t a te s :

C = Wlog2 (1+SNR) or C = 3.32Wlog (1+SNR)

C = datarate, bps W = bandwidth, Hertz SNR = Signal to Noise ratio (in ratio and not logarithmic) T h i s f o r m ul a i n d i c a te s t h e E R RO R F R E E C A PAC I T Y. T h u s , S h a n n o n p r o ve d t h a t i f t h e a c t u al i n f o r m a t i o n r a te o n a c h a n n e l i s l e s s t h a n t h e e r r o r - f r e e c a p a c i t y, t h e n i t i s t h e o r et i c al l y p o s s i bl e to u s e a s u i t a b l e s i g n a l c o d e to a c h i ev e e r r o r - f r e e transmission through the channel.

RATIO OF SIGNAL ENERGY PER BIT TO NOISE-POWER DENSIT Y PER HERTZ E B /N O

Consider a signal, digital or analog, that contains binar y digital data transmitted at a cer tain bit rate R. Recalling that 1 watt = 1 joule/s, the energy per bit in a signal is given by E b = ST b , where S is the signal power and T b is the time required to send one bit. The data rate R is just R = l/T b . Thus,

Eb/No = (S/R)/No = S/kTR

S = bps signal power, watts No = noise power density in 1Hertz, watts/hertz R = datarate, Hertz k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 X 10-23 Joules/deg Kelvin (J/K) T = temperature, degrees Kelvin

This ratio is impor tant because the bit error rate for digital data is a (decreasing) function of this ratio. Given a value of E b /N o needed to achieve a desired error rate, the parameters in the preceding formula may be selected. Note that as the bit rate R increases, the transmitted signal power, relative to noise, must increase to maintain the required E b /N o .

END