Appriciation To Ndt3.1

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd
NDT Training
World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Appreciation to NDT
NDT Methods
Penetrant Testing Magnetic Particle Testing Eddy Current Testing Ultrasonic Testing Radiographic Testing
Magnetic Flux Leakage Acoustic Emission Infrared Testing
Visual Testing Other methods
NDT
Which method is the best ? Depends on many factors and conditions
NDT
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Definition:
A procedure, which covers the inspection and/or testing of any material, component or assembly by means, which do not affect its ultimate serviceability.
NDT
Oil and Gas Construction Metal Fabrication Chemical Aerospace Power Generation Transportation Medical Electronic
Industries involved with NDT:
Metal Manufacturing Composite Manufacturing Inspection and Testing Research and Development Training and Certification
CERTIFICATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS

NDT personnels should posses high credibility and integrity Proper training and certification required Training : By qualified training personnels and accredited training centres International Certification Schemes available:
Penetrant Testing
Also known as
Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI) Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

Surface Testing method For detecting surface breaking defects (opened to surface) Applicable to all materials -except for excessively porous (absorbing) materials
Penetrant Testing: SurfaceTesting

Maybe detected by Penetrant Testing OPEN TO SURFACE/ SURFACE BREAKING Cannot be detected by Penetrant Testing
SUBSURFACE
INTERNAL
Penetrant Testing can only detect surface breaking defects Penetrant must be able to enter the defect to form indication
Penetrant Testing
Not suitable for porous or very absorbent materials Examples: Wood Cloth Unglazed ceramic /pottery
Basic Steps
Pre-cleaning Penetrant application
Removal of excess penetrant

Application of Developer
Inspection
Post-cleaning
Penetrant Testing
Penetrating fluid (penetrant) applied to component
Aerosol Spraying
Immersion
Brushing
Electrostatic
Penetrant Testing
Penetrating fluid (penetrant) applied to component and drawn into defect by capillary action
Principle : Capillary Action

Interaction of adhesive and cohesive forces
meniscus
Capillarity
The ability of a material to enter opening examples: tube or defects
The formula = 2S Cos W = Capillary pressure S = Surface tension = Contact angle W = Width of opening
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing
Application of developer
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant drawn back out of the defect by reverse capillary action
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant which pulled out from the defect by the developer forms indication of the defect Indications
Advantages of PT
Applicable to non-ferromagnetics Able to test large parts with a portable kit Batch testing Applicable to small parts with complex geometry Simple,cheap easy to interpret Sensitivity
Disadvantages of PT
Will only detect defects open to the surface Careful surface preparation required Not applicable to porous materials Temperature dependant Cannot retest indefinitely Compatibility of chemicals
System classification
PENETRANT Colour Contrast
Fluorescent
Dual sensitivity
Colour Contrast Penetrant

Also known as Visible Dye Penetrant
Uses white light : Daylight or artificial white light
Bright coloured dye :
usually RED
Fluorescent v Colour Contrast

Fluorescent more sensitive Less operator fatigue with fluorescent More difficulty in monitoring fluorescent penetrant removal
Water Washable Penetrant

Also known as SELF-EMULSIFIED PENETRANT
Pre-mixed penetrant and emulsifier Easily washed by water rinse
+
Oily Penetrant
=
Emulsifier
Water Washable Penetrant World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
Water WashablePenetrant
WATER SPRAY
PENETRANT
Penetrant been washed off Shallow wide defects
Deep or gross defects shows
Water Washable Penetrant

ADVANTAGES Ideal for rough surfaces Suitable for batch testing Cheaper than other methods DISADVANTAGES Susceptible to over washing Least sensitive method Requirement for a water source Corrosion problems
Solvent Removable
ADVANTAGES Portability No water supply needed DISADVANTAGES Not suited to batch testing Requires hand wiping so time consuming More expensive than water washable Potentially hazardous chemicals
Solvent Removable
Post Emulsifiable Penetrant

Stages Immerse component in penetrant Immerse component in emulsifier Emulsifier diffuses into the penetrant making it water washable
Water wash removes excess penetrant mixed with emulsifier Penetrant in defects left unaffected
Post emulsifiable
Now the surface penetrant is water washable

Post Emulsifiable Penetrant Emulsifier
Post emulsifiable
Water Spray
Penetrant mixed with emulsifier Emulsifier

Penetrant
Only penetrant on the surface removed

Penetrant in defect not mixed with emulsifier : NOT REMOVED
Post emulsifiable
ADVANTAGES High Sensitivity Maximum penetrating ability Greater control over penetrant removal DISADVANTAGES Not suitable for rough surfaces More expensive More time consuming
Developer Sensitivity
Dry powder Aqueous solution Aqueous suspension Non-Aqueous 100 110 120 120 - 140 % - 150 % - 200% - 240%
Penetrant Systems
PENETRANT Colour contrast Fluorescent REMOVAL Solvent Water washable Post emulsifiable DEVELOPERS Dry powder
Aqueous
Dual
Non-Aqueous
Selection of System
Nature of discontinuities (size and type) Geometry and intricacy Surface condition Component material Size and position Equipment and expertise available Cost Number of components to be tested
Selection of System
Inspection of a large number of threaded components What method will you select and why ? Fluorescent water washable with dry powder developer
Fluorescent for mass inspections Water washable more suited than solvents to batch inspections Post emulsifiable difficult to remove from threads
Selection of System
Inspection of turbine blades for fatigue cracks What method will you select and why ? Fluorescent post emulsifiable with nonaqueous developer
Fluorescent more sensitive than colour contrast Post emulsifiable more sensitive than water washable Non-aqueous developer most sensitive
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing of large aircraft components
Penetrant Testing
Fluorescent Penetrant Testing of small components
Penetrant Testing
Penetrant Testing of various small components
Magnetic Particle Testing

Part 2
NDT Training & Certification

Magnetism
The phenomenon of certain materials which attract certain other materials e.g.. pieces of iron to themselves

Test method for the detection of
surface and sub-surface defects in ferromagnetic materials

MT
Surface Defect
MT
Subsurface
CANNOT BE DETECTED BY Magnetic Particle Testing Internal
Ferromagnetic Material

Basic Steps
Magnetic field induced in component Defects disrupt the magnetic flux Defects revealed by applying ferromagnetic particles
Lines of force
By convention they flow from North to South outside and South to North inside Form closed loops Never cross Field is strongest where most numerous Follow path of least resistance
Definitions
Magnetic field : Region in which magnetic forces exist
Definitions
Flux : line of magnetic force existing in a magnetic circuit
Definitions
Flux Density : Magnetic flux per unit cross-section area (measured in Teslas)
Low Flux Density: Less Flux per unit area High Flux Density: More Flux per unit area
Definitions
1 Tesla = 10 000 gauss
How many line of force are there in an 1 cm area with a Flux Density of 1 Tesla?
1 cm
10 000 = 10 lines
1 cm
BS 6072
The FLUX DENSITY on the surface of the component must be at lease 0.72 T Below that the indication will be too weak
Below 0.72 TESLA

Above 0.72 TESLA
In General:
0500 0100 0000

AMMETER
Increasing the Magnetising Force will increase the Magnetic Field

Measured in Ampere per meter ( A/m)
Permeability
The ease with which a material can be magnetised
Permeability
Magnetised using 100 amps Magnetised using 100 amps
A
High Permeability:
B
Low Permeability: Difficult to be magnetised
Easy to be magnetised
Materials Behaviours in Magnetic Field

Diamagnetic: Examples Slightly repelled by magnetic field Gold, Copper, Water and most non-metal
DIAMAGNETIC
Unable to be Magnetically tested


Paramagnetic: Weakly attracted by magnetic field Examples Aluminium, Tungsten and most metals
PARAMAGNETIC
Unable to be Magnetically tested


Ferromagnetic: Strongly attracted by magnetic field Examples Iron, Cobalt, Nickel and their alloys
FERROMAGNETIC
Suitable to be Magnetically tested

Permeability
A unit of comparison: compared to free space
Examples:
Air

Iron Steel Mu Metal Paramagnetics Diamagnetics Ferromagnetics
560 1000 80 000 Slightly > 1 Slightly < 1 240 +
Other Forms of Magnet

Horseshoe Magnet
Ring Magnet
Equipment
Electromagnetism
A current flows through a conductor and sets up a magnetic field around it Field is at 90o to the direction of the electrical current
Direction of current flow
Direction of magnetic field

Coil Magnetisation
Changes circular filed into longitudinal

Increases the strength of the field
Coil Magnetisation
Longitudinal Magnetic Field

Detect transverse defects
Principle of MT : Flux Leakage

Ferromagnetic Particles
N
S
Flux Leakage Attracted at poles
Ring Magnet
Ring Magnet
Magnetic field is Fully contained: No Poles
Flux Leakage occurs: Poles created
No Defect
Principle of MPI : Flux Leakage

Defect
Flux Leakage
The change in permeability causes flux leakage

STEEL = 1000
No Flux Leakage because No change in permeability

Flux Leakage
AIR = 1
STEEL = 1000
The change in permeability causes flux leakage

Factors Affecting Flux Leakage

Depth of defect Orientation of defect shape of defect Size of defect Permeability of material Amount of flux available
Depth below surface
Defect Orientation
Defect at 90 degrees to flux : maximum indication

Defect Orientation
>45 Degrees to Flux:

Acceptable indication
Defect Orientation
How to detect the ones missed?

All surface defects form indications

But not all indications are caused by defects
Non-relevant indications
Chisel Splines Rough Surface Rivet
Due to flux leakage but Furring arising from design features or geometry
Changes in section Changes in permeability Furring

Keyway Toe of welds
Furring
Caused by: Sharp change of contour
Furring
Furring
Furring
Caused by: Excessive flux on the surface or ends of component
Furring
Magnetic Writing
Caused by: Localised polarization when magnetised object induced the magnetic field into another object
Spurious / False Indications

Indications caused by operator errors
Not due to flux leakage
Lint Dirt Hairs
Relevant/ True Indications

Indications caused by defects

Cracks indications by Fluorescent Ink
Inks and Powders

Particles in Inks or Powders
MT Inks Black and Fluorescent
MT Powders Colour contrast and Fluorescent

Usage of Fluorescent Ink on weld

Usage of Ultraviolet Light with Fluorescent Ink in weld testing

Cracks indications by Fluorescent Ink

Usage of a.c. Electromagnetic Yoke with Black Ink

Usage of MT Bench Unit with Fluorescent Ink

Component under test with currentflow and fluorescent ink

Usage of Prods with black ink on weld
Eddy Current Testing


An alternating current is passed through a coil

A.C. generates an alternating field

Alternating field generates eddy currents in conductors

A.C. generates an alternating field

Alternating field generates eddy currents in conductors Eddy currents generate opposing field which modifies current in coil
Defects will interrupt the eddy current

Interruption in the coil current is displayed on the set

Equipment
Eddy Current
Electrical currents induced in metals by alternating magnetic fields The size of the current is affected by Electrical conductivity
Stand off distance

Flaws Permeability Specimen dimensions
Advantages of ET
Sensitive to surface defects Can detect through several layers Can detect through surface coatings Accurate conductivity measurements Can be automated Little pre-cleaning required Portability
Disadvantages of ET
Very susceptible to permeability changes Only on conductive materials Will not detect defects parallel to surface Not suitable for large areas and/or complex geometry's Signal interpretation required No permanent record (unless automated) Expensive equipment
Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing
Principle
High frequency sound sound waves are introduced into a material Reflected sound gives information on the material under test and signals displayed on a CRT
Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound is transmitted in the material to be tested
The sound reflected back to the probe is displayed on
the Flaw Detector

The distance the sound traveled can be displayed on the Flaw Detector The screen can be calibrated to give accurate readings of the distance Signal from the backwall
Bottom / Backwall

The presence of a Defect in the material shows up on the screen of the flaw detector with a less distance than the bottom of the material The BWE signal Defect signal
Defect
10
20
30
40
50
60
60 mm
The depth of the defect can be read with reference to the marker on the screen
Thickness / depth measurement

The closer the reflector to the surface, the signal will be more to the left of the screen C B A
30
46
68
The thickness is read from the screen The THINNER the material the less distance the sound travel
C B A
Ultrasonic Testing Applications
Probes
Probe Design
Compression Probe
Normal probe 0
Electrical connectors
Housing Damping Transducer
Probe Design
Shear Probe
Angle probe
Backing medium
Damping
Transducer
Probe Shoe
Perspex wedge
Probe Design
Twin Crystal
Transmitter Receiver
Advantages Can be focused Measure thin plate Near surface resolution Disadvantages Difficult to use on curved surfaces Sizing small defects Signal amplitude / focal spot length
Separator / Insulator Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd
Focusing lens
Gap Scanning
Probe held a fixed distance above the surface (1 or 2mm) Couplant is fed into the gap
Immersion Testing
Component is placed in a water filled tank Item is scanned with a probe at a fixed distance above the surface
Immersion Testing
Water path distance Front surface
Defect
Back surface
Water path distance World Centre for Materials Joining Technology
AUTOMATIC ULTRASONIC TESTING SYSTEM C-Scan Presentation
AUTOMATIC ULTRASONIC TESTING SYSTEM

P-Scan Scanner
AUTOMATIC ULTRASONIC TESTING SYSTEM
P-Scan Image Presentation
T-Scan Image Presentation
TOFD Time of Flight Diffraction
TOFD Images
Area Monitoring
May 1999: tmin = 29.6 mm Dec. 1999: tmin = 29.6 mm
June 2000: tmin = 29.4 mm
April 2001: tmin = 29.2 mm
Methods of Setting Sensitivity

Smallest defect at maximum test range Back wall echo Disc equivalent Grass levels Notches Side Drilled Holes, DAC Curves
Scanning Procedure
Parent Material
0 degree both sides
To maximum range for angle probes Full skip distance for 60 or 70 probes
Scanning Procedure
Weld Root
Half skip from both sides
For PCN exams : 70 degree probe at half skip from both sides
Scanning Procedure
Weld Fusion Faces Half to full skip from both sides
A probe which strikes fusion faces at 90 degrees Probe angle = 90 - (1/2 Root angle)
Scanning Procedure
Weld Body
Half skip to full skip from both sides Full Skip 1/2 Skip
Scanning Procedure
Transverse
70 degree
Nozzle Welds
Scanning procedure
Tee butt welds
Pulse Echo Technique

Single probe sends and receives sound Gives an indication of defect depth and dimensions Not fail safe
Defect Position
B
B A
No indication from defect A (wrong orientation)

Through Transmission Technique

Transmitting and receiving probes on opposite sides of the specimen Presence of defect indicated by reduction in transmission signal No indication of defect location Fail safe method Tx Rx
Through Transmission Technique

Advantages Less attenuation No probe ringing No dead zone Orientation does not matter Disadvantages Defect not located Defect cant be identified Vertical defects dont show Must be automated Need access to both surfaces
Transmission with Reflection

T R
Also known as:

Tandem Technique or Pitch and Catch Technique
Advantages of UT
Sensitive to cracks at various orientations Portability Safety Able to penetrate thick sections Measures depth and through wall extent
Disadvantages
No permanent record (unless automated) Not easily applied to complex geometries and rough surfaces. Unsuited to course grained materials Requires highly skilled and experienced technicians
Radiographic Testing
Electromagnetic radiation is imposed upon a test object Radiation is transmitted to varying degrees dependant upon the density of the material through which it is travelling Variations in transmission detected by photographic film or fluorescent screens Applicable to metals,non-metals and composites
Radiation Source
Lower density
Higher density
Specimen
Film
Placing Film to be radiographed
Radiation Sources
Isotopes produce Gamma rays Examples: Co60, Ir192, Yb169

X-Ray Tube
Radiographic Image
Techniques
Panoramic
Single Wall Single Image
Double Wall Double Image
Gamma Rays vs X-Rays

Safety Capabilities
X-ray machines is normally safer: can be switched off/on Gamma source: constant emission Gamma source have very high penetrating power X-ray: intensity and wavelength can be adjusted In general: x-ray produces better quality
Quality of images Handling Cost
Gamma sources are easier to handle X-ray machine are bulky, fragile and requires electricity Gamma source are cheaper
Radiographic Variables
Density The degree of film darkness Contrast The differences in density between the regions of the film
Advantages of Radiography
Permanent record Detection of Internal flaws Can be used on most materials Direct image of flaws Real - time imaging
Disadvantages of Radiography
Health hazard Sensitive to defect orientation Limited ability to detect fine cracks Access to both sides required Limited by material thickness Skilled interpretation required Relatively slow High capital outlay and running costs
Acoustic Emission
Transient stress waves from micro structural changes detected by sensors
Stress waves Stress
Vacuum Box Testing

Vacuum created within a perspex box Soapy liquid applied to surface
Vacuum Box Testing

Vacuum created within a perspex box Soapy liquid applied to surface Bubbles indicate through thickness defect
Training & Certification
Any Questions Please ?
Training & Certification

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Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Visual Testing Other methods

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Industries involved with NDT:

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

CERTIFICATIONS AND QUALIFICATIONS

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI) Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)

Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI)

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

Penetrant Testing: SurfaceTesting

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Removal of excess penetrant

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Principle : Capillary Action

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Removal of excess penetrant

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Removal of excess penetrant

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Colour Contrast Penetrant

Bright coloured dye :

Copyright 2003, TWI Ltd

World Centre for Materials Joining Technology

Fluorescent v Colour Contrast