AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

Fuel
Factors to determine the fuel used on aircraft
are: Cost of production Availability Calorific value Viscosity Effect after burning

Be pumpable Permit quick starting in cold conditions Non corrosive Self lubricating

Aircraft Fuel
Aviation turbine fuels are used for powering jet and
turbo-prop engined aircraft and are not to be confused with Avgas There are currently two main grades of turbine fuel in use in civil commercial aviation : Jet A-1 and Jet A, both are kerosene type fuels There is another grade of jet fuel, Jet B which is a wide cut kerosene (a blend of gasoline and kerosene) but it is rarely used except in very cold climates JET A-1 is produced to a stringent internationally agreed standard, has a flash point above 38C (100F) and a freeze point maximum of -47C It is widely available and meets the requirements of British specification DEF STAN 91-91 (Jet A-1), (formerly DERD 2494 (AVTUR)), ASTM specification D1655 (Jet A-1) and IATA Guidance Material (Kerosine Type), NATO Code F-35

JET A

is a similar kerosene type of fuel, produced to an ASTM specification and normally only available in the U.S.A. It has the same flash point as Jet A-1 but a higher freeze point maximum (-40C) Energy Content - An aircraft turbine engine generates power by converting chemical energy stored in the fuel into a combination of mechanical energy and heat

Since space is at a premium in most aircraft,

the amount of energy contained in a given quantity of fuel is important The amount of heat released depends on whether the water formed during combustion remains in the vapor phase or is condensed to a liquid If the water is condensed to the liquid giving up its heat of vaporization in the process, the energy released is called the gross energy content The net energy content is lower because the water remains in the gaseous phase (water vapor). Since engines exhaust water as vapor, net energy content is the appropriate value for comparing fuels

 Energy content can be expressed either

gravimetrically (energy per unit weight of fuel) or volumetrically (energy per unit volume of fuel) The SI units are megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg) and megajoules per liter (MJ/L) In the United States, the gravimetric unit is British thermal units per pound (Btu/lb), and the volumetric unit is British thermal units per gallon (Btu/gal) Fuels differ in density, and therefore, in energy content per unit weight or unit volume. Less dense fuels, such as avgas, have a higher energy content per unit weight and a lower energy content per unit volume. The relationships are reversed for more dense fuels.

Which is preferred for aviation

fuel, a higher density fuel with a higher volumetric energy content? Or a lower density fuel with a higher gravimetric energy content?

The answer is for aircraft that take off with their

fuel tanks full, as most military aircraft do, a fuel with a high volumetric energy content maximizes the energy that can be stored in a fixed volume and thus provides the longest flight range For commercial airliners, most of which don't fill their fuel tanks before each flight, but take only enough fuel to reach their intended destination, it is more advantageous to use a less dense fuel with a high gravimetric energy content to minimize fuel weight However, most users don't have the option to pick the energy content of their fuel. Jet fuel is a commodity product that is bought and sold by volume, with no price adjustment for density or energy content.

 Combustion Characteristics

The principal difference between piston and jet engines is that combustion is intermittent in a piston engine and continuous in a jet engine In piston engines, combustion timing is critical to good performance. When combustion is continuous, combustion timing is no longer important. In a jet engine, small carbonaceous particles are formed early in the combustion process. These particles continue to burn as they pass through the flame and are completely consumed under suitable conditions But these particles become incandescent under the high temperature and pressure conditions of the combustion section, leading to high combustor wall temperatures or hot spots can lead to cracks and premature engine failures.

 If these carbon particles are not completely consumed

by the flame, they can also be harmful if they impinge on turbine blades and stators, causing erosion Carbon deposits can also plug the holes in the combustor wall that supply dilution air to the combustion section, disrupting the flow pattern of the combustion products. Since these carbonaceous particles are potentially harmful, both the total aromatic content and the total naphthalenes content of jet fuel are controlled. Carbon particles that are not completely consumed are responsible for the visible smoke that some engines emit. Smoke formation is determined mainly by engine design and operating conditions, although for a given design, fuel composition can influence emissions. Better mixing of fuel and air results in more complete combustion and, thus, less carbon formation. Newer engines emit much less smoke because of design changes that improve mixing.

 Stability-

A stable fuel is one whose properties remain unchanged. Factors that can lead to deleterious changes in fuel properties include time (storage stability) and exposure to high temperatures in the engine (thermal stability). Jet fuel instability involves multi-step chemical reactions, some of which are oxidation reactions Hydroperoxides and peroxides are the initial reaction products. These products remain dissolved in the fuel, but may attack and shorten the life of some fuel system elastomers Additional reactions result in the formation of soluble gums and insoluble particulates. These products may clog fuel filters and deposit on the surfaces of aircraft fuel systems, restricting flow in small-diameter passageways.

 Storage Stability -

Instability of jet fuel during storage is generally not a problem because most fuel is used within weeks or months of its manufacture And it can be an issue at small airports that don't use a lot of fuel. Jet fuel that has been properly manufactured, stored, and handled should remain stable for at least one year Jet fuel subjected to longer storage or to improper storage or handling should be tested to be sure it meets all applicable specification requirements before use. Because it is the more reactive fuel components that cause instability, storage stability is influenced by fuel composition. It is also influenced by storage conditions; instability reactions occur faster and to a greater extent at higher ambient temperatures. Antioxidants may be added to fuel to improve its storage stability.

 Thermal Stability -

Thermal stability is one of the most important jet fuel properties because the fuel serves as a heat exchange medium in the engine and airframe Jet fuel is used to remove heat from engine oil, hydraulic fluid, and air conditioning equipment The resulting heating of the fuel accelerates the reactions that lead to gum and particulate formation These gums and particles may deposit on fuel filters, increasing the pressure drop across the filter and reducing fuel flow. In fuel injector nozzles, disrupting the spray pattern, which may lead to hot spots in the combustion chamber. In the main engine control, interfering with fuel flow and engine system control. On heat exchangers, reducing heat transfer efficiency and fuel flow.

These deposits may lead to operational

problems and increased maintenance Antioxidants that are used to improve fuel storage stability do not improve its thermal stability Engine problems related to inadequate fuel thermal stability typically become evident only after hundreds or thousands of hours of operation. The long time and the large volume of fuel consumed make it impractical to test fuel thermal stability under conditions identical to those that exist in engines. Instead, the fuel is subjected to more severe conditions in a bench test in order to be able to see a measurable effect in a reasonable period of time.

 Lubricity - is the ability to reduce friction between

solid surfaces in relative motion, so it is a measure of a material's effectiveness as a lubricant Jet fuel must possess a certain degree of lubricity because jet engines rely on the fuel to lubricate some moving parts in fuel pumps and flow control units. The lubrication mechanism is a combination of hydrodynamic lubrication and boundary lubrication. In hydrodynamic lubrication, a layer of the liquid lubricant prevents the opposing moving surfaces from contacting each other. Higher viscosity liquids provide more hydrodynamic lubrication than lower viscosity liquids Jet engines are designed to work with jet fuels within the normal viscosity range, and therefore, typical jet fuels provide adequate hydrodynamic lubrication. When close tolerances squeeze out most of the liquid layer that provides hydrodynamic lubrication, boundary lubrication becomes important because form a protective anti-wear layer by adhering to the metal surfaces

Fluidity - Jet fuel must be able to flow freely

from fuel tanks in the wings to the engine through an aircraft's fuel system Viscosity and freezing point are the physical properties used to quantitatively characterize the fluidity of jet fuel Jet fuel is exposed to very low temperatures both at altitude especially on polar routes in wintertime and on the ground at locations subject to cold weather extremes The fuel must retain its fluidity at these low temperatures or fuel flow to the engines will be reduced or even stop

 Viscosity -

is a measure of a liquid's resistance to flow under pressure, generated either by gravity or a mechanical source. "Thin" liquids, like water or gasoline, have low viscosities; "thick" liquids, like maple syrup or motor oil, have higher viscosities. The viscosity of a liquid increases as its temperature decreases. Jet fuel at high pressure is injected into the combustion section of the turbine engine through nozzles. This system is designed to produce a fine spray of fuel droplets that evaporate quickly as they mix with air. The spray pattern and droplet size are influenced by fuel viscosity. If it is too high, an engine can be difficult to relight in flight. Fuel viscosity influences the pressure drop in the fuel system lines. Higher viscosities result in higher line pressure drops, requiring the fuel pump to work harder to maintain a constant fuel flow rate Fuel viscosity also influences the performance of the fuel system control unit.

Volatility - is a fuel's tendency to vaporize.

Two physical properties are used to characterize fuel volatility: vapor pressure and distillation profile. A more volatile fuel has a higher vapor pressure and lower initial distillation temperatures. Volatility is important because a fuel must vaporize before it can burn. However, too high a volatility can result in evaporative losses or fuel system vapor lock. Kerosene-type jet fuel is relatively nonvolatile Wide-cut jet fuel is better suited for cold weather applications because it has a lower viscosity and freezing point than kerosenetype jet fuel. In such applications, evaporative losses are less of a concern.

 Non-corrosivity - Jet fuel contacts a variety of

materials during distribution and use. It is essential that the fuel not corrode any of these materials, especially those in aircraft fuel systems Typically, fuel tanks are aluminum, but fuel systems also contain steel and other metals. Fuel tanks may also have sealants or coatings, and elastomers are used in other sections of the fuel system. Corrosive compounds potentially present in jet fuel include organic acids and water Contamination from trace amounts of sodium, potassium, and other alkali metals in the fuel can cause corrosion in the turbine section of the engine

AVIATION FUEL ADDITIVES Aviation fuel additives are compounds added to the fuel in very small quantities, usually measurable only in parts per million, to provide special or improved qualities. A few additives in common use are as follows: Anti-knock additives to reduce the tendency of gasoline to detonate. Tetra-ethyl lead (TEL) is the only approved anti-knock additive for aviation use and has been used in motor and aviation gasolines since the early 1930s Anti-oxidants prevent the formation of gum deposits on fuel system components caused by oxidation of the fuel in storage and also inhibit the formation of peroxide compounds in certain jet fuels.

 Static dissipator additives reduce the hazardous

effects of static electricity generated by movement of fuel through modern high flow-rate fuel transfer systems. Static dissipator additives do not reduce the need for `bonding' to ensure electrical continuity between metal components (e.g. aircraft and fuelling equipment) nor do they influence hazards from lightning strikes Corrosion inhibitors protect ferrous metals in fuel handling systems, such as pipelines and fuel storage tanks, from corrosion. Some corrosion inhibitors also improve the lubricating properties (lubricity) of certain jet fuels Fuel System Icing Inhibitors (Anti-icing additives) reduce the freezing point of water precipitated from jet fuels due to cooling at high altitudes and prevent the formation of ice crystals which restrict the flow of fuel to the engine. This type of additive does not affect the freezing point of the fuel itself. Anti-icing additives can also provide some protection against microbiological growth in jet fuel.

Metal de-activators suppress the catalytic

effect which some metals, particularly copper, have on fuel oxidation Biocide additives are sometimes used to combat microbiological growths in jet fuel, often by direct addition to aircraft tanks; as indicated above some anti-icing additives appear to possess biocidal properties Thermal Stability Improver additives are sometimes used in military JP-8 fuel, to produce a grade referred to as JP-8+100, to inhibit deposit formation in the high temperature areas of the aircraft fuel system.

 C L E A N L I N E S S - Fuel cleanliness means the

absence of solid particulates and free water, Particulates, rust, dirt, etc. that can plug fuel filters and increase fuel pump wear Water, in addition to not burning in an engine, will freeze at the low temperatures encountered in high altitude flights. The resulting ice may plug fuel filters and otherwise impede fuel flow Water in fuel also may facilitate the corrosion of some metals and the growth of microorganisms. Fuel delivered to aircraft must also be free from contaminants. The most common sources of contamination encountered with aviation fuels include product mixes, surfactants, microbes, and dyes.

Flash Point

- The flash point is the lowest temperature at which the vapors above a flammable liquid will ignite on the application of an ignition source At the flash point temperature, just enough liquid has vaporized to bring the vapor-air space over the liquid above the lower flammability limit. The flash point is a function of the specific test conditions under which it is measured The flash point of wide-cut jet fuel is below 0C (32F) and is not typically measured or controlled.

Aircraft Fuel Systems

Storage and delivery Fuel transfer i.e refuel, defuel and
draining Engine feed Dumping (Jettison) Indications

Fuel Tanks
Fuel systems on different aircraft may
use several types of fuel tanks The three basic types of fuel tanks used on aircraft are:

Integral Rigid Removable Bladder

Rigid Removable Fuel Tanks

Rigid removable fuel tanks are often made of

aluminum components that are welded together These tanks are installed in compartments specifically made for the tank The tanks may be held in place with padded straps This type of tank is often found on more expensive light aircraft and reciprocatingengine-powered transports Fittings for pumps, float switches and quantity measuring equipment, refueling orifice External self sealing covering for leak protection

Vent

Filler point Inspection panel

Bladder (bag) Type Fuel Tanks

Bladder type fuel tanks are basically a reinforced

rubberized bag, constructed from rubber material not affected by fuel These tanks are installed in compartments which support the weight of the fuel The tank is held in place with buttons or snaps on the bottom and sides of the tank This type of tank is usually found on light aircraft and some turboprop and turbine-powered aircraft Compartment must be clean to avoid chafing & puncturing Airframe structure made larger than the tank so than flexing due to aircraft movements and shock loads do not impose any loads on the tank Tank attached to airframe structure for shape when empty by use of studs or cord

Precautions on fitting flexible tanks

Protrusions must be covered with tape or rubber Manual instructions followed incase of folding Tank compartment must be clean Rubber shoes must be worn when entering the tank Pockets must be empty before entering the tank to avoid loose articles being left in the tank

Integral (wet) Fuel Tanks

Integral Fuel Tanks are commonly located in the
aircrafts wings or fuselage These tanks are ones that are built into the structure of the aircraft and generally can not be removed This type of tank is used in some light highperformance aircraft and turbine-powered transports Part of aircraft structure bonded by front/rear spars of the wing and covered by the upper and lower wing surface skins Area is sealed and fuel proofed during manufacture On manufacture, parts are cleaned and coated with special sealant and assembled wet Another sealant is applied after assembly to prevent cracking incase of flexing. This is called filleting

 When working in tanks, first drain the tanks, mop

Safety Precautions

residual fuel and vent the tank by blowing fresh air through it until all fuel vapour has been removed Use remote breathing equipment when entering large tanks Wear rubber protective clothing to avoid spark generations, Use spark proof tools Position safety man to standby Attach life line incase of difficulty inside tank Inspection lamps must be explosion proof (sealed to prevent ignition) No loose articles (Especially metallic) allowed inside the tank Wear rubber shoes No smoking within any fuel tank

Fuel Systems The purpose of an aircraft fuel system

is to store and deliver the proper amount of clean fuel at the correct pressure to the engine Fuel systems should provide positive and reliable fuel flow through all phases of flight including: Changes in altitude Violent maneuvers Sudden acceleration and deceleration Provide for relight during flame out

Fuel systems should also continuously monitor system operation such as: Fuel pressure Fuel flow Fuel temperature Warning signals for level Tank quantity

Types of Fuel Systems

Fuel systems can be classified in two
broad categories: Gravity-Feed Systems Pressure-Feed Systems

Gravity-Feed Systems use only the

Gravity-Feed Systems

force of gravity to push fuel to the engine fuel-control mechanism The bottom of the fuel tank must be high enough to provide adequate pressure to the fuel-control component This type of system is often used in high-wing light aircraft

Pressure-Feed Systems
Pressure-Feed Systems require the use of a fuel
pumps to provide fuel-pressure to the engines fuel-control component There are two main reasons these systems are necessary: The fuel tanks are too low to provide enough pressure from gravity The fuel tanks are a great distance from the engine Also, most large aircraft with higher powered engines require a pressure system regardless of the fuel tank location because of the large volume of fuel used by the engines

Fuel System Components

Pumps Tanks Lines Valves Fuel Flow-meters Filters and
Strainers

Quantity

Indicators Warning Components Fuel Drains Heaters

Fuel Pumps Fuel pumps are used to move fuel

through the system then gravity feed is insufficient There are three main functions of fuel pumps, they are to move fuel from: The tanks to the engines One tank to another The engine back to the tanks

Fuel-Pump Requirements Engine fuel systems require main

engine pumps and in some systems boast , override and jettison pumps These requirements depend on the type of engines installed on the aircraft and aircraft size

Reciprocating-Engine FuelPump Requirements

Reciprocating-engines which are not
gravity-fed require: At least one main pump for each engine These pumps must be engine-driven The pump capacity must capable of providing enough fuel flow for all operations

Turbine-Engine Fuel-Pump Requirements

Turbine-Engines require: At least one main pump for

each engine Main pump power supply must be independent of all other main pump power supplies Each positive-displacement main pump must be able to be bypassed

Turbine-engines also require

emergency pumps The emergency pump must be immediately available to supply fuel to the engine in the event of a main pump failure Emergency pump power supplies must be independent of that of the corresponding main pump If both the emergency and main pumps operate continuously, there must be some means of alerting the flight crew of a failure of either pump

Fuel Pump Classification One way to classify fuel pumps is

according to the pumps function These classifications are: Boost Pumps Scavenge Pumps Cross-feed Pumps Jettison pumps

Fuel Pump Classification Another way to classify fuel pumps

is by their method of operation These pumps are: Vane-type Variable-volume Centrifugal Ejector

Vane-Type Pumps Vane-type fuel pumps are the most

common They use a rotor which turns vanes in a cylinder, the vanes act to push the fuel through the system Vane-type pumps can have from two to six vanes and they may be variable volume

Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are used to move
fuel from one tank to another or from the fuel tank to the engine They are electrically driven and some may operate at different speeds

Ejector Pumps
An ejector pump is normally used to
scavenge fuel from remote areas These pumps have no moving parts they rely on return fuel from the engine to pump the fuel Ejector pumps work on the venturi principle

Fuel Lines

Fuel lines on aircraft are either made of rigid metal

tubing or flexible hoses The rigid type are usually made of aluminum alloys The flexible hose fuel lines are either made of synthetic rubber or Teflon Flexible pipes are reinforced with braids and therefore resistant to corrosion and can be used in hot areas. The diameter of tubing used is decided by the engines fuel requirements Pipes are connected with standard connectors with O rings to prevent leakage Pipes passing through passenger cabin have an outer shroud to contain any leakages that may occur.

Valves
Fuel selector valves are used in aircraft
fuel systems to:

Shut off fuel flow Cross-feed Transfer fuel

Selector valves may be operated manually

or electrically depending on the installation

Boost pumps
Deliver fuel to engine from tanks under
controlled pressure Provide pressure during cross feeding, defueling and jettison operations Mounted at lowest point inside the fuel tanks Are electrically driven with control switches in cockpit and sensing light to indicate pump failure Some are housed in wet bays(drain tank before removal) while others are in dry bays. Fuel is the lubricant and coolant Override pumps have a higher output than the normal boost pumps while Auxiliary pumps are for emergency use

 Isolates fuel from a selected system or section of

Fuel shut off Valve

the entire fuel system Either mechanical or electrical operated Manual valves have stops for open or close positions Visual indications on valve body indicate valve position Used in very light aircrafts Have inbuilt thermal relief valves to relieve excess pressures due to thermal expansion when the valve is closed Electrical valves use a motor to open and close the valve Provided with manual override levers incase of power failure

Refuel Valve
Electrically operated Opened by a switch on the refuel panel and
closed by the same switch or power from a float valve Refuel is only possible with the solenoid energized

Float switches
Controls the refuel valve when the tank
is full during fueling operations Most contain two reed switches Fuel level causes the float to move up or down with the attached magnet, this causes magnetic impulses to operate the reed switches which will open or close the refueling valve when the tank is full

Float valves
Normally installed in pressure fuel
systems They allow air to vent to atmosphere during fueling operations and allow air to enter the tank during flight It also prevents fuel flow into the vent system when the tanks are full of fuel Valve operated by a a cork float that is controlled by fuel levels

Filters and Strainers

Fuel is usually strained at three points in the
system Through a finger or bootstrap strainer in the bottom of the fuel tank Through a master strainer which is usually located at the lowest point in the system Through a third strainer near the fuel control unit

Fuel Subsystems
Some aircraft fuel subsystems allow for
fuel: Refueling Defueling Jettison Heating Cross-Feeding

Refueling
Supply of fuel to aircraft Open orifice (Over tank) and pressure
refueling

Open Orifice system

Refuel by first removing filler caps on the
wings or fuselage Slow and therefore used for smaller aircrafts and as a backup incase of pressure fueling failure Caps attached with lanyard to the fuelling points Easy to contaminate fuel with water, debris Creates fuel imbalance in the wings Provision for attaching bonding cable for grounding purposes

Pressure fueling

Fuel supplied under pressure from a

tanker or refueling vehicle from underground tanks Two connectors are provided on large aircrafts Faster operations and less down time Less risks of spillage Quantity selection is easy Reduced fuel contamination Reduced fire risk Normal refuelling pressure is 50 psi

Refueling control panel

Electrical power for valve operation is

provided by aircraft ac supply or battery Control switches for this valves are located on the refueling panel Refueling valves control fuel flow into individual tanks Non return valves & restrictors prevent fuel back flow Refueling is terminated by switching off each refueling valve or automatically by float switches which sent signal s to close the refueling valves

Defueling

Gravity defueling for small aircrafts is

by opening drain valves situated at the lowest points of fuel tanks Pressure defuelling is used on larger aircrafts because of the large amounts of fuel involved Connections are the same as the refueling ones Tanker uses suction to suck fuel out of the aircraft Assistance is provided by use of the aircraft boost pumps

Pumps

Draining Completely removes fuel especially

when servicing is to be done inside the tank Drain ports located at the lowest point are used Also used to take fuel samples for analysis

Venting Balance pressure within fuel system

with ambient during fueling and during engine operations Cater for thermal expansion and contraction of fuel Spill fuel clear of aircraft in case of refueling valve failure protect fuel system from excess internal pressures

The vents (NACA ducts), located near each wing tip, provide a small positive head of pressure on the fuel in all three tanks. This prevents a vacuum forming as fuel is used, assists the fuel pumps and reduces evaporation. NB if you overfill the fuel tanks, then this is where the ensuing fuel spillage will come from

Small aircraft Venting by vent tube connecting tank

to atmosphere Allowing air to exhaust through the refueling port Vent tube allows air to enter and leave the tank to balance atmospheric pressure

 Fuel loaded at fast rate requiring extra means of

Large aircrafts

venting the tanks Internal tubes connected to a single vent port are used Air flow into and out of the tank controlled by float valves Float valves prevent fuel spillage once the tanks are full When tanks are empty the float valves are open allowing air to escape from the tank during refueling The valves close when the tank is full to prevent fuel flow into the vent system pipes In flight when fuel level decreases, the valves open to allow air into the tanks via vent scoops to balance with ambient Vent scoops are cross vented to prevent system in operation due to blockage of on scoop by ice

 Cross feed systems allow the flow of fuel from any of the tanks

Cross feed

system

to any of the engines or tanks Some reasons that this system might be used for are: Transfer fuel due to engine failure Problem with one or more fuel tanks Redistribute fuel for weight and balance purposes Used to transfer fuel from one wing to the other to for balance purposes as a result of either on engine failure or trim purposes Cross feeding is either manual or electrical In manual, selector valves or cocks in the cockpit are opened Electrical system is best since the fuel lines need not pass through the cockpit Cross feed line is usually the same as the engine feed line Cross feed valve is normally closed To transfer fuel, the valve is opened and the tank that receives fuel has its refueling valve opened

The fuel jettison system comprises a

Jettison

combination of fuel lines, valves, and pumps provided to dump fuel overboard during an in-flight emergency This will reduce the weight of the aircraft so an emergency landing is possible Each tank can be emptied separately Uses separate or refueling manifold Contains a selector, valve and nozzle Boost pumps still provide pressure to engine when jettison is selected System Design ensures that enough fuel is retained to run engines after jettison operation, normally 40 minutes of flight for passenger aircrafts

Fuel Heating
Fuel heating is necessary for turbine
engines to thaw ice particles in the fuel that would otherwise clog the filters Fuel is routed through a heat exchanger that uses either engine oil or compressor bleed air to bring the fuel up to an acceptable temperature

ENGINE FEED

APU FEED

Safety Precautions
Use the correct type of fuel specified Always bond the aircraft and tanker to
earth and to each other before refueling Aircraft must be parked within a designated refueling area Turn off non essential power when refueling No smoking, naked lights or running ground power units within refueling area No radio /radar operations during fueling operations Rubber spark proof shoes are to be used

Quantity indication
Sight glass method uses
a prism

to read calibrations Disadvantage is that system is used only on ground and the aircraft must be level for true reading to be determined

Drip stick
Located on the lower surface of wing tanks Used as aback up incase of other system
failure Pulled down and reading compared with a special chart

Mechanical method
Used on small aircrafts Uses a float that is connected by rotary
gearing to a calibrated sight glass

Electrical method
These methods uses tank units, a fuel
quantity unit and processor with gauges gauges calibrated in in kilogram's, pound , gallon s or litres Tank sensors situated in various areas in the tanks measure fuel level. The measurement is based on the dielectric values of the fuel and air within the tank. As fuel level changes, the capacitance also changes and this is transmitted through amplifiers to quantity indicators An average of all units is taken to show the amount of fuel

DU FUEL GAUGE B737-700

Quantity Indicators
Mechanical
Inverted float gauge Rotating dial gauge Upright float gauge Sight-glass gauge

Resistance Capacitance

Fuel System Contamination The higher the viscosity of the fuel, the

greater its ability to hold contaminants in suspension This is why jet fuels, which have a higher viscosity than av-gas, are also more susceptible to contamination than av-gas The main contaminants that reduce the quality of fuel are: Other petroleum products Water Rust Scale Dirt

Fuel can be contaminated can be either

foreign particles or water Foreign particles get into the fuel when refueling or during maintenance Filters are incorporated to remove the articles Water in fuel can be removed by draining as water is heavier than fuel and use of fuel scavenging pumps that feed the engine with fuel from the lowest point of the tanks

Contamination Detection
Coarse fuel contamination can be detected
visually Uncontaminated fuel should be:

Clean Bright Contain no perceptible free water

Clean means the absence of any readily

visible sediment or entrained water Bright refers to the shiny appearance of clean, dry fuel Free water is indicated by a cloud, haze, or water slug Water saturated in fuel is not always visible Perfectly clear water can contain as much as three times the acceptable limit

There is no accurate method of detecting

fuel entrained water when it is frozen For this reason, it is important that fuel is checked when the water is in a liquid state This should not be done following a flight at altitude when the fuel would be below 32 degrees F It is more effective to drain the fuel after the fuel has set undisturbed for a period of time, allowing the water to precipitate and settle to the drain point

Water Contamination
Water contamination in fuel can be in two
forms: Dissolved in the fuel Entrained or suspended in the fuel Water in fuel can cause icing in the aircraft fuel system, usually in: Boost pump screens Low pressure filters HMU Large amounts of water can cause engine stoppage

Microbial Growth -

Jet fuel is sterile when it is first produced because of the high refinery processing temperatures, but it quickly contaminated with microorganisms that are always present in air and water Microorganisms found in fuels include bacteria and fungi The solids formed by biogrowth are very effective at plugging fuel filters and some microorganisms generate acidic by-products that can accelerate metal corrosion. Most microorganisms need free water to grow, biogrowth is usually concentrated at the fuelwater interface, when one exists. Some organisms need air to grow (aerobic organisms), while other grow only in the absence of air (anaerobic organisms)

In addition to food (fuel) and water,

contamination is prevention by keeping the amount of free water in the fuel storage tank as low as possible. When microorganisms reach problem levels, approved biocides may be used under controlled conditions

microorganisms also need certain elemental nutrients. Jet fuel can supply most of these; phosphorus is the only one whose concentration might be low enough to limit biogrowth. Higher ambient temperatures also favor biogrowth. The best approach to microbial

A biocide may not work if a heavy biofilm

has accumulated on the surface of the tank or other equipment, because then it doesn't reach the organisms living deep within the biofilm. In such cases, the tank must be drained and mechanically cleaned. And even if the biocide effectively stops biogrowth, it still may be necessary to remove the accumulated biomass to avoid filter plugging. Since biocides are toxic, any water bottoms that contain biocides must be disposed of appropriately.

SAFETY PROPERTIES

Jet fuel can be hazardous if not handled properly.

First, and foremost, it is easy to ignite and it burns rapidly Second, exposure to jet fuel liquid or vapor should be limited.

 Leaks mostly found on lower wing of fuselage Bag tank leaks must be investigated immediately

Leaks

as a lot of fuel may be in the structure leading to a fire hazard Fuel leaks in integral tanks is not very dangerous as the fuel is dissipated into air in flight Adrox developer or methylated spirit is sprayed in leaking areas to aid in detecting leaks and after one hour the leak can be classified into either Slow seep or stain wets an area of aprox. 2 cm diameter in one hour Seep Covers an area of between 2 cm to 4 cm in diameter heavy seep covers 4cm to 8 cm Running leak fuel drips from the affected area