Aircraft Fuel Systems

AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Aircraft fuel systems vary in complexity from the extremely simple systems found in small, single-engine airplanes to the complex systems in large jet transports. Regardless of the type of aircraft, all fuel systems share many of the same common components. Every system has one or more fuel tanks, tubing to carry the fuel from the tank(s) to the engine(s), valves to control the flow of fuel, provisions for trapping water and contaminants, and a method for indicating the fuel quantity. Although fuel systems in modern aircraft are relatively simple, the safety and reliability of these systems is dependent upon proper inspection and maintenance. All powered aircraft, whether rotary or fixed wing, depend upon a continuous, uninterrupted flow of uncontam-inated fuel under all operating conditions. The weight of the fuel constitutes a large percentage of the aircraft's total weight. This may range from about 10% of the gross weight of small personal airplanes, to more than 40% for jet aircraft used on long overseas flights. The weight of the fuel requires that the structure be strong enough to carry it in all flight conditions. The aircraft designer locates the fuel tanks so that the decreasing weight from fuel consumption will not cause balance problems. To reduce stresses on the airframe and improve structural life, many jet transports have fuel management procedures that specify how the fuel is to be used from the various tanks. For example, a Boeing 747 will first use the fuel in the center wing tank, followed by fuel in the inboard tanks until their quantities are equal to the outboard tanks. Improper management of the fuel system has caused more aircraft accidents than failures of any other single system. Engine failure will occur if all of the fuel in the tanks has been burned, but engines will also stop if an empty tank is selected, even though there is fuel in the other tanks. Contamination in the fuel may clog strainers or filters and shut off the flow of fuel to the engines. Contamination may take many forms, including solid particles, water, ice and bacterial growth. Water that condenses in partially filled tanks will stop the engine when it flows into the metering system. Water in turbine-powered aircraft is a special problem, as the more viscous jet fuel will hold water entrained in such tiny particles that it does not easily settle out. When the fuel temperature drops at high altitude, the water may form ice crystals that can freeze on the fuel filters and shut off the flow of fuel. Many jet engines have fuel heaters to prevent ice formation on the fuel filters and fuel metering system components. The type or grade of aircraft fuel must be carefully matched to the engine. It is the responsibility of the pilot in command to verify before a flight is started that the aircraft is adequately supplied with the proper fuel. The person doing the refueling can assist by being vigilant for problems with fuel quality and type. A significant problem is the introduction of jet fuel, which is designed for turbine engines, into the fuel tanks of turbocharged piston engine aircraft. These engines are designed to operate on high-octane gasoline. At high power settings, jet fuel contamination causes severe detonation, which can lead to catastrophic engine failure, usually on takeoff. The potential for a disastrous accident is obvious.
AVIATION FUELS AND FUEL SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

fuel must vaporize readily in the carburetor to burn evenly in the cylinder. Fuel that is only partially atomized leads to hard starting and rough running. On the other hand, fuel that vaporizes too readily can evaporate in the fuel lines and lead to vapor lock. Furthermore, in an aircraft carburetor, an excessively volatile fuel causes extreme cooling within the carburetor body when the fuel evaporates. This increases the chances for the formation of carburetor ice, which can cause a rough running engine or a complete loss of engine power. Fuel injection systems reduce the problems associated with partial atomization and icing caused by fuel cooling but are also susceptible to vapor lock. Therefore, the ideal aviation fuel has a high volatility that is not excessive to the point of causing vapor lock.
Aviation fuel is a liquid containing chemical energy that, through combustion, is released as heat energy and then converted to mechanical energy by the engine. Gasoline and kerosene are the two most widely used aviation fuels.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AVIATION FUELS

Weight is always a primary consideration in aircraft operation. Every extra pound (kilogram) used in the airframe and powerplant subtracts one pound (kilogram) from the aircraft's useful load. For this reason, aviation fuels must have the highest possible energy, or heat value per pound. Typical 100LL aviation gasoline (avgas) has 18,720 British Thermal Units (BTUs) per pound. Jet A turbine fuel has about 18,401 BTUs per pound. However, Jet A weighs 6.7 pounds per gallon while a gallon of 100LL weighs 6 pounds. In other words, jet fuel is denser than avgas, and as a result, Jet A supplies 123,287 BTUs per gallon whereas 100LL supplies 112,320 BTUs per gallon. The density of jet fuel varies more widely than the density of avgas with variations in temperature. Jet fuel density becomes an important factor when fueling large jet transport aircraft. The dynamics of the internal combustion cycle demand certain properties from gasolines. Aircraft engines compound these demands because they must operate under a wide range of atmospheric conditions. One of the most critical characteristics of aviation gasoline is its volatility, which is a measure of a fuel's ability to change from a liquid into a vapor. Volatility is usually expressed in terms of Reid vapor pressure. Vapor pressure represents the required pressure above the liquid to prevent vapors from escaping at a given temperature. The vapor pressure of 100LL aviation gasoline is approximately seven pounds per square inch at 100 F. Jet A, on the other hand, has a vapor pressure of less than 0.1 psi at 100 F, and Jet B has a vapor pressure of between two and three pounds per square inch at 100 F. Automotive gasoline, by comparison, can produce vapor pressures as high as 14 psi at 100 . A fuel's volatility is critical to its performance in an aircraft engine. For example, in a piston engine, the
RECIPROCATING ENGINE FUEL

Aviation fuels are distilled from crude oil by fractional distillation. Each different product to be extracted from the crude oil has a distinct boiling temperature. Each product is boiled off or separated from the crude oil as it is heated to increasingly higher temperatures. Gasoline boils at a relatively low temperature and is taken off first; then the heavier fractions are boiled off to become turbine engine fuel, diesel fuel, and furnace oil. Aviation gasoline consists almost entirely of hydrogen and carbon compounds. Some impurities in the form of sulfur and dissolved water will be present. This water cannot be avoided since the gasoline is exposed to moisture in the atmosphere. A small amount of sulfur, always present in crude oil, is left in during manufacture. The characteristics and properties of aviation gasoline govern the following: the selection of the proper fuel; the installation of hoses, gaskets, and seals; and the ability to operate the engine reliably, efficiently, and without damage. Though the aviation maintenance technician does not normally choose the system components, the technician will benefit from a thorough understanding of the various factors that go into such selection.
Aircraft Fuel Systems
15-3 CARBURETOR ICING Carburetor icing is also related to volatility. When fuel changes from liquid to vapor, it extracts heat from its surroundings. The more volatile the fuel, the more rapid the heat extraction. As gasoline vaporizes leaving the discharge nozzle of a float-type carburetor, it can freeze the water vapor in the incoming air. This moisture may freeze on the walls of the induction system, the venturi throat, or the throttle valve. This type of ice formation restricts the fuel and air passages of the carburetor. It can cause loss of power, and if not eliminated, eventual engine stoppage. This icing condition is most severe in temperatures ranging from 30 to 40 F (-1 C to +4 C) outside air temperature, but may occur at much higher temperatures. AROMATIC FUELS Some fuels may contain considerable quantities of aromatic hydrocarbons, which are added to increase the rich mixture performance rating of the fuel. Such fuels, known as aromatic fuels, can swell some types of hoses and other rubber parts of the fuel system. For this reason, aromatic-resistant hoses and rubber parts have been developed for use with aromatic fuels. The use of aromatic fuels is associated with the high-horsepower, reciprocating engines used on military and large transport-category aircraft. These aircraft are disappearing from the active fleet, and this type of fuel is no longer available. DETONATION Reciprocating engine aircraft require high-quality aviation gasolines to ensure reliable operation. These fuels are specially formulated to possess certain characteristics that allow them to function reliably in aircraft. To understand the different numbers used to designate fuel grades, the aircraft technician must first be familiar with detonation in reciprocating engines. When a fuel-air charge enters the cylinder of a piston engine, it is ignited by the spark plugs. Ideally, the fuel burns at a rapid but uniform rate. The expanding gases then push the piston downward, turning the crankshaft and creating power. Detonation is the explosive, uncontrolled burning of the fuel-air charge. It occurs when the fuel burns unevenly or explosively because of excessive temperature or pressure in the cylinder. Rather than smoothly pushing the piston down, detonation slams against the cylinder walls and the piston. The pressure wave hits the piston like a hammer, often damaging the piston, connecting rods, and bearings.
VOLATILITY Volatility is a measure of a liquid's tendency to vaporize under given conditions. Gasoline is a complex blend of volatile hydrocarbon compounds that have a wide range of boiling points and vapor pressures. It is blended in such a way that a straight chain of boiling points is obtained. This is necessary to obtain the required starting, acceleration, power, and fuel mixture characteristics for the engine. VAPOR LOCK If the fuel does not vaporize readily enough, it can result in hard starting, slow warm-up, poor acceleration, uneven fuel distribution to the cylinders, and excessive crankcase dilution. If the gasoline vaporizes too readily, fuel lines may become filled with vapor and deliver a reduced supply of gasoline to the engine. In severe cases, this may result in engine stoppage. This phenomenon is referred to as vapor locking. The Reid vapor pressure test gives a measure of a gasoline's tendency to vapor lock. In this test, a sample of the fuel is sealed in a "bomb" equipped with a pressure gauge. The apparatus is then immersed in a constant-temperature bath and the indicated pressure is noted. The higher the corrected vapor pressure of the sample under test, the more susceptible it is to vapor locking. Aviation gasolines are limited to a maximum of 7 psi to minimize the tendency to vapor lock at high altitudes. [Figure 15-1]
Figure 15-1.The Reid vapor pressure tester is used for measuring fuel samples. Vapor pressure is a major factor in the susceptibility of a fuel to vapor lock.
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Figure 15-2.This chart illustrates the pressure created in a cylinder as it passes through its various strokes. As you can see, when normal combustion occurs, cylinder pressure builds and dissipates evenly. However, when detonation occurs, cylinder pressure fluctuates dramatically.
This is often heard as a knock in the engine. Detonation also causes high cylinder head temperatures, and if allowed to continue, can melt engine components. [Figure 15-2] Detonation can happen any time that an engine overheats. It can also occur if an improper fuel grade is used. The potential for engine overheating is greatest under the following conditions: Use of fuel grade lower than recommended Takeoff with an engine that is above or very near the maximum allowable temperature Operation at high rpm and low airspeed Extended operations above 75 percent power with an extremely lean mixture PREIGNITION Combustion is precisely timed in a properly functioning ignition system. In contrast, preignition is when the fuel/air mixture ignites too soon.
Preignition is caused by hot spots in the cylinder. A hot spot may be caused by a small carbon deposit, a cracked ceramic spark plug insulator, or almost any damage within the combustion chamber. When preignition exists, an engine may continue to operate even though the ignition has been turned off. In extreme cases, preignition can cause serious damage to the engine in a short period of time. Preignition and detonation often occur simultaneously, and one may cause the other. Inside the aircraft, it will be difficult to distinguish between the two since both are likely to cause engine roughness and high engine temperatures. OCTANE AND PERFORMANCE NUMBERS Aviation gasoline is formulated to burn smoothly without detonating, or knocking, and fuels are numerically graded according to their ability to resist detonation. The higher the number, the more resistant the fuel is to detonation. The most com-
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mon grading system is octane rating. The octane number assigned to a fuel compares the anti-knock properties of that fuel to a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane. For example, grade 80 fuel has the same anti-knock properties as a mixture of 80 percent iso-octane and 20 percent heptane. 100 Octane fuel has the same anti-knock properties as pure iso-octane gasoline. Engines having high compression ratios and/or high horsepower output require higher-octane fuel. Some fuels have two performance numbers, such as 100/130. The first number is the lean-mixture rating, whereas the second number represents the rich-mixture rating. To avoid confusion and to minimize errors in handling different grades of aviation gasolines, it has become common practice to designate the different grades by the lean mixture performance numbers only. Therefore, aviation gasolines are identified as Avgas 80, 100, and 100LL. Although 100LL performs the same as grade 100 fuel, the "LL" indicates it has a low lead content. Another way petroleum companies help prevent detonation is to mix tetraethyl lead into aviation fuels. However, it has the drawback of forming corrosive compounds in the combustion chamber. For this reason, additional chemicals such as ethylene bromide are added to the fuel. These bromides actively combine with lead oxides produced by the tetraethyl lead allowing the oxides to be discharged from the cylinder during engine operation.
occurs on the inner surfaces of the fuel tanks. Since this occurs on the portion of the tank above the fuel level, it is obvious that servicing an airplane immediately after flight will do much to minimize this hazard.
FUEL IDENTIFICATION
In the past, there were four grades of aviation gasoline, each identified by color. The only reason for mentioning the old ratings is because manuals on older airplanes may still contain references to these colors. The old color identifiers were: 80/87 Red 91/96 Blue 100/130 Green 115/145 Purple The color code for the aviation gasoline currently available is as follows: 80 Red 100 Green 100LL Blue A change in color of an aviation gasoline usually indicates contamination with another product or a loss of fuel quality. A color change can also be caused by a chemical reaction that has weakened the dye component. This color change itself may not affect the quality of the fuel, but if one has occurred, determine the cause before releasing the aircraft for flight. The most positive methods of identifying the type and grade of fuel include the following: 1. Marking of the Hose. A color band not less than one foot wide is painted adjacent to the fitting on each end of the hose used to dispense fuel. The bands completely encircle the hose and the name and grade of the product is stenciled lon gitudinally in one-inch letters over the color band. 2. Fuel trucks and hydrant carts are marked with large fuel identification decals on each side of the tank or body and have a small decal on the dash board. These decals utilize the same color code. The fixed ring around both the dome covers and hydrant box lids are also painted in accordance with the color code. In short, all parts of the fuel ing facility and equipment are identified and keyed into the same marking and color code. The
PURITY
Aviation fuels must be free from impurities that would interfere with the operation of the engine or the components in the fuel and induction system. Even though many precautions are observed in storing and handling gasoline, it is not uncommon to find a small amount of water and sediment in an aircraft fuel system. A small amount of such contamination is usually retained in the strainers of the fuel system. Generally, this is not considered dangerous if the strainers are drained and cleaned at frequent intervals. However, the water can present a serious problem because it settles to the bottom of the fuel tank and can then be circulated through the fuel system. A small quantity of water flowing with the gasoline through the carburetor jets will not be especially harmful. An excessive amount of water will displace the fuel passing through the jets, causing loss of power and possible engine stoppage. Under certain conditions of temperature and humidity, condensation of moisture (from the air)
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delivery pipes of truck fill stands are banded with colors corresponding to those on the dispensing hose. [Figure 15-3] 3. In addition to coloring fuels, a marking and coding system has been adopted to identify the various airport fuel handling facilities and equipment, according to the kind and grade of fuel they contain. For example, all aviation gasolines are identified by name, using white letters on a red background. In contrast, turbine fuels are identified by white letters on a black background.
engines can operate for limited periods on aviation gasoline. However, prolonged use of leaded avgas forms tetraethyl lead deposits on turbine blades and decreases engine efficiency. Turbine engine manufacturers specify the conditions under which gasoline can be used in their engines, and these instructions should be strictly followed. Reciprocating engines will not operate on turbine fuel. Jet fuel should never be put into a piston engine aircraft. VOLATILITY One of the most important characteristics of jet fuel is its volatility. It must, of necessity, be a compromise between several opposing factors. A highly volatile fuel is desirable to aid starting in cold weather and to make aerial restarts easier and surer. Low volatility is desirable to reduce the possibility of vapor lock and to reduce fuel loss to evaporation. At normal temperatures, gasoline in a closed container or tank can give off so much vapor that the
TURBINE ENGINE FUELS

Aircraft gas turbine engines are designed to operate on a distillate fuel, commonly called jet fuel. Jet fuels are also composed of hydrocarbons with a little more carbon and a higher sulfur content than gasoline. Inhibitors may be added to reduce corrosion, oxidation, and the growth of microbes or bacteria. Anti-icing additives are also added. Turbine
Figure 15-3. Labeling and color-coding of fuel carriers, hoses, and equipment helps to prevent filling the aircraft with the wrong fuel.
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fuel/air mixture may be too rich to burn. Under the same conditions, the vapor given off by Jet B fuel can be in the flammable or explosive range. Jet A fuel has such a low volatility that at normal temperatures it gives off very little vapor and does not form flammable or explosive fuel/air mixtures. [Figure 15-4]
depending upon the fuel composition and temperature. This can be likened to humidity in the air. Undissolved, excess water is called "free water." Lowering the fuel temperature causes dissolved water to precipitate out as free water, somewhat similar to the way fog is created. Typically, dissolved water does not pose a problem to aircraft and cannot be removed by practical means. Free water can appear as water slugs or as entrained water. A water slug is a relatively large amount of water appearing in one body or layer. A water slug can be as little as a pint or as much as several hundred gallons. Entrained water is suspended in tiny droplets. Individual droplets may or may not be visible to the naked eye, but they can give the fuel a cloudy or hazy appearance, depending upon their size and number. Entrained water usually results when a water slug and fuel are violently agitated, as when they pass through a pump. Lowering the temperature of a fuel saturated with dissolved water. Because of its high viscosity, entrained water is often visible in turbine fuel as a haze. Entrained water usually settles out with time. Most aircraft engines can tolerate dissolved water. However, large slugs of free water can cause engine failure, and ice from slugs and entrained water can severely restrict fuel flow by plugging aircraft fuel filters and other mechanisms. Jet engine fuel control mechanisms contain many small parts that are susceptible even to small accumulations of ice. Fuel heaters protect fuel systems that are subject to ice crystals. These devices can satisfactorily deal with dissolved and even entrained water; however, there is little margin for handling large amounts of free water. Some fuel filters are equipped with a differential pressure sensor across the filter element. This sensor will illuminate a warning light on the instrument panel if the filter ices up and the pressure drop across the element rises to the preset value. To further minimize the ice problem, most jet fuel is treated with an anti-icing additive that mixes with the water in the fuel and lowers its freezing point so it will remain in its liquid state. One commonly used anti-icing additive is Prist, manufactured by PPG Industries. Prist is added to jet fuel during refueling. It has limited solubility in jet fuel but is completely soluble in water. When dissolved in water, Prist lowers the water's freezing point. The water/Prist mixture then stays in a liquid state and passes through fuel lines and filters. High-flying jet aircraft are often equipped with a
Figure 15-4. The vaporization of avgas and jet fuels varies as the temperature changes. This chart shows that at normal temperatures, avgas is too rich to burn, Jet A is too lean to burn, and Jet B is very flammable, at least in the low-normal temperature range.
FUEL TYPES Because jet fuels are not dyed, there is no color identification for them. They range from colorless to straw-colored (amber), depending on age or the crude petroleum source. There are currently two types of turbine fuel in use: JET A and JET A-l, which are kerosene types, and JET B, which is a blend of gasoline and kerosene fractions. Jet A-l specifies a freeze point of -52.6 F (-47 C). Jet A specifies a freeze point of -40 F (-40 C). JP-4, similar to Jet B, is normally used by the military, particularly the Air Force. This fuel has an allowable freeze point of -50 C (-58 F). Jet fuel designations, unlike those for avgas, are merely numbers that label a particular fuel and do not describe any performance characteristics. PROBLEMS WITH WATER IN TURBINE FUEL Water has always been one of the major contamination problems with aviation fuel. It condenses out of the air in storage tanks, fuel trucks, and even in aircraft fuel tanks. Water exists in aviation fuels in one of two forms, dissolved and free. Water dissolves in aviation fuels in varying amounts
15-8 temperature sensor in one of the outboard fuel tanks. The Aircraft Flight Manual may contain a restriction for maintaining the fuel temperature at a specified value above the fuel freezing point. If the fuel temperature becomes too cold, the aircraft may have to descend to warmer air to avoid problems with ice formation in the fuel. Water can enter an airport fuel system through leaks in the seals of equipment, or brought in when fuel is delivered. The best means of minimizing the amount of water entering a system is through inspection and maintenance of equipment, and by making certain that only dry fuel is received. Water can be detected in many ways. To find free water lying in the bottom of underground storage tanks, apply a water-finding paste to the end of a gauge stick and place it in the tank. Allow at least 30 seconds for the paste to react since other contaminants can slow its reaction time. For above ground tanks and equipment, draw a sample into a glass container and simply look for free water. A small amount of liquid vegetable dye (cake coloring) is helpful to highlight free water in a sample. It mixes with and colors the water but is insoluble in fuel. Water is removed from fuel by providing adequate filtration or separation equipment will remove water from the fuel. The other problem with water in turbine engine fuel is that it may serve as a home for microscopic-sized animal and plant life. Microbial growth, or contamination with bacteria, or "bugs," has become a critical problem in some turbine fuel systems and some aircraft. Because microbes thrive in water, a simple and effective method to prevent or retard their growth is to eliminate the water. Sometimes microbial growth occurs despite efforts to eliminate water from the fuel tanks. Microbiocides are introduced into fuel storage tanks to combat microbial growth. It should be introduced into the fuel when the tank is about half filled to ensure faster and more complete dispersion. Normally the micro-biocide is introduced initially at a high concentration to kill the growth. Once the initial treatment is completed, the concentration is cut in half for long-term maintenance of fungus-free fuel. FUEL CONTAMINATION Contaminants can include either soluble or insoluble materials or both. The more common forms of aviation fuel contamination include solids, water, surfactants, and microorganisms. Fuel can be contaminated by mixing with other grades or types of fuels, by picking up compounds from concentrations in rust and sludge deposits, by additives, or by
any of a number of other soluble materials. The greatest single danger to aircraft safety from contaminated fuels cannot be attributed to solids, exotic microorganisms, surfactants, or even water. It is contamination resulting from human error. Any human error that fills an aircraft with the wrong grade or type of fuel or mixes different types of fuel is cause for serious concern. An accident may be the end result. The possibility of human error can never be eliminated, but it can be minimized through careful design of fueling facilities, good operating procedures, and adequate training.
BASIC FUEL SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

Requirements for fuel system design are specified in detail in the parts of the Federal Aviation Regulations under which the aircraft was built. The vast majority of airplanes in the general aviation fleet are built under FAR Part 23, [Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility, and Acrobatic Category Airplanes). Awareness of the basic fuel system requirements for these airplanes will help the aircraft maintenance technician better understand the function of an aircraft fuel system. 1. No pump can draw fuel from more than one tank at a time, and provisions must be made to prevent air from being drawn into the fuel sup ply line. (23.951) 2. Turbine-powered aircraft must be capable of sustained operation when there is at least 0.75 cc of free water per gallon of fuel, and the fuel is cooled to its most critical condition for icing. The system must incorporate provisions to pre vent the water that precipitates out of the fuel from freezing on the filters and stopping fuel flow to the engine. (23.951) 3. Each fuel system of a multi-engine aircraft must be arranged in such a way that the failure of any one component (except the fuel tank) will not cause more than one engine to lose power. (23.953) 4. If multi-engine aircraft feed more than one engine from a single tank or assembly of inter connected tanks, each engine must have an independent tank outlet with a fuel shutoff valve at the tank. (23.953) 5. Tanks used in multi-engine fuel systems must have two vents arranged so that they are not likely to both become plugged at the same time. (23.953)
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6.
All filler caps must be designed so that they are not likely to be installed incorrectly or be lost in-flight. (23.953) The fuel systems must be designed to prevent the ignition of fuel vapors by lightning. (23.954) A gravity feed system must be able to flow 150% of the takeoff fuel flow when the tank contains the minimum fuel allowable, and when the airplane is positioned in the attitude that is most critical for fuel flow. (23.955) A pump-feed fuel system must be able to flow 125% of the takeoff fuel flow required for a rec iprocating engine. (23.955)
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18. Each fuel tank must have a 2% expansion space that cannot be filled with fuel, and it must also have a drainable sump where water and conta minants will normally accumulate when the aircraft is in its normal ground attitude. (23.969 and 23.971) 19. Provisions must be made to prevent fuel spilled during filling of the tank from entering the air craft structure. (23.973) 20. The filler opening of an aircraft fuel tank must be marked with the word "AVGAS" and the minimum grade of fuel for aircraft with recipro cating engines. For turbine-powered aircraft, the tank must be marked with the word "JET FUEL" and the permissible fuel designation. If the filler opening is for pressure fueling, the maximum permissible fueling and defueling pressure must be specified. (23.1557) 21. If more than one fuel tank has interconnected outlets, the airspace above the fuel must also be interconnected. (23.975) 22. If the carburetor or fuel injection system has a vapor elimination system that returns fuel to one of the tanks, the returned fuel must go to the tank that is required to be used first. (23.975) 23. All fuel tanks are required to have a strainer at the fuel tank outlet or at the booster pump. For a reciprocating engine, the strainer should have an 8- to 16-mesh element, and for turbine engines, the strainer should prevent the pas sage of any object that could restrict the flow or damage any of the fuel system components. (23.977) 24. For engines requiring fuel pumps, there must be one engine driven fuel pump for each engine. (23.991) 25. There must be at least one drain that will allow safe drainage of the entire fuel system when the airplane is in its normal ground attitude. (23.999) 26. If the design landing weight of the aircraft is less than that permitted for takeoff, there must be provisions in the fuel system for jettisoning fuel to bring the maximum weight down to the design landing weight. (23.1001) 27. The fuel-jettisoning valve must be designed to allow personnel to close the valve during any part of the jettisoning operation. (23.1001)
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10. If the aircraft is equipped with a selector valve that allo ws the engine to operate from more than one fuel tank, the system must not cause a loss of power for more than ten seconds for a single-engine or twenty seconds for a multi engine airplane when switching from a dry tank. (23.955) 11. Turbine-powered aircraft must have a fuel sys tem that will supply 100% of the fuel required for its operation in all flight attitudes, and the flow must not be interrupted, as the fuel system automatically cycles through all of the tanks or fuel cells in the system. (23.955) 12. If a gravity-feed system has interconnected tank outlets, it should not be possible for fuel feeding from one tank to flow into another tank and cause it to overflow. (23.957) 13. The amount of unusable fuel in an aircraft must be determined and this must be made known to the pilot. Unusable fuel is the amount of fuel in a tank when the first evidence of malfunction occurs. The aircraft must be in the attitude that is most adverse for fuel flow. (23.959) 14. The fuel system must be so designed that it is free from vapor lock when the fuel is at a tem perature of 110 F under the most critical oper ating conditions. (23.961) 15. Each fuel tank compartment must be adequately vented and drained so no explosive vapors or liquid can accumulate. (23.967) 16. No fuel tank can be on the engine side of the firewall, and it must be at least one -half inch away from the firewall. (23.967) 17. No fuel tank can be installed inside a personnel compartment of a multi-engine aircraft. (23.967)
FUEL SYSTEM OPERATION

buretor or fuel injection system is used, and whether the aircraft is a high-wing or low-wing design. GRAVITY-FEED SYSTEMS The most simple aircraft fuel system is found on small, high-wing single-engine training-type airplanes. These systems normally use two fuel tanks, one in either wing. The two tank outlets are connected to the selector valve. Fuel can be drawn from either tank individually, or both tanks can feed the engine at the same time. A fourth position on the selector valve turns off all fuel to the engine. Since both tanks can feed the engine at the same time, the space above the fuel in both tanks must be interconnected and vented outside of the airplane. The vent line normally terminates on the underside of the wing where the possibility of fuel siphoning is minimized. [Figure 15-5]
The aircraft fuel system stores fuel and delivers the proper amount of clean fuel at the right pressure to meet the demands of the engine. The fuel system must be designed to provide positive and reliable fuel flow through all phases of flight. This must include changes in altitude, violent maneuvers, and sudden acceleration and deceleration. Furthermore, the system must be reasonably free from any tendency to vapor lock. Indicators such as tank quantity gauges, fuel pressure gauges, and warning signals provide continuous monitoring of how the system is functioning.
SMALL SINGLE-ENGINE AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

Single-engine aircraft may utilize any of several types of fuel systems, depending upon whether a car-
Figure 15-5. A typical small, single-engine high-wing airplane uses a gravity-feed fuel system to deliver fuel to the engine.
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After the fuel leaves the selector valve, it passes through the main strainer and on to the carburetor inlet. Fuel for the primer is taken from the main strainer. PUMP-FEED SYSTEMS Low-wing airplanes cannot use gravity to feed fuel to the carburetor. An engine-driven and/or electric pump must be used to provide adequate fuel pressure. The selector valve in these systems can normally select either tank individually, or shut off all flow to the engine. The selector valve does NOT have a "Both" position, because the pump would pull air from an empty tank rather than fuel from a full tank. After leaving the fuel selector valve, the fuel flows through the main strainer and into the electric fuel pump. The engine-driven pump is in parallel with the electric pump, so the fuel can be moved by either. There is no need for a bypass feature to allow one pump to force fuel through the other. To assure that both pumps are functioning, note the fuel pressure produced by the electric pump before starting the engine, and then, with the
engine running, turn the electric pump off and note the pressure that is produced by the engine-driven pump. [Figure 15-6] The electric pump is used to supply fuel pressure for starting the engine and as a backup in case the engine-driven pump should fail. It also assures fuel flow when switching from one tank to the other. HIGH-WING AIRPLANE USING A FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM The Teledyne-Continental system returns part of the fuel from the engine-driven fuel pump back to the fuel tank. This fuel contains any vapors that could block the system, and by purging all of these vapors from the pump and returning them to the tank, they cannot cause any problems in the engine. Fuel flows by gravity from the wing tanks through two feed lines, one each at the front and rear of the inboard end of each tank, into two small accumulator (reservoir) tanks, and from the bottom of these tanks to the selector valve. [Figure 15-7]
Figure 15-6. A typical small, single-engine, low-wing airplane uses a pump-feed fuel system to deliver fuel to the engine.
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Figure 15-7. A Teledyne-Continental fuel injection system used on some high-performance single-engine airplanes. This system uses a combination of gravity feed, an electric vane-type pump, and an engine-driven fuel pump to deliver fuel to the engine. Excess fuel is returned to the selector valve in this system.
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The selector valve directs fuel from the desired accumulator tank to the engine, and at the same time directs the fuel vapor from the engine-driven pump back to the selected reservoir tank. This vapor then returns to the wing tank that supplies the reservoir tank. The electric auxiliary fuel pump picks up the fuel at the discharge of the selector valve and forces it through the strainer to the inlet of the engine-driven fuel pump. From the engine-driven fuel pump, the fuel flows to the fuel-air control unit where the fuel that is needed for engine operation goes to the cylinders, and all of the excess fuel returns to the inlet side of the pump. Some of this fuel has vapor in it and is returned to the selector valve through the fuel-return check valve.
just discussed. This system is used on both single and multi-engine aircraft. When used on a multi-engine aircraft, each wing has two fuel tanks connected together, which serve as a single tank, and the selector valves allow any engine to operate from the tanks in either wing. The term "cross-feed" indicates that an engine is drawing fuel from the opposite wing. Fuel flows from the selector valve to the fuel filter, then to the electric fuel pump, on to the engine-driven pump, into the fuel injection system, and to the cylinders. [Figure 15-8] Instrumentation for this system consists of fuel quantity, fuel pressure, and fuel flow gauges. The fuel quantity gauges show the total amount of fuel in the two tanks in each wing. The fuel pressure gauges show the pressure produced by each fuel pump. This pressure is measured at the inlet of the fuel metering unit. The fuel flow indicator is a differential pressure gauge that reads the pressure drop across the fuel injector nozzles and is calibrated in either gallons per hour or in pounds per hour of fuel burned.
SMALL MULTI-ENGINE AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

The RSA fuel injection system does not return fuel to the tank like the Teledyne-Continental system
Figure 15-8. A typical airplane using an RSA fuel injection system uses electric fuel pumps to deliver fuel to the engine(s). This system does not return fuel to the tanks as in the Teledyne-Continental fuel injection system.
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LARGE RECIPROCATING-ENGINE AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

Transport-category aircraft powered by reciprocating engines are rapidly disappearing from the active fleet. One exception seems to be the venerable Douglas DC-3. This aircraft has seen a working life of more than 60 years and is still being used for passenger and cargo applications. The fuel system installed on the DC-3 is typical for aircraft using large radial-type engines. [Figure 15-9] Two main tanks and two auxiliary tanks mounted in the center wing section of the airplane supply the fuel. The capacity of each main tank is 202 gallons, and the auxiliary tanks hold 200 gallons each. Provisions are made for the installation of 2 to 8 long-range tanks, each holding 100 gallons. This makes it possible to carry a fuel load as large as 1604 gallons in 12 tanks. Fuel quantity is measured by a liquidometer system, which consists of a float assembly and a liquidometer unit in each tank. These are connected electrically to the fuel gauge on the right instrument panel in the pilots' compartment. There are two tank selector valves, operated by dial and handle controls in the pilots' compartment. Ordinarily the left-hand engine draws fuel from the left tanks, and the right engine draws fuel from the right tanks, but by using the selector valves, any tank may supply fuel to either engine. Two hand-operated wobble pumps are used to raise the fuel pressure when starting the engines, or before the engine-driven pumps are in operation. Fuel flows from the wobble pumps through lines to the strainers located in each nacelle, through the engine-driven pumps, and from there, under pressure, into the carburetors. A cross-feed line is connected on the pressure side of each engine-driven pump, and the two cross-feed valves in this line are operated by a single control in the pilots' compartment. The cross-feed system enables both engines to receive fuel from one engine-driven pump in case either pump fails. On later model airplanes, two electric booster pumps replace the wobble pumps. A fuel strainer is in the center wing near each selector valve. The fuel, therefore, flows from the selector valves, through the strainers, through the booster pumps, through the engine-driven fuel pumps into the carburetor. There is no crossfeed system on airplanes equipped with electric booster pumps. The booster pumps will furnish ample pressure and supply for operation of the airplane in case either engine-driven pump fails.
A vapor overflow line connects from the top chamber of the carburetor to the main tanks, and a fuel line from the back of each carburetor operates the fuel pressure gauge in the pilots' compartment. This pressure gauge normally shows from 14 to 16 pounds of pressure. On some airplanes, a pressure-warning switch is installed in the fuel pressure gauge line. When the fuel pressure drops below 12 pounds, the switch illuminates a warning light on the instrument panel. A restricted fitting on the fuel-pressure gauge line connects to the oil-dilution solenoid. This unit releases fuel into the engine oil system and the propeller feathering oil to aid in cold weather starting. Another solenoid valve in the fuel-pressure gauge line releases fuel into the eight upper cylinders of the engines for priming. Vent lines from each tank vent overboard, and a vapor line connects each main tank with its corresponding auxiliary tank.
JET TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

A large jet transport aircraft such as the Boeing 727 has a relatively simple fuel system that supplies its three engines from three fuel tanks. Tanks No. 1 and No. 3 are integral tanks, that is, part of the wing is sealed off and fuel is carried in the wing structure itself. Each of these tanks holds about 12,000 pounds of fuel. A fuselage tank, consisting of either two or three bladder-type fuel cells, holds another 24,000 pounds of fuel. [Figure 15-10] Each of the wing tanks has two 115-volt AC electric boost pumps, and the fuselage tank has four of such pumps. Each of the three engines may be fed directly from one of the three fuel tanks, or all of the tanks and engines may be opened from the cross-feed manifold. Perform pressure fueling by connecting the fuel supply to a single-point-fueling receptacle located under the leading edge of the right wing. Fuel flows from this receptacle, through the fueling and dump manifold, and into all three tanks through the appropriate fueling valves. When the tanks are completely filled, pressure shutoff valves sense the amount of fuel and shut off the fueling valve, which prevents the tank from being overfilled or damaged. If a partial fuel load is required, the person fueling the aircraft can monitor a set of fuel quantity gauges at the fueling
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Figure 15-9. Older aircraft, such as the DC-3 shown here, had a complex, manual-fuel-management system.
station and shut off the fuel flow to any tank when the desired level is reached. Defuel the airplane tanks by connecting the fuel receiving truck to the manual defueling valve,
close the engine shutoff valves, and open the cross-feed valve from the tank to be emptied. Either pump out the fuel from the tank with the boost pumps, or pull it from the tank by suction from the receiving truck. If it is pulled out by
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suction, it leaves the tank through the boost pump bypass valve. Fuel may be dumped in-flight by opening the specific fuel dump valve and then opening the fuel dump nozzle valve in the wing tip through which the fuel is to leave the airplane. Fuel can be dumped from individual wing tips or from both tips at the same time. Inflight fuel jettison systems are divided into two separate systems, one for each wing. Dumping fuel from individual wings allows the pilot to control fuel balance. Fuel is dumped from locations that allow it to remain clear of any part of the aircraft. There is a fuel dump limit valve in each of the three systems that will shut off the flow if the pressure
drops below what is needed to supply the engine with adequate fuel. It will also shut off the dump valve when the level in the tank gets down to the preset dump shutoff level. This system is capable of dumping about 2,300 pounds of fuel per minute when all of the dump valves are open and all of the boost pumps are operating.
HELICOPTER FUEL SYSTEMS

A typical light turbine-powered helicopter system incorporates a single, bladder-type fuel cell, located below and aft of the rear passenger seat. Installed in the fuel cell are two submersible, centrifugal-type boost pumps, upper and lower fuel-quantity indicating probes, and a solenoid-operated sump drain. [Figure 15-11]
Figure 15-11. The fuel system for a light turbine-powered helicopter is simple since it has only one fuel tank that is usually located on the center of gravity of the helicopter.
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The boost pumps are connected so that their outlet ports join to form a single line to the engine. Either pump is capable of supplying sufficient fuel to operate the engine. Check valves are installed at the outlet of each pump, and a pressure switch located in the outlet port of each pump will illuminate the FUEL BOOST CAUTION LIGHT in case of a pump failure. An electrically operated shut-off valve is installed in the fuel line running from the tank to the engine. A fuel selector valve is not necessary because only one tank is used in this system. Fuel is filtered twice before entering the engine, and each filter is equipped with a warning light to indicate clogging. Additional provisions are made in the system for a fuel pressure gauge, vent system, and a fuel quantity indication.
valves are designed and installed to afford safe, rapid discharge of fuel.
WELDED OR RIVETED FUEL TANKS
Most older aircraft use welded or riveted gasoline tanks to hold their fuel, but because of the limitations of weight and space, these tanks have been replaced almost totally by either integral or bladder-type tanks. The smaller fuel tanks are made of thin sheet steel coated with an alloy of lead and tin. This material is called terneplate. Terneplate sheets are formed into the shapes needed to construct the tank, and all of the seams are folded in the best tradition of commercial sheet metal practice. Solder is sweated into the seams. This provides a good leak-proof joint, and the tanks are relatively low cost. The weight of a terneplate tank is more than that of an aluminum alloy tank, but for the type of airplane in which it is installed, the low cost advantage overcomes its weight disadvantage. Most terneplate tanks are of such small capacity that they seldom require baffles. The larger fuel tanks of older aircraft are generally made of either 3003 or 5052 aluminum alloy. Both of these metals are relatively lightweight and easily welded. The parts of the tank are stamped out of sheet metal and formed to the required shape, and the tank is often riveted together with soft aluminum rivets to hold its parts in position. All of the seams are torch-welded to provide a fuel-tight seal. Many tanks are large enough to require baffles to prevent the fuel from sloshing around in flight and either damaging the tank or causing balance problems. All rigid fuel tanks must be supported in the aircraft structure with hold-down straps that will prevent the tank from shifting during any maneuver. All of the tank mounts must be padded with some type of material, usually felt, to prevent the tank from chafing against the structure. Some modern small airplanes use fuel tanks that actually form part of the leading edge of the wing. Sealant is usually applied before these tanks are assembled. Others are welded together by electric resistance welding. Either of these tanks sometimes leak, and the manufacturer has approved a sloshing procedure to seal them. A sloshing compound is a liquid sealant that is poured into the tank, which flows over the entire inside surface and into the seams and crevices. The bulk of the compound is then poured out, and the sealant that remains inside the tank is allowed to cure. [Figure 15-12]
AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The basic components of a fuel system include tanks, lines, valves, pumps, filtering units, gauges, warning systems, and for piston-engine aircraft, a primer. Some systems will include central refueling provisions, fuel dump valves, and a means for transferring fuel. In order to clarify the operating principles of complex aircraft fuel systems, the various units are discussed in the following paragraphs. TANKS The location, size, shape, and construction of fuel tanks vary with the type and intended use of the aircraft. Fuel tanks are manufactured from materials that will not react chemically with any aviation fuel and have a number of common features. Usually a sump and drain are provided at the lowest point in the tank, and the top of each tank is vented to the atmosphere. All except the smallest of tanks are fitted with baffles to resist fuel surging caused by changes in the attitude of the aircraft. Many fuel tanks incorporate flapper valves to prevent fuel from flowing away from the boost pump or tank outlet when the aircraft is in a high "G" maneuver. In this capacity, the flapper valves serve as check valves. An expansion space is provided in fuel tanks to allow for an increase in fuel volume due to increases in its temperature. Some fuel tanks are equipped with dump valves that make it possible to jettison fuel during flight in order to reduce the weight of the aircraft to its specified landing weight. In aircraft equipped with dump valves, the operating control is located within reach of the pilot, copilot, or flight engineer. Dump

INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS
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Figure 15-12. In this built-up fuel tank that forms the leading edge of a wing, sealant is placed in all of the seams before the tank is assembled.
Rigid tanks require a large open space in the aircraft structure for their installation, and very few aircraft have this amount of space that is not crossed with structural members. However, most wings have large empty spaces, and with the availability of new, space-age sealants, it has become standard practice for many aircraft manufacturers to seal off a portion of the wing to form a fuel tank. This type of tank has the advantage of using a maximum amount of space for the fuel and having a minimum amount of weight. A typical light-aircraft integral fuel tank occupies the leading edge portion of the wing from the front spar forward, and it is sealed at both ends and all along the spar with a two-part sealant. All of the rivets and nutplates are sealed, as well as around all of the inspection openings. The sealant is spread along each seam individually rather than sloshing the entire tank. [Figure 15-13]
Figure 15-13. This drawing of an integral fuel tank illustrates a tank that makes up the bulk of the leading edge structure of a wing. All seams are sealed during assembly.
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Some airplanes have the leading edge of the wing made of formed honeycomb, with facings of sheet aluminum or fiberglass on both the inside and outside. This makes an excellent fuel tank with minimal sealing. [Figure 15-14]
lace it to the structure. Secure an opening in the bladder to the inspection opening and cover it with an inspection plate. There are a few considerations that must be observed with aircraft bladder tanks. On each inspection, be sure that the bladder has not pulled away from any of its attachment points. If it has pulled away, the amount of fuel the tank can hold will be decreased and the fuel quantity gauge will be inaccurate. Inspect bladder tanks for wrinkles that can trap water and prevent it from reaching the sump for removal. Also, never allow these tanks to stand empty for any extended period. If it is ever necessary to leave the tank empty for an extended period, wipe the inside of the bladder carefully with an oily rag, leaving a film of engine oil on its inside surface.
FUEL TANK FILLER CAPS
Figure 15-14. Leading edges constructed of aluminum honeycomb can be easily sealed to form a fuel tank. BLADDER TANKS
The bladder tank is an excellent substitute for a welded fuel tank. Bladder tanks have been successfully used for both small and large aircraft. Prepare the fuel bay by covering all sharp edges of the metal structure with a chafe-resisting tape and install a bladder made of thin fabric, which is impregnated with neoprene or some similar material that is impervious to fuel. [Figure 15-15]
The filler cap on a fuel tank is perhaps one of the least noticed, but most important components on an aircraft. Take care when installing a fuel tank cap, and carefully examine it on each routine maintenance inspection. Almost all fuel tank caps are located on the upper surface of the wing, and it is possible for fuel to be siphoned from the tank if the cap is leaking or improperly installed. Some fuel tank caps are vented, and it is important that the vent hole be clear. Some caps have a gooseneck tube on the vent that sticks up above the tank cap, and it is extremely important that these tubes point forward to provide a slight positive pressure inside the tank while in flight. There are numerous types of fuel tank caps used on modern aircraft, and only the tank cap approved for that particular aircraft should be used. The cap is actually part of the fuel tank filler adapter assembly, and the replacement of one type of adapter with another usually constitutes a major alteration, requiring approval of the aircraft manufacturer and/or the FAA. Complete the appropriate paperwork after making the alteration. [Figure 15-16] Locking fuel tank caps are popular on aircraft since vandalism has become so rampant. Foreign material put into a fuel tank can cause an expensive servicing problem, easily prevented with locking fuel tank caps. Lightning-safe fuel tank caps are often installed on aircraft that fly in all types of weather. These caps have no metal exposed on the inside of the tank and
Figure 15-15. Bladder tanks are made of neoprene impregnated cloth that is snapped or laced into the fuel cell cavity in the wing of the airplane.
Put the bladder into the cavity prepared for it by folding and inserting it through an inspection opening. Snap or clip it in place, or in some instances,
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synthetic rubber or Teflon. The engine's fuel flow requirements govern the diameter of the tubing. Most of the rigid fuel lines used in an aircraft are made of 5052 aluminum alloy, but in some aircraft, the lines that pass through the wheel wells and some of the lines in the engine compartments are made of stainless steel as insurance against damage from either abrasion or heat. The fittings used on the lines may be of either the AN or MS flare type or a flareless type, depending upon the system installed by the manufacturer. Replacement of a fuel line is normally done by installing a new line furnished by the aircraft manufacturer. If it is ever necessary to fabricate a line in the shop, use only the correct material for the line, and do not use substitute fittings without specific approval of either the manufacturer or the FAA. Both the flare-type and the flareless fittings provide a good leak-proof connection if they are properly installed, and they will not usually develop a leak unless subjected to abuse or mistreatment. If a leaky fitting is found, remove the pressure from the system and re-tighten the fitting to proper torque specifications. If it is sufficiently tight, check the sealing surface for any indication of damage. If there are scratches or damage, replace the fitting. Make no attempt to stop a leak by overtightening a fitting. This is especially true of the flareless fittings, as they are highly susceptible to damage caused by excess torque. Tighten a flareless fitting finger-tight and then turn the fitting with a wrench only one-sixth to, at the most, one-third of a turn. When installing flexible hoses in a fuel system, be sure that they do not twist when tightening the fitting. The lay line (often a line of printing) that runs the length of the hose should be straight and show no indication of spiraling. [Figure 15-17]
Figure 15-16. A typical fuel filler cap is part of a unit. If any part is damaged or lost, replace it with the proper part for that assembly.
will not conduct the lightning charge to the fuel. Even the lanyard that prevents the tank cap from being misplaced is made of a strong, nonconductive plastic material. Non-siphoning fuel tank cap adapters have a small spring-loaded flapper inside the adapter that is pushed open by the fuel nozzle. The flapper closes when the nozzle is withdrawn from the tank. No fuel can siphon out of the tank even if the cap is left off the adapter. FUEL LINES AND FITTINGS The plumbing in aircraft fuel systems must be constructed of the highest quality material, and all of the workmanship must conform to approved aircraft practices. The metal tubing is usually made of aluminum alloy, and the flexible hose is made of
MIL-H8794:SIZE-6-2/68-MFG SYMBOL
Figure 15-17. The lay line printed along a flexible hose provides a means of identifying the hose material and shows whether it has been twisted during installation.
Many of the fuel lines in an engine compartment are encased in a fire sleeve. If the aircraft requires this protection, install the proper type of fire sleeve in the manner specified by the aircraft manufacturer.
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Route the fuel lines in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. In case of an alteration requiring new or re-routed fuel lines, there are certain basic requirements for routing fuel lines in an aircraft: 1. If it is impossible to physically separate fuel lines from electrical wire bundles, locate the fuel lines below the wiring and clamp the wire bundle securely to the airframe structure. It is never per missible to clamp a wire bundle to a fuel line. 2. Support all fuel lines so there will be no strain on the fittings, and never pull a line into place by the fitting. 3. There must always be at least one bend in rigid tubing between fittings. This allows for slight misalignment of the ends, for vibration, and for expansion/contraction caused by temperature changes. 4. Electrically bond all metal fuel lines at each point that they are attached to the structure. Do
this by using bonded cushion clamps to hold the tubing. [Figure 15-18]
Figure 15-18. Support the fuel lines in an aircraft with bonded-type cushion clamps. Protect the edges of any hole that the tube passes through with a rubber or nylon grommet.
5. Protect all fuel lines from being used as a hand hold. 6. To protect fuel lines from being stepped on or damaged by baggage or cargo, route them along the sides or top of compartments where this type of damage could occur. FUEL VALVES Selector valves are installed in the fuel system to provide a means for shutting off the fuel flow, for tank and engine selection, for crossfeed, and for fuel transfer. The size and number of ports (openings) vary with the installation. Valves may be hand-operated, motor-operated, or solenoid-operated. Valves must accommodate the full flow capacity of the fuel line, must not leak, and must operate freely. A manually operated valve must have a definite "feel" or "click" when it is in the correct position.
HAND OPERATED VALVES
Hand operated valves may be found on small and medium-sized aircraft, and will likely be either cone-type or poppet-type selector valves. All fuel systems provide for shutting off the flow of fuel from the tanks to the engine, and most of the smaller aircraft use hand operated valves. The simplest valve is the cone-type, in which a cone, usually made of brass, fits into a conical recess in the valve body. The cone is drilled so it will allow flow from the inlet of the valve to any one of the outlets that is selected. A detent plate is installed on the shaft that is used to turn the cone, and a spring-loaded pin slips into the detent when the hole in the cone is accurately aligned with the holes in the valve body. This allows the pilot to tell by feel when the valve is in any given position. [Figure 15-19]
Figure 15-19. A cone-type fuel selector valve is used on some aircraft.
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One problem with cone-type valves is that they can become difficult to turn. This can prevent the detent from providing a positive feel when the valve is properly centered in a selected position. In several instances, this condition has led to engine damage by preventing adequate fuel flow. The poppet-type valve overcomes this problem by using a camshaft, operated by the selector valve handle, to open the correct poppets and control the flow of fuel through the valve. The positive shutoff of fuel is provided by the spring on the valve, and it is easy for the pilot to tell by feel when the valve is centered in a selected position. [Figure 15-20]
MOTOR-OPERATED VALVES
Larger aircraft must use remotely operated valves in the fuel system. There are two basic types of remotely operated valves in popular use today: those driven by an electric motor, and those operated by a solenoid. There are two types of motor-operated valves. In one of them, the motor drives a drum that has holes cut in it. This is so fuel can flow through the drum when it is in one position, and is shut off when it is rotated ninety degrees.
Figure 15-20. Poppet-type valves use a cam to open the poppet valves. This type of valve is much less likely to become difficult to turn than the cone-type valve.
The other valve uses a motor-driven sliding gate. The gate is drawn to let fuel through and shut to stop it. [Figure 15-21]
Figure 15-21. One type of remotely operated valve used in large aircraft is the motor-driven, gate-type fuel-shutoff valve.
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SOLENOID-OPERATED VALVES
A solenoid valve has the advantage over a motor-driven valve of being much quicker to open or close. When electrical current momentarily flows through the opening solenoid coil, it exerts a magnetic pull on the valve stem to open the valve. When the stem rises high enough, the spring-loaded locking plunger of the closing solenoid is forced into the notch in the valve stem. This holds the valve locked open until current is momentarily directed into the closing solenoid coil. The magnetic pull of this coil pulls the locking plunger out of the notch in the valve stem, and the spring closes the valve and shuts off the flow of fuel. [Figure 15-22]
Figure 15-23. Larger aircraft that have the capability of transferring fuel from one part of the system to another are often equipped with a manual fuel-transfer pump called a "wobble pump."
through the flapper-type check valve and the drilled passage between the chambers. Fuel in chamber B is forced into chamber C through the passage drilled through the center of the vane, and out the pump discharge line through the check valve. When the handle is moved up, the vane moves in the opposite direction, pulling fuel into chambers B and C. The fuel in chamber A is forced out of the pump through chamber D. This is a double-acting pump since it moves fuel on each stroke of the handle.
Figure 15-22. A solenoid operated poppet-type valve. A plunger holds open the valve until a closing solenoid pulls the plunger, allowing the valve to close. CENTRIFUGAL BOOST PUMP
FUEL PUMPS The purpose of an engine-driven fuel pump is to deliver a properly pressured, continuous supply of fuel during engine operation. Auxiliary fuel pumps may be installed in the system to aid in engine starting and to assure a positive pressure to the inlet of the engine-driven fuel pump.
HAND-OPERATED PUMPS
By far the most popular type of auxiliary fuel pump in use in modern aircraft is the centrifugal boost pump. These pumps are installed on either the inside or the outside of the fuel tank. [Figure 15-24] An electric motor drives a centrifugal pump, and it uses a small impeller to sling fuel out into the discharge line. These pumps are not of the constant displacement type, so restricting their outlet does not affect them. Many are two-speed types that use an electrical resistor in series with the motor to vary its speed. Some centrifugal boost pumps have a small agitator on the pump shaft that stirs up the fuel being drawn into the impeller. Any of the tiny vapor bubbles that form in the fuel are forced to coalesce into larger bubbles and rise to the top of the tank rather than enter the fuel line. This boost pump is used in its low-speed position for starting the engine and for minor vapor purging.
Hand-operated fuel pumps are often called "wobble pumps." The name comes from the method of operation of one of the early types of hand fuel pumps. These pumps are used for backing up an engine-driven pump and for transferring fuel from one tank into another. [Figure 15-23] When the handle is moved up and down, the vane inside the pump rocks back and forth. When the handle is pulled down, the left side of the vane moves up, pulling fuel into chambers A and D
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Figure 15-24. Centrifugal boost pumps are often submerged inside a fuel tank.
In its high-speed position, it is used as a backup for the engine-driven pump during takeoff and high power engine operation. It is also used in its highspeed position for major purging of fuel vapors. Some installations are quite critical with regard to the pressure delivered by the boost pump to the engine, and these systems have resistors in the boost pump circuit that are controlled by a precision switch on the throttle. When the throttle is opened and the boost pump switch is on, the pump operates at its high speed, but when the throttle is retarded, the pump speed will automatically decrease. This lowers the output pressure enough so that the boost pump will not flood the engine.
FUEL EJECTORS
To assure that there will always be an adequate supply of fuel available, boost pumps are sometimes located in a fuel collector can. This is an area of the fuel tank that has been partitioned off and equipped with a flapper-type valve to allow fuel to flow into the collector from the tank. A fuel ejector system uses the venturi principle to supply additional fuel to the collector can, regardless of aircraft attitude. The submerged motor-driven boost pumps supply fuel from each tank to their respective engines. During operation of the boost pumps, a portion of their output is routed to the fuel ejectors. The flow of
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fuel through a venturi supplies the low pressure needed to draw additional fuel from the ejector location. Fuel is then routed to the fuel collector cans.
PULSATING ELECTRIC PUMPS
Cost is always a critical concern when producing smaller personal airplanes for the general aviation fleet. Rather than using the more expensive centrifugal boost pumps, many of the smaller low-wing airplanes use a pulsating pump that is similar in operation to the electric pumps used in automobiles and trucks for many years. This simple type of pump consists of a solenoid coil installed around a brass tube that connects the two fuel chambers. In the core of the coil, a steel plunger rides up and down inside the brass tube. A calibrated spring forces the plunger upward, and the solenoid's magnetism pulls it down. One check valve is installed inside the plunger and another is in the extension of the brass tube in the fuel inlet chamber. [Figure 15-25]
these points open and stopping the current flow into the coil. The calibrated spring forces the plunger up and the fuel out through chamber C and the discharge line to the engine. As the plunger moves up, fuel flows from the inlet through chamber A and the lower check valve into chamber B, and the cycle is ready to start over. This type of pump will pulsate rapidly when the engine is accepting all of the fuel it pumps. But when the needle valve on the carburetor is closed, the pressure will build up in the line between the carburetor and the pump, and the pump will pulse slowly. A plunger type pump is normally installed in parallel with a diaphragm-type engine-driven pump so that either or both pumps can supply fuel pressure to the engine.
VANE-TYPE FUEL PUMPS
An accessory drive on the engine or an electric motor drives the rotor in a vane-type fuel pump. Four steel vanes slide back and forth in slots cut in the rotor. A hard steel pin floats in the hollow center of the rotor, holding the vanes against the wall of the pump cavity in which the rotor fits eccentrically. As the rotor turns, fuel is drawn into the pump through the inlet and into the space between the vanes. It is then forced out of the pump on the discharge side. This is a constant displacement type of pump, and every time the rotor makes one revolution, it moves a given amount of fuel. Fuel systems are not designed to accept all of the fuel that this type of pump can move, so provision must be made to relieve the discharge pressure back to the pump inlet. This prevents the output pressure from building up beyond the desired value when the pump discharge is restricted. [Figure 15-26]
Figure 15-25. The plunger-type auxiliary fuel pump uses a solenoid and spring to move a plunger up and down within the barrel of the pump.
When the pump is not turned on, the calibrated spring forces the plunger up in the brass tube where it attracts the magnet through the tube, pulling the points closed. When the pump is turned on, current flows through the contact points and energizes the solenoid coil. This pulls the plunger down into the coil. The fuel in chamber B passes up through the check valve into the plunger. When the plunger is centered in the coil, it no longer has any effect on the magnet attached to the contact points, springing
Figure 15-26. The vane-type fuel pump is a constant displacement pump.
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Vane-type pumps have a relief valve that opens when the discharge pressure reaches a set value. A screw adjusts the tension on the relief valve spring to control the discharge pressure setting. When the valve lifts off its seat, the fuel flows back to the inlet side of the vane assembly, and the discharge pressure is maintained at the value for which the relief valve is set. [Figure 15-27]
Figure 15-28. If fuel inlet pressure is greater than pump pressure, the bypass valve opens to allow fuel to flow around the pump vanes.
shutting off the flow of fuel. If a boost pump is installed in the tank, the screen is around the inlet to the pump. Here it serves the same function: to prevent the fuel flow from being stopped by anything less than an excessive amount of contamination.
Figure 15-27. Vane-type fuel pumps utilize a relief valve to maintain the proper system pressure.
These pumps, when installed on the engine, are in series with the boost pump. They must be capable of bypassing all of the fuel when the engine is being started and in case the vane-type pump should ever fail. The bypass valve is usually a spring-loaded disk on the lower face of the relief valve. If the pressure at the pump inlet is ever greater than its outlet pressure, the fuel will force the disk away from the relief valve and fuel will flow through this opening to the engine. The bypass valve spring is so weak that there is negligible opposition to the flow of fuel. There are other features of vane-type pumps that are of no concern when they are used as boost pumps, but will be discussed when they are used as engine-driven pumps. [Figure 15-28]
FILTERS
All fuel tanks should have a drain valve (sump) or drain plug at their lowest point. Most operators take a sample of fuel before the first flight of the day, after each refueling, and in some instances, before each flight. Care should be taken to wait an appropriate amount of time before testing for contamination since it takes time for water to settle out of fuel, depending on how much agitation had occurred, and the thickness of the fuel. Any water or solid contaminants in the fuel settle around this valve where they can be drained out. [Figure 15-29]
It is essential that the fuel supplied to an aircraft engine be free from contamination. Because of this, every aircraft fuel system requires a series of strainers and filters. In addition to strainers, there must be a provision for draining a sample of fuel from all of the tanks and from the main strainer. This is to examine the fuel for the presence of any water or solid particles that could have condensed in the tank or been introduced during fueling. Almost all fuel tanks used in smaller aircraft have a rather coarse mesh finger strainer at the tank outlet. This strainer increases the area of the discharge port of the tank and helps prevent contaminants from
Figure 15-29. Fuel tank sump drains are used to rid the system of water and other contaminants that have settled to the sump area of the system.
Many smaller fuel strainers use a filter element, consisting of a simple disk of relatively fine mesh screen wire at the top of the strainer bowl. Fuel from the tank enters the bowl through the center of the screen,
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and to get to the carburetor, it must flow upward through the screen. Water and solid contaminants cannot pass through the screen, and so they collect in the bowl. Most of these bowls are equipped with a quick-drain valve to drain out a sample of the fuel to check it for water or solid particles. Many larger fuel strainers use a cylindrical screen wrapped around a coarse mesh screen that gives the strainer its shape and physical strength. Inside the cylinder is a cone, also made of screen wire, providing additional surface area for the strainer. Fuel flows into the strainer around the outside of the screen and up through the inside of the cone. Any water or contaminants will collect in the bottom of the strainer housing where they can be drained out on a routine maintenance inspection or during a preflight inspection. The main fuel strainer is normally located at the lowest point in the fuel system. [Figure 15-30]
Figure 15-31. Some jet transports are equipped with a fuel heat control panel that provides indicator lights and controls to monitor and eliminate potential fuel-icing conditions.
fuel enough to melt any accumulated ice. When the ice has melted, restoring full flow, the fuel ice light will go out. If the filter is clogged with dirt or unmelted ice, a bypass valve will open and the fuel will bypass the filtering element. Fuel heat may also be automatic and the system may use a fuel/engine-oil heat exchanger, or turbine engine bleed air. FUEL SYSTEM INDICATORS Operating principles of the various instruments used in fuel systems were covered in Chapter 11. The various instruments and their purposes in a fuel system are listed here.
FUEL QUANTITY INDICATING SYSTEMS
Figure 15-30. The main fuel strainer of an aircraft fuel system also employs a drain for ridding the system of contaminants.
FUEL HEATERS AND ICE PREVENTION SYSTEMS Turbine-powered aircraft that operate at high altitudes and low temperatures for extended periods of time have a problem with water condensing out of the fuel and freezing. Ice crystals may collect on the fuel filters and shut off fuel flow to the engine. To prevent this, these aircraft have a fuel temperature gauge to inform the flight engineer when there is a danger of ice formation. [Figure 15-31] Fuel filters have a pressure switch connected across the filter element that will close if the element clogs with enough ice to obstruct the fuel flow. Illumination of the fuel icing light informs the flight engineer that one of the fuel filters is clogging. The engineer can then open the fuel heat valve and compressor bleed air will flow through the fuel/air heat exchanger. This will raise the temperature of the
This is one of the required instruments for all powered aircraft. It may be as simple as a cork float riding on top of the fuel in the tank, projecting a wire out through the tank filler cap. There is no requirement for these simple systems to be calibrated in discreet amounts, and they show only the relative amount of fuel in the tank. Somewhat more elaborate indicators have the float driving a pointer that shows whether the fuel level in the tank is 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, or Full. [Figure 15-32]
Figure 15-32. All aircraft with fuel systems are required to have a fuel indicating system. Many light aircraft have a simple float and gear assembly to read out relative quantities of fuel.
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Electrical ratiometer-type fuel quantity gauges are used in many reciprocating engine aircraft. These gauges show the fuel level in the tanks by converting the position of the float into resistance in a fuel tank transmitter unit. The indicator is calibrated in gallons of fuel. A capacitance-type fuel quantity system is most frequently used when it is necessary to know the mass of the fuel in the tank, rather than just its level, as is needed for turbine-engine aircraft. Concentric metal tubes serve as capacitors and extend across the fuel tanks from top to bottom. Either air or fuel can act as a dielectric, but values, or dielectric constants of the two are significantly different. As the quantity of fuel in the tank changes, the portion of the probe immersed in fuel or exposed to air varies. The difference in dielectric values changes the electrical capacitance of the probes, and a capacitance bridge measures this quantity. The density of the fuel also affects its dielectric constant and thus the probe's capacitance. Because of this, the system can be calibrated to indicate the amount of fuel remaining in the aircraft in pounds or kilograms. [Figure 15-33]
Most large jet transport aircraft have a means for personnel to manually gauge the amount of fuel in a tank. One method uses a magnetically locked fuel measuring stick. To check the fuel quantity using one of these devices, turn the latching cam on the bottom surface of the wing tank a quarter of a turn, and pull down the measuring stick until the magnet on the measuring stick meets the magnet in the float. You can feel when the magnets grip together and can read the number on the measuring stick that relates to the fuel level in the tank. [Figure 15-34] Another type of measuring stick shows the fuel level by fuel dripping from the hollow measuring stick when it is pulled down to the top of the fuel in the tank. Still another type uses a measuring stick made of transparent acrylic that has a wedge-shaped top. The technician can look up through the transparent rod as it is lowered, and when the end of the rod appears as a sharply defined line, it is at the top of the fuel in the tank. Again, the amount the rod sticks out from the bottom of the tank indicates the quantity of fuel.
FLOWMETERS
Small reciprocating-engine aircraft using carburetors seldom have fuel flowmeters. The pilot
Figure 15-33. Capacitive-type fuel probes are used in many modern aircraft. The capacitance of each individual probe is fed into a central unit that can indicate the amount of fuel in each tank or the total fuel in the system.
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Figure 15-35. One kind of flowmeter is the vane type.The relative flow of the fuel moves the vane, which is attached to an Autosyn transmitter connected to the gauge in the cockpit.
ber of pounds or kilograms flowing per hour to each engine. Reciprocating engines that are equipped with fuel injection systems have a flowmeter indicator that is actually a fuel pressure gauge. For normally aspirated engines, this is a bourdon tube instrument that measures the pressure drop across the fuel injector nozzles. The greater the flow, the greater the pressure drop. Turbocharged engines use a differential pressure gauge to measure the flow. They measure pressure at the distributor, or manifold valve, and compare it with the upper deck air pressure (the air pressure as it enters the fuel metering system). One major problem with this type of flow indicator is that a clogged injector nozzle will decrease the fuel flow, but the pressure drop across the nozzle will increase, appearing to the pilot as an increased fuel flow. The latest development in fuel flow instruments is the digital-type system that uses a small turbine wheel in the fuel line to the fuel control unit. As fuel flows through this line, it spins the turbine and a digital circuit reads the number of revolutions in a specified period of time and converts this into a fuel flow rate. This flow rate may be electronically compensated to correct minor discrepancies in actual fuel flow amounts. When electronic fuel flowmeters are connected to other electronic equipment in the aircraft, they can be made to present a running total of the fuel on board , and to predict the amount of time the fuel will last at the present rate of consumption. When
Figure 15-34. One type of on-the-ground fuel indicating system utilizes magnets that attract to each other when the level of the measuring stick meets the level of the fuel tank float.The portion of the stick pulled out of the bottom of the wing shows the fuel quantity.
assumes a flow rate based on the engine RPM and manifold pressure, and checks it against the amount of fuel used in a given period of time as determined from performance charts. Larger reciprocating engines use a fuel flowmeter between the fuel pump and the carburetor. The fuel flowing to the carburetor moves a spring-loaded vane. The greater the flow, the further the vane will move. The movement of the vane is transmitted to the indicator, which may be calibrated in gallons or pounds per hour. This is only an approximation since it assumes that the fuel is at a standard temperature and has a standard density. [Figure 15-35] Turbine-powered aircraft are concerned with the mass of the fuel flowing into the engine rather than just its volume. Flowmeters for these engines actually compensate for the density of the fuel. The fuel flow indicators will then accurately reflect the num-
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this equipment is linked to the distance measuring equipment (DME), it can even show the range of the aircraft at the present power setting. [Figure 15-36]
VALVE-IN-TRANSIT INDICATOR LIGHTS
On large multi-engine aircraft, each of the fuel crossfeed and line valves may be provided with a valve-in-transit indicator light. This light is on only during the time the valve is in motion and is off when movement is complete.
JET TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

A large jet transport aircraft such as a Boeing 747 has a relatively simple fuel system that supplies fuel to its four engines from five main tanks and two reserve tanks. All of the tanks are integral, that is, part of the wing is sealed off and the fuel is carried in the wing structure itself. Each reserve tank holds about 500 gallons, the outboard main tanks hold about 4,300 gallons, the inboard mains hold about 12,500 gallons, and the center wing tank holds about 17,000 gallons. At each wingtip is a surge and vent tank that provides venting for all the fuel tanks and contains a float switch to shut off refueling if a main tank is overfilled. A fully fueled airplane contains nearly 347,000 pounds (157,000 kilograms) of fuel. Each main wing tank has two 115-volt AC electric boost pumps that provide fuel to the engines at 17 psi. The inboard main tanks also have two 115-volt AC jettison pumps with an output pressure of 37 psi. The center wing tank has two 115-volt AC override/jettison pumps with an output pressure of 37 psi. The center wing tank also has a scavenge pump that transfers residual fuel to the #2 main tank at a low rate. Fuel for an Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) is normally provided by the #2 main tank aft boost pump whenever AC power is available. The #2 main tank also has a 28-volt DC electric pump to supply fuel to the APU when AC power is turned off. All pumps have check valves in the output side to prevent reverse-flow back through the pump into the tank. A suction-feed port is provided to allow an engine-driven pump to draw fuel from its respective tank if both boost pumps fail. Each engine has a motor-actuated fuel shut-off valve to cut off fuel flow to the engine during an emergency or at engine shutdown. Fueling is accomplished by connecting the fuel supply to single-point fueling receptacles located on the underside of each wing between the inboard and outboard engines. Single-point-fueling reduces fueling time, eliminates damage to aircraft skin, and reduces chances of fuel contamination. There are two hose connections on each side, but the refueling system controls are located only on the left side. Fuel flows from the receptacles into the same
Figure 15-36. Electronic flowmeters are often connected to the computers in the aircraft. They can then indicate time and even distance until fuel exhaustion. FUEL TEMPERATURE GAUGES
High flying jet aircraft are equipped with a ratiome-ter-type fuel temperature measuring system. This unit measures the temperature of the fuel in the tanks and displays it on the flight engineer's instrument panel. The flight engineer monitors the fuel temperature and uses the fuel heaters as necessary.
FUEL PRESSURE GAUGES
It is necessary to know that a pump fed fuel system is delivering the proper amount of fuel to the fuel metering system. To provide this information, simple aircraft generally use a bourdon tube pressure gauge connected to the inlet of the fuel metering system to measure the pressure. The pressure read here before starting the engine shows the output of the boost pump, and when the engine is running and the boost pump is turned off, the gauge shows the pressure that the engine-driven pump is producing. Large reciprocating engines equipped with pressure carburetors are not concerned with the actual pressure produced by the pump but with the difference between the inlet fuel pressure and the inlet air pressure. This pressure is measured at the carburetor inlet, but instead of using a simple bourdon tube indicator, it uses a differential bellows-type instrument.
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manifold used to jettison fuel, and from there through electrically actuated refueling valves into each fuel tank. When the tanks are completely filled, a sensing system closes the refueling valve(s) to prevent spillage or damage to the tank. If a partial fuel load is desired, the fueling personnel can monitor a set of fuel quantity gauges at the refueling station and shut off the fuel flow to each tank as it reaches the desired quantity. On newer airplanes equipped with digital fuel-quantity-indicating systems, a pre-selected total fuel quantity can be set at the refueling station and the system will automatically shut off fuel flow to each tank when it reaches the proper quantity. The airplane may be defueled by connecting a fuel receiving truck to the manual defueling valves at either fueling station. Open the manual defueling valves and either pump the fuel out of the tanks using the boost or jettison pumps, or use suction from the receiving truck. The crew may jettison fuel while in flight by actuating one or both jettison pumps in the inboard main tank and then opening the jettison nozzle valve in either or both wingtips. Fuel jettison from the center wing tank is accomplished by turning
on the override/jettison pumps and opening the center wing tank jettison valves. Jettison fuel from the reserve tanks and outboard main tanks is accomplished by opening the reserve transfer valves and the #1 and #4 jettison transfer valves. Gravity drains the fuel into the respective inboard main tank, and from there, it is pumped overboard. A standpipe in the inboard main tanks prevents jettison of the last 25,000 pounds (11,250 kilograms) of fuel. With all six jettison pumps operating, fuel is dumped at a rate of approximately 5,000 pounds (2,300 kilograms) per minute. The fuel system has provisions for heating the fuel before it enters the fuel filter and engine fuel control if its temperature is low enough for there to be danger of ice forming. Operation varies depending on the type of engine installed. Aircraft powered by General Electric (GE engines have automatic fuel heat, Pratt & Whitney powered airplanes have fuel heaters controlled by the Flight Engineer. Expect system variations between different models of the 747, and between individual airplanes of the same model, as upgrades and improvements are routinely made during the service life of the type.
FUEL SYSTEM REPAIR, TESTING, AND SERVICING
The potential disaster of fuel leaks, fires, and explosions make it imperative to follow precise and exact procedures while working on or servicing fuel systems. In many cases, the manufacturer of the aircraft or fueling equipment provides instructions. Follow these at all times to ensure a safe working and operating environment. This section includes generic procedures for use when no specific guidance is available.
REPLACEMENT OF GASKETS, SEALS, AND PACKINGS
FUEL TANK REPAIR AND TESTING

Deal with any indication of leaking fuel immediately. Quickly and accurately troubleshoot and repair the fuel system to eliminate all possible faults that could result in fuel starvation or fire. TROUBLESHOOTING THE FUEL SYSTEM To become proficient at the art of troubleshooting, become familiar with the complete fuel system. Do this by reviewing the schematics of various portions of the system and the nomenclature of the units. Study aircraft and engine maintenance manuals to better understand any particular function within the system.
LOCATION OF LEAKS AND DEFECTS
To prevent fuel leakage, it is of utmost importance to properly install all gaskets, seals, and packings. When replacing units of the fuel system, check each part for cleanliness, ensure that all of the old gasket material is removed, and ensure that none of the old seal remains in the groove seat. Replace old gaskets and seals with new ones and check the new gaskets and seals for cleanliness and integrity. The replacement must be the right part for the job, and its cure date must be current. Many gaskets and seals have a finite shelf life and must not be installed if they have exceeded that time. Mating surfaces should be perfectly flat so that the gasket can do the job for which it was designed. Evenly tighten or torque screws, nuts, and bolts that hold units together to prevent leakage past the gasket or seal. TANK REPAIRS There are three basic types of fuel cells used in aircraft: welded sheet metal tanks, integral, and bladder-type. Any fuel system that will not contain fuel is unairworthy. Inspecting the fuel bays or aircraft structure for evidence of fuel leaks is an important part of the preflight inspection.
WELDED FUEL TANKS
Determining the location of leaks and defects within the fuel system's internal portions is usually a matter of observing the pressure gauge and operating the selector valves. Visualizing the path of fuel flow from the tank to the fuel-metering device, noting the location of the pump(s), selector valves, emergency shut-off valves, etc. can aid in troubleshooting the internal fuel system. The fuel pump must be operating in order to pressurize the system. Locating leaks or defects in the fuel system's external portions involves very little time in comparison. Usually, stains or newly developed wet spots, as well as the presence of fuel odor, indicate fuel leaks. Carefully examine the plumbing, clamps, gaskets, supports, etc. at each inspection period. Any defect or leak in the internal or external fuel system is a potential hazard.
If a welded tank cracks or is damaged in such a way that it leaks, drain and remove the tank from the aircraft and weld the leak to repair it. Before welding any fuel tank, thoroughly purge it of all explosive fumes by steam cleaning, or some other means to remove all of the danger. To steam a fuel tank, pass live steam through it from the bottom and let it flow out the top. Continue steaming for at least one hour. It may be convenient to have the damaged tank purged by a facility that specializes in repairing automobile or truck fuel tanks. These facilities usually have large vats of chemical compounds that will make the fuel vapors inert and the tank safe for welding. If following this procedure, remove all traces of the chemical from the tank with ample
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quantities of hot water and the neutralizing agent recommended for the chemical. When welding tanks for repair, use flux to remove corrosion in the weld area to make it stronger. Remove flux with hot water and neutralize it "with the manufacturer's recommended solution. After completing the repair, test the tank to be sure that there are no more leaks. Welded fuel tanks are normally tested with 3.5-psi of air pressure inside the tank. Measure the pressure with an accurate gauge connected to the tank and maintain it with a good pressure regulator. As a safety feature, cover the filler opening by hand to be able to immediately release the pressure if there is any possibility of tank damage. Mount some of the larger tanks in a frame in the same way they are supported in the aircraft. This preserves the seams and baffles from any distortion the air pressure may cause. Search for leaks with a soap and water solution, and check carefully around the repaired area and along every weld in the tank.
SOLDERED TANKS
station, or replace it with a new bladder. Remove a damaged bladder and repair it with a repair kit that is specially approved for this type of repair. Follow the instructions furnished with the kit in detail.
INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS
Integral tanks, or "wet wings," have become possible because sealants have been developed that are effective in sealing around all of the seams. It is possible for some of the sealing material to pull away from a seam and allow fuel to leak. Because of this possibility and the fact that not all leaks are the same, most manufacturers have agreed upon a classification of leaks. The amount of leakage in tanks determines what action to take. Any type of leak that allows fuel vapors to accumulate must be repaired before the aircraft is allowed to fly. Although many leaks are found on the surface of the aircraft, or on the ground beneath the aircraft, it is possible for an internal component such as a valve to leak without being externally apparent. These leaks are potentially as hazardous as external fuel leaks. If a leak is discovered that does not constitute a hazard to flight, the aircraft may continue to fly until it is taken out of service for other maintenance and then be repaired. However, the leak must be watched to be sure it does not increase in size. When repairing an integral tank, drain and purge it with either argon or carbon dioxide until a vapor detector shows that the tank is free of explosive vapors and safe to repair. Both of these gases are heavier than air and will remain in the tank during the repair. Remove old sealant from around the leak with a chisel-shaped piece of hard plastic to remove the bulk of the sealant, and then aluminum wool to clean away all remaining traces. Do NOT use steel wool or sandpaper to remove the old sealant. Particles from either would remain and cause inter-granular corrosion in the future. After removing all of the old sealant, vacuum out the debris and scrub the area with a cloth dampened with some approved solvent such as acetone. When the area is completely clean and dry, mix the new sealant according to the directions, and apply it in the manner specified by the manufacturer. Check the repaired tank for leaks by applying the air pressure recommended by the airframe manufacturer. This pressure will be in the range of one-half pound per square inch for an integral tank. Apply pressure with a good regulator and monitor it with a water manometer.
Terneplate tanks are found in some of the older small airplanes. When these tanks leak, remove them from the aircraft and make the fumes inert with either live steam, or some other equally effective method. Examine the tank carefully. Terneplate is sheet steel with a thin coating of lead and tin, and if any of the coating scratches off, rust formation is possible. If the aircraft has not been flown for some time and the tank has been left only partially filled, it is possible that water has accumulated and formed rust in the bottom of the tank. Repair terneplate tanks by sweat-soldering a patch of terneplate over the leaking area. Carefully examine terneplate tanks before repairing them because a severely rusted tank may be replaced more economically than repaired if a replacement tank is available.
BLADDER TANKS
Many modern aircraft use thin, synthetic, rubber-impregnated cloth bladders to hold fuel. When fuel is put in a bladder, some plasticizers in the synthetic rubber leach out into the fuel. If the tank is allowed to stand empty or even partially empty for more than a week, the bladder material will become brittle and may develop cracks that will shorten its service life. Any time a tank of this type is required to remain empty, wipe its inside surface with clean, lightweight engine oil. All tank bladders have a finite life and will eventually develop leaks. When a tank begins to seep fuel, remove it from the aircraft and either recondition it at an FAA approved repair
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FUEL LEAK CLASSIFICATION
The size of the surface area that a fuel leak moistens in a 30-minute period is used as the classification standard. Wipe the leak area completely dry with clean cotton cloths. Compressed air may also be used to dry the leak areas that are difficult to wipe. Always wear goggles when using compressed air to dry the leak areas. Then dust the leak area with dyed red talcum powder. The talcum powder turns bright red as fuel wets it, making the wet area easier to see. At the end of 30 minutes, each leak is classified into one of four classes: slow seep, seep, heavy seep, or running leak. A slow seep wets an area around the leak source not over 3/4 of an inch in diameter. A seep wets an area from 3/4 inches to 11/2 inches in diameter. A heavy seep wets an area from 11/2 inches to 3 inches in diameter. Fuel does not run, flow, or drip at the end of a 30-minute period for any of these three leak classifications. [Figure 15-37] The last classification, a running leak, is the most severe and the most dangerous. It may drip from the aircraft surfaces, or it may even run down the inspector's finger when the wet area is touched. The aircraft is unsafe for flight and must be grounded for repair. When possible, remove the fuel from the leaking tank after marking the leak location. If it is impossible to defuel the tank immediately, isolate the aircraft in an approved area. Place appropriate
warning signs around the aircraft until qualified personnel can defuel the leaking tank. FIRE SAFETY The first and most difficult step in achieving fire safety is to correct the misconceptions about turbine fuel "safety." At the time these fuels were first introduced, many people said, "fire problems in aircraft are over, turbine fuel is completely safe." This is obviously nonsense but it has been persistent nonsense. Flight line personnel have agreed that aviation gasoline will burn, and therefore they have exercised reasonable care and caution in handling it. However, it has been difficult to convince many people that turbine fuels are dangerous under some circumstances. Turbine fuel characteristics do vary from those of gasoline. For example, kerosene has a slow flame propagation and burning rate, which makes it less hazardous in the event of a spill or a ground accident. However, it does ignite readily when vaporized or misted, as when sprayed through a small leak in a service hose. Consequently, follow the fire safety precautions in handling turbine fuels with the same care observed in handling gasoline. FIRE HAZARDS Any facility that stores or handles fuel represents a major fire hazard. This also holds true for facilities that store or handle aviation fuels. Therefore, all
Figure 15-37. Fuel leaks are classified according to the surface area wetted during a 30-minute period.
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personnel should be aware of the danger and be trained on how to handle fuel. Aviation fuels are both highly flammable and volatile. Take special care when transferring them into or out of an aircraft. Have the proper type of fire extinguisher available at the aircraft. It must be properly serviced and unused, since it was last serviced.
VOLATILITY
Contrary to popular belief, bleeding off an electrical charge from a body of fuel is not always an instantaneous act. In fact, it can take several seconds to bleed off all static charges from some fuels. Because of this, it is essential to carry out the following procedures when bleeding off static charges. When handling aviation fuels:
When an aircraft is fueled, vapors rise from the tank. The more volatile the fuel (the higher its vapor pressure) and the higher the outside temperature, the more vapors are released, requiring more caution when fueling. Because of the flammable nature of fuel vapors, do not fuel or defuel in a hangar or an enclosed area. Furthermore, if fuel spills, wipe it up or wash it away with water as soon as possible. Never sweep away spilled fuel with a dry broom, as the static electricity generated by the broom can ignite fuel vapors. Store aviation fuel in approved containers only. Keep these containers closed and stored in a cool and isolated area that has been approved for fuel storage.
STATIC ELECTRICITY
1. Connect a grounding cable (static wire) from the fuel truck or hydrant cart to ground. Furthermore, when loading a fuel truck, connect the static wire from the loading rack to the fuel truck before opening the dome cover. 2. Connect a static wire from the fuel truck, hydrant cart, pit or cabinet to the aircraft. [Figure 15-38]
All aviation fuels burn under conditions where there is sufficient oxygen and a source of ignition. Sufficient air and fuel vapors to support combustion are normally present during any fuel-handling operation. Therefore, it is vital that all ignition sources be eliminated in the vicinity of any fuel-handling operation. Obvious sources of ignition include matches, cigarette lighters, smoking, open flames, even backfires from malfunctioning vehicles. However, one source of ignition that may not be so obvious is the sparks created by static electricity. Static electrical charges are generated in various degrees whenever one body passes through or against another. For example, an aircraft in flight through the air, a fuel truck driving on a roadway, the rapid flow of fuel through a pipe or filter, and even the splashing of fuel into a fuel truck or aircraft during fueling operations can all generate static electricity. To minimize this hazard, it is necessary to eliminate static electrical charges before they can build up to create a spark. To do this, bond and ground all fueling system components together with static wires and allow sufficient time for the charge to dissipate before performing any act that could draw a spark.
Figure 15-38. Before opening the fuel tanks or connecting the fuel hose, connect the aircraft and the fuel truck together with an electrical bonding cable.
3. When conducting overwing fueling, connect the fuel-nozzle static wire to the aircraft before open ing the tank cover. If not equipped with a static wire, ground the nozzle against the side of the fuel opening before dispensing fuel. Underwing nozzles need not be bonded to the aircraft. 4. In general, the dispensing unit should be grounded first, and should ultimately be bonded to the receiving unit. Never open the dome or tank covers during a fuel transfer unless all grounds and bonds are in place. When handling turbine fuels: 1. Minimize splashing during the loading of a fuel truck by placing the end of the loading spout at, or as near as possible to the compartment bottom. 2. Do not suspend or lower any metal or conductive objects such as gauge tapes, sample containers, or
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thermometers into a tank or fuel truck while filling it. Give any possible static charge a few minutes to bleed off after filling before using these devices. 3. When filling large storage tanks, minimize splashing with a slow initial flow rate until the end of the tank inlet line is covered with at least two feet of fuel.
FUEL SYSTEM SERVICING
a basic knowledge of aviation fuels, the common forms of fuel contaminants, how they get into the fuel, and how they can be detected and removed. In all cases, it is necessary to wait a period of time for the contaminant to drop out of suspension. This depends on factors such as type of fuel, temperature, and how much the fuel has been agitated.
TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS
Everyone involved with handling and dispensing aviation fuels should realize that the safety of an aircraft may depend upon their skill, knowledge, and ability to deliver the correct grade of clean dry fuel into it. This is one of the prime factors contributing to flight safety. Fuels, fueling methods, and equipment are continually being developed and improved to meet the ever-increasing demands of modern aircraft and the aviation industry. However, one thing never changes the vital importance of supplying the correct grade of uncontaminated fuel to the aircraft. The possibility of human error can never be eliminated, but it can be minimized through careful design of fueling facilities, good operating procedure, and adequate training of personnel. CHECKING FOR FUEL SYSTEM CONTAMINANTS Draining a fuel sample from the main strainers of an aircraft has previously been considered an acceptable method for assuring that the fuel in the system is clean. In most cases, this practice is no longer considered adequate. The introduction of turbine-powered aircraft has made the need for fuel cleanliness much more important, and at the same time more difficult to maintain. The combustion process in the jet engine must be carefully controlled. This requires complicated, precision fuel-control systems that are much more sensitive to fuel quality, and cleanliness in particular, than those for piston engines. Besides this, the fuel quantity passing through these systems for each hour of flight is considerably greater than with piston engines; hence, any slight contamination in the fuel accumulates at a much faster rate. Along with the introduction of the more critical jet engine has come the utilization of a fuel that is harder to keep free of contamination. For example, a particle of dirt or rust, or a drop of water settles out of aviation gasoline four times faster than it does in turbine fuels. To better understand what is required to maintain fuel quality, it is first necessary to have
The most common forms of aviation fuel contaminants are solids, water, surfactants, microorganisms, and the intermixing of grades or types of fuel. Surfactants and microorganisms, virtually unknown contaminants in aviation gasolines, have become critical with the advent of turbine fuels. Solid contaminants are those which do not dissolve in fuel. The most common contaminants are iron rust and scale, sand, and dirt. However, other debris such as metal particles, dust, lint, particles of filter media, rubber, valve lubricants, and even bacterial sludge can be encountered. Solid contaminants are typically introduced inadvertently into fuel at every stage of its movement from the refinery to the aircraft. The maximum amount of solids that an aircraft can tolerate depends on the type of aircraft and fuel system, and the number and size of the solid contaminants. Particles as small as 1/20 the diameter of a human hair can damage close tolerance mechanisms in modern turbine engines. The best method of controlling solids is to limit their introduction into the fuel. Obviously, do not use rusty lines, tanks, and containers. Furthermore, keep covers and caps tightly closed until ready to begin pumping fuel. Take care to keep wiping rag lint, wind-blown sand, dirt, and dust from entering the system during filling or fueling operations. Clean fueling nozzles and loading spouts before use, and replace dust caps and other protective devices after using them. Furthermore, regularly inspect and maintain filters in accordance with operating specifications. "Surfactants" is a contraction of the words SURFace ACTive AgeNTS. Surfactants consist of soap or detergent-like materials that occur naturally in fuel, or can be introduced during refining or handling. Surfactants are usually more soluble in water than in fuel and reduce the surface tension between water and fuel. This stabilizes suspended water droplets and contaminants in the fuel. They are attracted to the elements of filter/separators, which can make them ineffective. Surfactants, in large concentrated quantities, usually appear as a tan to dark brown liquid with a sudsy-like consistency.
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Surfactants alone do not constitute a great threat to aircraft. However, because of their ability to suspend water and dirt in the fuel and inhibit filter action, they allow these contaminants to get into an aircraft's fuel system. Surfactants have become one of the major contaminants in aviation turbine fuels and can cause fuel gauge problems. There is no established maximum limit on the level of surfactants that can be safely contained in a fuel, and there are no simple tests for determining their concentration in fuel. Some common danger signals of a surface contaminated facility are: 1. Excess quantities of dirt and/or free water going through the system. 2. Discovery of sudsy-like liquid in tank and fil ter/separator sumps. 3. Malfunctioning of filter/separators. 4. Slow effective settling rates in storage tanks. Microorganisms have become a critical problem in some turbine fuel systems. There are over 100 different varieties of microorganisms that can live in the free water that accumulates in sumps and on the bottom of storage and aircraft tanks. Many microorganisms are airborne, and therefore, fuel is constantly exposed to this type of contaminant. The principle effects of microorganisms are: 1. Formulation of a sludge or slime that can foul fil ter/separators and fueling mechanisms. 2. Emulsification of the fuel. 3. Creation of corrosive compounds and offensive odors. Severe corrosion of aircraft fuel tanks has been attributed to microorganisms, causing considerable expense in removing these growths and repairing their damage. The actual determination of microbial content, or number of colonies, is reserved for the laboratory. Remove any evidence of black sludge or slime, or even a vegetative-like mat growth. Growths also appear as dark brown spots on some filter/separator element socks. Replace the socks whenever this condition is discovered. Because microbes thrive in water, a simple and effective method to prevent or retard their growth is to eliminate the water. Introducing a fuel additive during the fueling process is a common way of doing this. [Figure 15-39]
Figure 15-39. A biocidal agent is added to turbine fuel to prevent microbial growths that cause corrosion in the fuel tanks. DETECTION OF CONTAMINANTS
Because solid contaminants generally appear in relatively small numbers and sizes relative to the fuel volume, their detection can be difficult. Aviation gasoline is generally considered "clean" if a one-quart sample is clear of any sediment when viewed in a clean and dry glass container. It may be helpful to swirl the container to create a vortex. The solid contaminants, if present, will tend to collect at the bottom beneath the vortex. Turbine fuels must be several orders of magnitude cleaner than aviation gasoline. While the above visual test is adequate for operational checks, it is occasionally necessary to check the operation efficiency and cleanliness level of a turbine fuel system with a more accurate tool. The aviation industry has adopted the Millipore test for this purpose. The Millipore is a filter-type test capable of detecting microscopic solid contaminants down to .8 of a micron in size, which is approximately 1/120 the diameter of a human hair. An evaluation guide is provided, containing instructions for conducting these tests, along with the means for evaluating the results. The "white bucket" test is particularly helpful in detecting surfactant concentrations in turbine fuel. All that is required is a clean white porcelain bucket and water that has been in contact with the fuel in tank bottoms, filter/separators, or other points where surfactants are likely to accumulate. Surfactants, if present, will appear as a brown, sudsy water layer on the bottom of the bucket or at the fuel-water interface.
CONTAMINATION CONTROL
Miscellaneous contaminants can include either soluble or insoluble materials or both. Fuel can be con-
15-39
taminated by mixing it with other grades or types of fuels, by picking up compounds from concentrations in rust and sludge deposits, by additives, or by a number of soluble materials. The greatest single danger to aircraft safety from contaminated fuels cannot be attributed to solids, exotic microorganisms, surfactants, or even water. It is contamination resulting from human error. It is placing the wrong grade or type of fuel into an aircraft, mixing grades, or any other type of human error that allows placement of off-specification fuels aboard the aircraft. Do not put aboard an aircraft any fuel that is suspected to be off-specification because of contaminants or mixing with other fuels. If in doubt, utilize laboratory and other tests to definitely establish whether the fuel is usable for aviation purposes. FUELING PROCEDURES The fueling process begins with the delivery of fuel to the airport fueling facility, usually by tank truck. Quality control begins by checking the bill of lading for the proper amount and grade of fuel. Fuel testing should begin with the tank truck. The personnel receiving the fuel delivery must determine that the proper type of fuel is in the truck, as well as take samples and check for visible contamination. Once all checks are completed, connect the truck to the correct unloading point and proceed. Allow turbine fuel to settle for a minimum of two hours after any disturbance before pumping it into an aircraft. Aviation gasolines do not need time to settle before being withdrawn for use. However, make no withdrawals from a tank while it is receiving fuel from a transport truck.
FROM A FUEL TRUCK
Prior to removing the aircraft's fuel tank cap, verify the proper grade of fuel. Do this by reading the placard near the filler cap and compare it with the grade being delivered. [Figure 15-40]
Figure 15-40. An aircraft fuel tank must be clearly marked with the proper grade of fuel required.
Place a mat over the wing so the fuel hose can not scratch the finish. Connect the static bonding wire between the nozzle and the aircraft and remove the fuel tank cap. Do not contact the bottom of the tank with the end of the nozzle when inserting it into the tank because it could dent the thin metal. If the tank is a fuel cell, contact with the nozzle could puncture it and cause a serious leak. Misfueling is a constant danger that can result in complete engine failure. To help prevent misfueling accidents, the nozzles used to pump turbine fuel are larger than the nozzles used to pump aviation gasoline. Furthermore, FAR 23.973 specifies that all general aviation aircraft utilizing aviation gasoline have restricted fuel tank openings that will not allow the nozzle used to pump Jet A to fit in the tank opening. While it is possible for a jet or turbine engine to run on gasoline, a piston engine will not run on Jet A.
UNDERGROUND STORAGE
Aircraft can have fuel pumped directly into their tanks from over-the-wing tank openings, or from a single point source under the wing. Typically, over-wing fueling is done with a fuel truck, whereas underwing fueling is done from a pit through single-point fueling. Before driving a fuel truck to an aircraft, drain the sumps and check the fuel to be sure it is bright and clear. Furthermore, be certain that fire extinguishers are in place and fully charged. The fuel truck should approach the aircraft parallel to the wings and stop in front of it. Engage the parking brake, chock the wheels, and connect the static bonding wire between the truck and the aircraft.
Most large airports that service transport category aircraft have underground storage tanks and buried fuel lines. This arrangement allows aircraft to be fueled without having to transport it in trucks. Since most aircraft that are fueled from this type of system use under-wing fueling, the method is discussed here. After driving a service truck that has filters, water separators, and a pump to the aircraft, connect its inlet hose to the underground hydrant valve. Attach the discharge hose or hoses from the servicer to the fueling ports on the aircraft. With a qualified maintenance person in the aircraft monitoring the fuel
75-40
controls, open the valves and start the pumps. The person monitoring the fuel controls can determine the sequence in which the tanks are filled and can shut off the fuel when the correct load has been taken on board. Some large corporate aircraft also have single point refueling systems. However, in most cases, control of the fueling sequence comes from an outside control panel located under an access cover. A service technician must be checked out on these systems before operating them. Should there be any questions about the operation, the technician should ask for assistance from the pilot-in-command of the aircraft. [Figure 15-41]
6. Do
fueler to aircraft. Before opening the overwing fuel-filler cap, connect the nozzle ground to the aircraft. Keep a constant contact between an overwing nozzle and the filler neck spout while filling. It is not required to ground underwing nozzles. After fueling, reverse the steps above. not drag hoses across deicer boots or wing edges. Always place drop-deck ladders so that the pads rest squarely on the leading edge of the wings. When on the wings, walk only where designated. Clean off all greasy marks and dirt before leaving the wing. [Figure 15-42]
Figure 15-41. Fuel can be delivered simply and quickly through the underwing fueling ports.
Figure 15-42. Filling an aircraft fuel tank at the filler neck is called over-the-wing fueling.
The aircraft mechanic may be called upon to fuel or defuel aircraft or to assist in training ground service personnel. The steps outlined below represent general procedures to carry out when fueling any aircraft (specific instructions from the pilot may at times supersede these instructions): 1. Verify the grade and quantity of fuel required. 2. Confirm that the fueler or system contains the correct grade and quantity required. 3. Check the fueler tank sumps for water before fueling. Drain if necessary. 4. Approach the aircraft carefully. Try to position the fueler so that it can be quickly driven or pulled away in case of emergency. Avoid back ing up to the aircraft; if this is necessary, posi tion a guide near the rear of the fueler. Set the brake and chock the tires. 5. Bond and ground the aircraft and equipment in the proper sequence: fueler to ground, then
7. Never prop open or leave nozzles unattended while fueling aircraft. Never drop or drag noz zles across the pavement. Immediately replace nozzle dust caps after fueling. 8. It can be very dangerous to leave a filler cap off an aircraft fuel tank. Never open a cap until you are ready to fuel that specific tank, then lock it and close the flap immediately after fueling. Before leaving the wing, check each filler cap for security. Notify maintenance or the pilot if the filler cap or flap is working improperly. 9. Check the fueler or other fueling equipment and filter/separator sumps for water after fueling is complete. If more than a trace of water or other contaminants are found, notify the pilot and make arrangements to sample the fuel in the air craft tanks. 10. Never pull away from an aircraft without first checking to make sure that there is no one left on the top deck and that all hoses and ground wires are properly stowed.
15-41
DEFUELING It is sometimes necessary to remove fuel from an aircraft, either for maintenance reasons or because of a change in flight plans after the aircraft was serviced. Defueling is accomplished in much the same manner as fueling, using many of the same safety precautions. On swept-wing aircraft, defuel outboard wing tanks first and fuel them last since these tanks are usually aft of the center of gravity. Never defuel an aircraft inside a hangar or in any area with inadequate ventilation. Take all proper precautions with regard to neutralizing any static electricity that builds up when the fuel flows through the lines. If only a small quantity of fuel is off-loaded and there is no reason to suspect contamination, take the fuel back to stock. On the other hand, the quality of the off-loaded fuel could be suspect if it was removed because of an engine problem. If removing a large quantity of fuel, it could become suspect by drawing fuel from the bottom of the tank. Segregate this fuel, preferably in a fuel truck, and quarantine it until assured of its quality. Never return fuel suspected of contamination to storage or place it aboard another aircraft. If returning acceptable fuel to storage, be certain to put it back into a tank containing the same grade of fuel. If defueling an aircraft into drums, use clean drums and replace and tighten the bungs immediately after filling. Some companies, and some aircraft operations manuals, do not allow the reuse of drum stored fuel in an aircraft. Frequently, this fuel is used in ramp vehicles, space heaters, and GPUs. REVIEW OF SAFETY PROCEDURES These safety procedures are suggested to minimize the potential for accidents during fueling or defueling of an aircraft. Specific guidance for particular aircraft and fueling/defueling equipment may require further procedures. Manufacturer's specifications should always take precedence. 1. Be sure that only the correct grade of fuel is put into an aircraft. Remember that aviation gasoline comes in various grades, and the wrong grade can cause severe damage to the engine. Turbine fuel in a reciprocating engine can cause
severe detonation and engine failure, and improper use of aviation gasoline in a turbine engine can also be harmful. 2. Be sure to properly bond the fuel truck or servicer to the aircraft, and bond the fuel nozzle to the structure before taking the cover from the fuel tank. 3. Wipe up spilled fuel or flood it with water. Do not sweep spilled fuel with a dry broom. 4. Be sure that there are no open fires near the fueling or defueling operations. 5. Be sure that fire extinguishers suitable for a Class B fire are available. Either CO 2 or dry powder units are generally used. 6. Protect the aircraft structure from damage by the fuel hose and nozzle. 7. Be sure that the radio or radar are not used dur ing fueling or defueling, and that no electrical equipment is turned on or off, except for the equipment needed for the fueling operation. 8. When defueling, be sure that the fuel is not con taminated if it is to be used again. 9. Be sure that the filters in the tank truck or servicer remove all traces of water and contamina tion and that the fuel pumped into an aircraft is bright and clear. 10. If a biocidal additive is required, mix it with the fuel in the proper concentration. 11. If fueling the aircraft in the rain, cover the tank opening to exclude water from the tank. 12. Place dust covers and caps over the end of the fuel nozzles and any unused open fuel lines. 13. Park the tank truck parallel to the wing of the aircraft, set the parking brake, and chock the wheels so the truck cannot roll into the aircraft. 14. When conducting underwing pressure fueling, adhere to the airplane manufacturer's specified pressure and delivery rate. 15. If any fuel is spilled onto skin, wash it off with soap and water as soon as possible. Do not wear fuel soaked clothing.

Aircraft Fuel Systems

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AIRCRAFT FUEL SYSTEMS

AVIATION FUELS AND FUEL SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

CHARACTERISTICS OF AVIATION FUELS

RECIPROCATING ENGINE FUEL