Population vs. Sample

Population vs.
Sample
Population
a b cd
Sample
b gi o r y
Measures computed from sample data are called statistics
c n u
ef gh i jk l m n o p q rs t u v w x y z
Measures used to describe a population are called parameters
Two Branches of Statistics
Descriptive statistics
Collecting, summarizing, and presenting data Drawing conclusions about a population based only on sample data
Inferential statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Collect data
e.g., Survey
Present data
e.g., Tables and graphs
Characterize data
e.g., Sample mean =
X
n
Inferential Statistics
Estimation
e.g., Estimate the population mean weight using the sample mean weight e.g., Test the claim that the population mean weight is 120 pounds Drawing conclusions about a population based on sample results.
Hypothesis testing
Collecting Data
Primary
Data Collection
Secondary
Data Compilation Print or Electronic
Observation
Survey
Experimentation
Types of Data
Data
Categorical
Examples:

Numerical
Marital Status Political Party Eye Color (Defined categories)
Discrete
Examples:

Continuous
Examples:

Number of Children Defects per hour (Counted items)
Weight Voltage (Measured characteristics)
Levels of Measurement and Measurement Scales

Differences between measurements, true zero exists Differences between measurements but no true zero
Ratio Data Interval Data
Highest Level (Strongest forms of measurement)
Higher Levels Ordered Categories (rankings, order, or scaling)
Ordinal Data
Lowest Level (Weakest form of measurement)
Categories (no ordering or direction)
Nominal Data
Levels of Measurement and Measurement Scales

EXAMPLES:
Ratio Data Interval Data
Differences between measurements, true zero exists
Height, Age, Weekly Food Spending Temperature in Fahrenheit, Standardized exam score Service quality rating, Standard & Poors bond rating, Student letter grades Marital status, Type of car owned
Differences between measurements but no true zero
Ordinal Data
Ordered Categories (rankings, order, or scaling)
Nominal Data
Categories (no ordering or direction)
Presenting Data in Tables and Charts
Organizing and Presenting Data Graphically
Data in raw form are usually not easy to use for decision making
Some type of organization is needed

Table Graph
Techniques reviewed here:

Bar charts and pie charts Pareto diagram Ordered array Stem-and-leaf display Frequency distributions, histograms and polygons Cumulative distributions and ogives Contingency tables Scatter diagrams
Tables and Charts for Categorical Data

Categorical Data
Tabulating Data Summary Table Bar Charts
Graphing Data
Pie Charts
Pareto Diagram
The Summary Table

Summarize data by category Example: Current Investment Portfolio
Investment Type Stocks Bonds CD Savings Total Amount Percentage (in thousands $) (%) 46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0 42.27 29.09 14.09 14.55 100.0
(Variables are Categorical)
Bar and Pie Charts
Bar charts and Pie charts are often used for qualitative data (categories or nominal scale) Height of bar or size of pie slice shows the frequency or percentage for each category
Bar Chart Example

Current Investment Portfolio
Investment Amount Percentage Type (in thousands `) (%)
Stocks Bonds CD Savings Total
46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0
42.27 29.09 14.09 14.55 100.0

Savings CD Bonds Stocks 0
Investor's Portfolio
10
20
30
40
50
Amount in $1000's
Pie Chart Example

Investment Type
(in thousands `)
Amount
Percentage
(%)
46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0
42.27 29.09 14.09 14.55 100.0 CD 14%
Savings 15%
Stocks 42%
Bonds 29%
Percentages are rounded to the nearest percent
Pareto Diagram

Used to portray categorical data (nominal scale) A bar chart, where categories are shown in descending order of frequency A cumulative polygon is often shown in the same graph Used to separate the vital few from the trivial many
Pareto Diagram Example

45% 100% 90%
% invested in each category (bar graph)
40%
35%
80% 70%
cumulative % invested (line graph)
30% 60% 25% 50% 20% 40% 15% 30% 10% 20%
5%
10% 0% Stocks Bonds Savings CD
0%
Tables and Charts for Numerical Data

Numerical Data
Ordered Array
Frequency Distributions and Cumulative Distributions Histogram Polygon Ogive
Stem-and-Leaf Display
The Ordered Array

A sequence of data in rank order:
Shows range (min to max) Provides some signals about variability within the range May help identify outliers (unusual observations) If the data set is large, the ordered array is less useful
The Ordered Array

(continued)
Data in raw form (as collected): 24, 26, 24, 21, 27, 27, 30, 41, 32, 38
Data in ordered array from smallest to largest: 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
Stem-and-Leaf Diagram
A simple way to see distribution details in a data set METHOD: Separate the sorted data series into leading digits (the stem) and the trailing digits (the leaves)
Example
Data in ordered array:
21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
Here, use the 10s digit for the stem unit:

Stem Leaf

21 is shown as 38 is shown as 41 is shown as
2 3 4
1 8 1
Example
(continued)

21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 38, 41
Completed stem-and-leaf diagram:

Stem Leaves
2 3 4
1 4 4 6 7 7 0 2 8 1
Using other stem units
Using the 100s digit as the stem:
Round off the 10s digit to form the leaves

Stem

Leaf 1 8 2
613 would become 776 would become ... 1224 becomes
6 7 12
Using other stem units

(continued)
Using the 100s digit as the stem:
The completed stem-and-leaf display:

Data:
613, 632, 658, 717, 722, 750, 776, 827, 841, 859, 863, 891, 894, 906, 928, 933, 955, 982, 1034, 1047,1056, 1140, 1169, 1224 Stem 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Leaves 136 2258 346699 13368 356 47 2
Tabulating Numerical Data: Frequency Distributions

What is a Frequency Distribution?

A frequency distribution is a list or a table containing class groupings (ranges within which the data fall) ... and the corresponding frequencies with which data fall within each grouping or category
Why Use a Frequency Distribution?
It is a way to summarize numerical data It condenses the raw data into a more useful form... It allows for a quick visual interpretation of the data
Class Intervals and Class Boundaries

Each class grouping has the same width Determine the width of each interval by
range Width of interval number of desired class groupings
Usually at least 5 but no more than 15 groupings Class boundaries never overlap Round up the interval width to get desirable endpoints
Frequency Distribution Example

Example: A manufacturer of insulation randomly selects 20 winter days and records the daily high temperature 24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30, 32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53, 27

(continued)
Sort raw data in ascending order:

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58
Find range: 58 - 12 = 46 Select number of classes: 5 (usually between 5 and 15) Compute class interval (width): 10 (46/5 then round up) Determine class boundaries (limits): 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 Compute class midpoints: 15, 25, 35, 45, 55 Count observations & assign to classes

(continued)

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58 Relative Frequency
Class
Frequency
Percentage
10 but less than 20 3 20 but less than 30 6 30 but less than 40 5 40 but less than 50 4 50 but less than 60 2
.15 .30 .25 .20 .10
15 30 25 20 10
Tabulating Numerical Data: Cumulative Frequency

12, 13, 17, 21, 24, 24, 26, 27, 27, 30, 32, 35, 37, 38, 41, 43, 44, 46, 53, 58 Cumulative Cumulative Frequency Percentage 3 9 14 18 20 100 15 45 70 90 100
Class 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60
Frequency Percentage 3 6 5 4 2 20 15 30 25 20 10
Total
Graphing Numerical Data: The Histogram
A graph of the data in a frequency distribution is called a histogram The class boundaries (or class midpoints) are shown on the horizontal axis the vertical axis is either frequency, relative frequency, or percentage Bars of the appropriate heights are used to represent the number of observations within each class
Histogram Example
Class 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Class Midpoint Frequency 15 25 35 45 55 3 6 5 4 2
Histogram : Daily High Tem perature 7 6 Frequency 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 15 25 35 45 55 Class Midpoints 65
(No gaps between bars)
Graphing Numerical Data: The Frequency Polygon

Class 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60 Class Midpoint Frequency 15 25 35 45 55 3 6 5 4 2
Frequency Polygon: Daily High Temperature 7 6 Frequency 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 15 25 35 45 55 65
(In a percentage polygon the vertical axis would be defined to show the percentage of observations per class)
Class Midpoints
Graphing Cumulative Frequencies:

The Ogive (Cumulative % Polygon)
Lower Cumulative class boundary Percentage 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 15 45 70 90 100 Class Less than 10 10 but less than 20 20 but less than 30 30 but less than 40 40 but less than 50 50 but less than 60
Ogive: Daily High Temperature

100 Cumulative Percentage 80 60 40 20 0 10
10 20
20 30
30 40
40 50
50 60
60
Class Boundaries (Not Midpoints)
Tabulating and Graphing Multivariate Categorical Data
Contingency Table for Investment Choices (`1000s)

Investor A Investor B Investor C Total
Investment
46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0
55 44 20 28 147
27.5 19.0 13.5 7.0 67.0
129 95 49 51 324
(Individual values could also be expressed as percentages of the overall total, percentages of the row totals, or percentages of the column totals)
Tabulating and Graphing Multivariate Categorical Data

(continued)
Side-by-side bar charts

Comparing Investors
S avings CD B onds S toc k s 0 10 Inves tor A 20 30 Inves tor B 40 50 Inves tor C 60
Side-by-Side Chart Example
Sales by quarter for three sales territories:

East West North 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr 20.4 27.4 59 20.4 30.6 38.6 34.6 31.6 45.9 46.9 45 43.9
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
East West North
Scatter Diagrams
Scatter Diagrams are used to examine possible relationships between two numerical variables
The Scatter Diagram: one variable is measured on the vertical axis and the other variable is measured on the horizontal axis
Scatter Diagram Example

Volume per day 23 24 26 29 33 38 41 42 50 55 60 Cost per day 131 120 151 160 167 185 170 188 195 200
Cost per Day 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Volume per Day
Cost per Day vs. Production Volume
140
Time Series Plot
A Time Series Plot is used to study patterns in the values of a variable over time
The Time Series Plot: one variable is measured on the vertical axis and the time period is measured on the horizontal axis
Scatter Diagram Example

Number of Franchises 43
Number of Franchises 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1994 1996 1998 2000 Year 2002 2004 2006
Year 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Number of Franchises, 1996-2004
54 60 73 82 95 107 99 95
Misusing Graphs and Ethical Issues

Guidelines for good graphs: Do not distort the data Avoid unnecessary adornments (no chart junk) Use a scale for each axis on a two-dimensional graph The vertical axis scale should begin at zero Properly label all axes The graph should contain a title Use the simplest graph for a given set of data

Population vs. Sample

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Population vs. Sample

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Population vs.

Measures used to describe a population are called parameters

Two Branches of Statistics

e.g., Tables and graphs

e.g., Sample mean =

Marital Status Political Party Eye Color (Defined categories)

Number of Children Defects per hour (Counted items)

Weight Voltage (Measured characteristics)

Levels of Measurement and Measurement Scales

Ratio Data Interval Data

Highest Level (Strongest forms of measurement)

Higher Levels Ordered Categories (rankings, order, or scaling)

Categories (no ordering or direction)

Levels of Measurement and Measurement Scales

Ratio Data Interval Data

Differences between measurements, true zero exists

Differences between measurements but no true zero

Ordered Categories (rankings, order, or scaling)

Categories (no ordering or direction)

Presenting Data in Tables and Charts

Organizing and Presenting Data Graphically

Some type of organization is needed

Techniques reviewed here:

Tables and Charts for Categorical Data

Tabulating Data Summary Table Bar Charts

The Summary Table

(Variables are Categorical)

Bar and Pie Charts

Bar Chart Example

Stocks Bonds CD Savings Total

46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0

42.27 29.09 14.09 14.55 100.0

Pie Chart Example

Stocks Bonds CD Savings Total

46.5 32.0 15.5 16.0 110.0

42.27 29.09 14.09 14.55 100.0 CD 14%

Percentages are rounded to the nearest percent

Pareto Diagram Example

% invested in each category (bar graph)

cumulative % invested (line graph)

10% 0% Stocks Bonds Savings CD

Tables and Charts for Numerical Data

Frequency Distributions and Cumulative Distributions Histogram Polygon Ogive

The Ordered Array

The Ordered Array

Here, use the 10s digit for the stem unit:

21 is shown as 38 is shown as 41 is shown as

Data in ordered array:

Completed stem-and-leaf diagram:

Using other stem units

Using the 100s digit as the stem:

Round off the 10s digit to form the leaves

613 would become 776 would become ... 1224 becomes

Using other stem units

Using the 100s digit as the stem:

The completed stem-and-leaf display:

Tabulating Numerical Data: Frequency Distributions

Why Use a Frequency Distribution?

Class Intervals and Class Boundaries