Chapter 7

The Nervous System: Neurons and Synapses

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Nervous System

2 types of cells in the nervous system:

Neurons. Supporting cells. Central nervous system (CNS):

Nervous system is divided into:

Brain. Spinal cord. Cranial nerves. Spinal nerves.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS):

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Neurons

Basic structural and functional units of the nervous system.

Cannot divide by mitosis.

Respond to physical and chemical stimuli. Produce and conduct electrochemical impulses. Release chemical regulators. Nerve:

Bundle of axons located outside CNS.

Most composed of both motor and sensory fibers.

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Neurons

(continued)

Cell body (perikaryon):

Nutrition center. Cell bodies within CNS clustered into nuclei, and in PNS in ganglia.
Provide receptive area. Transmit electrical impulses to cell body.

Dendrites:

Axon: Conducts impulses away from cell body.

Axoplasmic flow:

Proteins and other molecules are transported by rhythmic contractions to nerve endings.
Employs microtubules for transport. May occur in orthograde or retrograde direction.

Axonal transport:

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Neurons

(continued)

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Functional Classification of Neurons

Based upon direction impulses conducted. Sensory or afferent:

Conduct impulses from sensory receptors into CNS. Conduct impulses out of CNS to effector organs.

Motor or efferent:

Association or interneurons:

Located entirely within the CNS. Serve an integrative function.

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Structural Classification of Neurons

Based on the # of processes that extend from cell body.

Pseudounipolar:

Short single process that branches like a T.

Sensory neurons.

Bipolar neurons:

Have 2 processes.

Retina of the eye.

Multipolar:

Have several dendrites and 1 axon.

Motor neuron.

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PNS Supporting Cells

Schwaan cells:

Successive wrapping of the cell membrane. Outer surface encased in glycoprotein basement membrane. Provide insulation.
Unmyelinated areas between adjacent Schwaan cells that produce nerve impulses. Support neuron cell bodies within ganglia.

Nodes of Ranvier:

Satellite cells:

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CNS Supporting Cells

Oligodendrocytes:

Process occurs mostly postnatally. Each has extensions that form myelin sheaths around several axons.

Insulation.

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Nerve Regeneration

Schwann cells:

Act as phagocytes, as the distal neuronal portion degenerates. Surrounded by basement membrane, form regeneration tube:

Serve as guide for axon. Send out chemicals that attract the growing axon. Axon tip connected to cell body begins to grow towards destination.

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Nerve Regeneration

(continued)

CNS has limited ability to regenerate:

Absence of continuous basement membrane. Oligodendrocytes molecules inhibit neuronal growth.

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Neurotrophins

Promote neuron growth. Nerve growth factors include:

Nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), neurotrophin-3, and neurotrophin-4/5.

Fetus:

Embryonic development of sensory neurons and sympathetic ganglia (NGF and neurotrophin-3).

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Neurotrophins

(continued)

Adult:

Maintenance of sympathetic ganglia (NGF). Mature sensory neurons need for regeneration. Required to maintain spinal neurons (GDNF). Sustain neurons that use dopamine (GDNF). Inhibit axon regeneration.

Myelin-associated inhibitory proteins:

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CNS Supporting Cells

(continued)

Astrocytes:

Most abundant glial cell. Vascular processes terminate in end-feet that surround the capillaries. Stimulate tight junctions, contributing to blood-brain barrier. Regulate external environment of K+ and pH. Take up K+ from ECF, NTs released from axons, and lactic acid (convert for ATP production).

Other extensions adjacent to synapses.

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CNS Supporting Cells

(continued)

Microglia:

Phagocytes, migratory.

Ependymal cells:

Secrete CSF. Line ventricles. Function as neural stem cells. Can divide and progeny differentiate.

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Blood-Brain Barrier

Capillaries in brain do not have pores between adjacent endothelial cells.

Joined by tight junctions.

Molecules within brain capillaries moved selectively through endothelial cells by:

Diffusion. Active transport. Endocytosis. Exocytosis.

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Electrical Activity of Axons

All cells maintain a resting membrane potential (RMP):

Potential voltage difference across membrane.

Largely the result of negatively charged organic molecules within the cell. Limited diffusion of positively charged inorganic ions. Electrochemical gradients of Na+ and K+. Na+/K+ ATPase pump.

Permeability of cell membrane:

Excitability/irritability:

Ability to produce and conduct electrical impulses.

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Electrical Activity of Axons

(continued)

Increase in membrane permeability for specific ion can be measured by placing 2 electrodes (1 inside and 1 outside the cell). Depolarization:

Potential difference reduced (become more positive). Return to resting membrane potential (become more negative). More negative than RMP.

Repolarization:

Hyperpolarization:

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Ion Gating in Axons

Changes in membrane potential caused by ion flow through ion channels. Voltage gated (VG) channels open in response to change in membrane potential.

Gated channels are part of proteins that comprise the channel.

Can be open or closed in response to change. 1 always open. 1 closed in resting cell. Always closed in resting cells.

2 types of channels for K+:

Channel for Na+:

Some Na+ does leak into the cells.

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Ion Gating in Axons

(continued)

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Action Potentials (APs)

Stimulus causes depolarization to threshold. VG Na+ channels open.

Electrochemical gradient inward.

+ feedback loop.

Rapid reversal in membrane potential from 70 to + 30 mV. VG Na+ channels become inactivated. Electrochemical gradient outward. - feedback loop. Restore original RMP.

VG K+ channels open.

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Action Potentials (APs)

(continued)

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Membrane Permeabilites

AP is produced by an increase in Na+ permeability. After short delay, increase in K+ permeability.

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Action Potentials (APs)

(continued)

Depolarization and repolarization occur via diffusion, do not require active transport.

Once AP completed, Na+/K+ ATPase pump extrudes Na+, and recovers K+.

All or none:

When threshold reached, maximum potential change occurs. Amplitude does not normally become more positive than + 30 mV because VG Na+ channels close quickly and VG K+ channels open. Duration is the same, only open for a fixed period of time.
Increased frequency of AP indicates greater stimulus strength. Stronger stimuli can activate more axons with a higher threshold.

Coding for Stimulus Intensity:

Recruitment:

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Refractory Periods

Absolute refractory period:

Axon membrane is incapable of producing another AP.

Relative refractory period:

VG ion channel shape alters at the molecular level. VG K+ channels are open. Axon membrane can produce another action potential, but requires stronger stimulus.

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Cable Properties of Neurons

Ability of neuron to transmit charge through cytoplasm. Axon cable properties are poor:

High internal resistance. Many charges leak out of the axon through membrane.

An AP does not travel down the entire axon. Each AP is a stimulus to produce another AP in the next region of membrane with VG channels.

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Conduction in an Unmyelinated Axon

Cable spread of depolarization with influx of Na+ depolarizes the adjacent region membrane, propagating the AP. Conduction rate is slow.

AP must be produced at every fraction of micrometer.

Occurs in 1 direction; previous region is in its refractory period.

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Conduction in Myelinated Axon

Myelin prevents movement of Na+ and K+ through the membrane. Interruption in myelin (Nodes of Ranvier) contain VG Na+ and K+ channels. AP occurs only at the nodes. AP at 1 node depolarizes membrane to reach threshold at next node. Saltatory conduction (leaps). Fast rate of conduction.

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Synapse

Functional connection between a neuron and another neuron or effector cell. Transmission in one direction only. Axon of first (presynaptic) to second (postsynaptic) neuron. Synaptic transmission is through a chemical gated channel. Presynaptic terminal (bouton) releases a neurotransmitter (NT).

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Electrical Synapse

Impulses can be regenerated without interruption in adjacent cells. Gap junctions:

Adjacent cells electrically coupled through a channel. Each gap junction is composed of 12 connexin proteins. Smooth and cardiac muscles, brain, and glial cells.

Examples:

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Chemical Synapse

Terminal bouton is separated from postsynaptic cell by synaptic cleft. NTs are released from synaptic vesicles. Vesicles fuse with axon membrane and NT released by exocytosis. Amount of NTs released depends upon frequency of AP.

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Synaptic Transmission

NT release is rapid because many vesicles form fusion-complexes at docking site. AP travels down axon to bouton. VG Ca2+ channels open.

Ca2+ enters bouton down concentration gradient. Inward diffusion triggers rapid fusion of synaptic vesicles and release of NTs.

Ca2+ activates calmodulin, which activates protein kinase. Protein kinase phosphorylates synapsins.

Synapsins aid in the fusion of synaptic vesicles.

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Synaptic Transmission

(continued)

NTs are released and diffuse across synaptic cleft. NT (ligand) binds to specific receptor proteins in postsynaptic cell membrane. Chemically-regulated gated ion channels open.

EPSP: depolarization. IPSP: hyperpolarization.

Neurotransmitter inactivated to end transmission.

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Chemical Synapses

EPSP (excitatory postsynaptic potential):

Depolarization.

IPSP (inhibitory postsynaptic potential):

Hyperpolarization

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Acetylcholine (ACh) as NT

ACh is both an excitatory and inhibitory NT, depending on organ involved.

Causes the opening of chemical gated ion channels. Found in autonomic ganglia and skeletal muscle fibers.

Nicotinic ACh receptors:

Muscarinic ACh receptors:

Found in the plasma membrane of smooth and cardiac muscle cells, and in cells of particular glands.

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Ligand-Operated ACh Channels

Most direct mechanism. Ion channel runs through receptor. Receptor has 5 polypeptide

subunits that enclose ion channel. 2 subunits contain ACh binding sites.

Channel opens when both sites bind to ACh.

Permits diffusion of Na+ into and K+ out of postsynaptic cell.

Produces EPSPs.

Inward flow of Na+ dominates.

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G Protein-Operated ACh Channel

Only 1 subunit. Ion channels are separate proteins located away from the receptors. Binding of ACh activates alpha G-protein subunit. Alpha subunit dissociates. Alpha subunit or the beta-gamma complex diffuses through membrane until it binds to ion channel, opening it.

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Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)

Enzyme that inactivates ACh.

Present on postsynaptic membrane or immediately outside the membrane.

Prevents continued stimulation.

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ACh in CNS

Cholinergic neurons:

Use ACh as NT. Axon bouton synapses with dendrites or cell body of another neuron.

First VG channels are located at axon hillock. EPSPs spread by cable properties to initial segment of axon. Gradations in strength of EPSPs above threshold determine frequency of APs produced at axon hillock.

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ACh in PNS

Somatic motor neurons synapse with skeletal muscle fibers.

Release ACh from boutons. Produces end-plate potential (EPSPs).

Depolarization opens VG channels adjacent to end plate.

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Monoamines as NT

Monoamine NTs:

Epinephrine. Norepinephrine. Serotonin. Dopamine.

Released by exocytosis from presynaptic vesicles. Diffuse across the synaptic cleft. Interact with specific receptors in postsynaptic membrane.

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Inhibition of Monoamines as NT

Reuptake of monoamines into presynaptic membrane.

Enzymatic degradation of monoamines in presynaptic membrane by MAO.

Enzymatic degradation of catecholamines in postsynaptic membrane by COMT.

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Mechanism of Action

Monoamine NT do not directly open ion channels. Act through second messenger, such as cAMP. Binding of norepinephrine stimulates dissociation of G-protein alpha subunit. Alpha subunit binds to adenylate cyclase, converting ATP to cAMP. cAMP activates protein kinase, phosphorylating other proteins. Open ion channels.

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Serotonin as NT

NT (derived from L-tryptophan) for neurons with cell bodies in raphe nuclei. Regulation of mood, behavior, appetite, and cerebral circulation. SSRIs (serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitors):

Inhibit reuptake and destruction of serotonin, prolonging the action of NT. Used as an antidepressant.

Reduces appetite, treatment for anxiety, treatment for migraine headaches.

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Dopamine an NT

NT for neurons with cell bodies in midbrain. Axons project into:

Nigrostriatal dopamine system:

Nuerons in substantia nigra send fibers to corpus straitum. Initiation of skeletal muscle movement. Parkinsons disease: degeneration of neurons in substantia nigra.

Mesolimbic dopamine system:

Neurons originate in midbrain, send axons to limbic system. Involved in behavior and reward. Addictive drugs:

Promote activity in nucleus accumbens.

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Norepinephrine (NE) as NT

NT in both PNS and CNS. PNS:

Smooth muscles, cardiac muscle and glands.

Increase in blood pressure, constriction of arteries.

CNS:

General behavior.

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Amino Acids as NT

Glutamic acid and aspartic acid: Major excitatory NTs in CNS. Glutamic acid: NMDA receptor involved in memory storage. Glycine: Inhibitory, produces IPSPs. Opening of Cl channels in postsynaptic membrane.

Hyperpolarization.

Helps control skeletal movements. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): Most prevalent NT in brain. Inhibitory, produces IPSPs.

Hyperpolarizes postsynaptic membrane.

Motor functions in cerebellum.

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Polypeptides as NT

CCK:

Promote satiety following meals.

Substance P:

Major NT in sensations of pain.

Synaptic plasticity (neuromodulating effects):

Neurons can release classical NT or the polypeptide NT.

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Polypeptides as NT

Endogenous opiods:

Brain produces its own analgesic endogenous morphine-like compounds, blocking the release of substance P.

Beta-endorphin, enkephalins, dynorphin. Neuropeptide Y: Most abundant neuropeptide in brain. Inhibits glutamate in hippocampus. Powerful stimulator of appetite. NO:

Exerts its effects by stimulation of cGMP.

Macrophages release NO to helps kill bacteria. Involved in memory and learning. Smooth muscle relaxation.

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Endogenous Cannabinoids, Carbon Monoxide

Endocannabinoids:

Bind to the same receptor as THC. Act as analgesics. Function as retrograde NT. Stimulate production of cGMP within neurons. Promotes odor adaptation in olfactory neurons. May be involved in neuroendocrine regulation in hypothalamus.

Carbon monoxide:

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EPSP

No threshold. Decreases resting membrane potential.

Closer to threshold.

Graded in magnitude. Have no refractory period. Can summate.

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Synaptic Integration

EPSPs can summate, producing AP.

Spatial summation:

Numerous boutons converge on a single postsynaptic neuron (distance).

Temporal summation:

Successive waves of neurotransmitter release (time).

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Long-Term Potentiation

May favor transmission along frequently used neural pathways. Neuron is stimulated at high frequency, enhancing excitability of synapse.

Improves efficacy of synaptic transmission.

Neural pathways in hippocampus use glutamate, which activates NMDA receptors.

Involved in memory and learning.

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Synaptic Inhibition

Presynaptic inhibition:

Amount of excitatory NT released is decreased by effects of second neuron, whose axon makes synapses with first neurons axon.

Postsynaptic inhibition (IPSPs):

No threshold. Hyperpolarize postsynaptic membrane. Increase membrane potential. Can summate. No refractory period.