Anatomy & Physiology The Endocrine System Chapter 20

 The Endocrine System is comprised of a group of glands located in the various parts of the body. Gland- is a group of specialized cells that secrete a substance in response to signals. There are two types of glands found in the system: Endocrine and Exocrine. a. Endocrine: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream b. Exocrine: Secrete substances into ducts that open into the bodys external or internal surface. Hormones: are chemical regulators that integrate and coordinate the body activities.
2

Structure and Function

The main function of the endocrine system is to provide a network for the regulation and integration of all body cells, organs, and systems.
Growth and Maturation Metabolism Reproduction

The Glands of the Endocrine System

Include: the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pineal. There are also several organs that secrete hormones, although not classified as endocrine glands. These include:

The hypothalamus Gonads Pancreas Thymus

Specialized hormones are found in the GI tract, kidneys and the heart.
4

The Glands

1. The Pituitary Gland Also known as the hypophysis, is about the size of a pea. It is found in the hollow part of the sphenoid bone called the sella turcica. It is in two parts The anterior lobe The posterior lobe

Role of the Hypothalamus

The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is a tiny, complex portion of the brain and is attached at the hypophyseal stalk. It is considered the Master Gland, as it controls the release of hormones that either inhibit the release or promote the release of hormones by the anterior pituitary gland. Thus, the hypothalamus hormones are called releasing hormones or inhibiting hormones.

The Anterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland

Also known as the adenohypophysis. Several hormones are released by this lobe. These hormones are referred to as glycoproteins because they are made up of carbohydrates and proteins. The hypothalamus controls the adenohypophysis, therefore neural commands release these hormones.
8

The Tropic Hormones

Corticotropin- (CRH)releasing hormone released from the hypothalamus causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.ACTH stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids to metabolize carbohydrates. Thyrotripin releasing hormone (TRH) is also released from the hypothalamus and causes the release of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from the pituitary. TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to produce and secrete thyroxine and triiodothyronine (T4 and T3). The hypothalamus also functions to inhibit TSH, by releasing growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH). Growth Hormone (GH) or Human Growth Hormone (hGH) is also called somatotropin and is produced and released from the anterior pituitary. This hormone is stimulated by the release of growth hormone releasing hormone (GRH or GHRH) by the hypothalamus. GH stimulates growth in all body tissues. Helps assist amino acids into body tissues to build up proteins.

Gonadotropin releasing hormone ( GnRH) causes the anterior pituitary to secrete two hormones called gonadotripins that stimulate the sex glands in the body. These two hormones are called follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone.

FSH stimulates the growth and secretion of follicles in women and sperm production in men. LH in women stimulates ovulation. In men, LH is called interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) and this hormone influences the secretion of testosterone and other sex hormones in the testes.

Beta Endorphins are similar to ACTH and have the same effect as morphine and opiate drugs. Prolactin (PRL) is stimulated by prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) and stimulates milk production in post pregnant women. Men also secrete PRL. Inhibition of PRL occurs due to the hypothalamus secretion of prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH).

10

Middle lobe of the Pituitary

The most important hormone released here is the melanocytes stimulating hormone (MSH) which is stimulated by the CRH from the hypothalamus. It is responsible for skin pigmentation. The hypothalamus inhibits the secretion of MSH by secreting melanocytes inhibiting factor (MIF).

11

The Posterior Lobe of the Pituitary Gland

Also called the neurohypophysis is an outgrowth of the hypothalamus and is derived from the nervous system. There are two hormones released from this site. Oxytocin ( Pitosin) which stimulates the uterus to contract during delivery and stimulates the release of breast milk. Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH) stimulates the contraction of blood vessels to raise blood pressure, affects the uterus, and causes the kidneys to reabsorb water.
12

13

Thyroid Gland
Is the largest of the endocrine glands in the front of the neck, just below the larynx. There is a lobe on each side of the trachea. Three hormones include: thyroxine (T4) triodothyronine (T3). Calcitonin or thyrocalcitonin These two hormones are made in the gland with iodine. More T4 is found in the blood, compared to T3. T4 is converted to T3 before it can be used in the body. They regulate body metabolism. Iodine is removed from the blood by the thyroid to make T4. Insufficient dietary intake of iodine can lead to a goiter, an enlarged thyroid gland. When there isnt enough iodine, the hypothalamus will release thyroid stimulating hormone. When excess TSH is released, the thyroid gland enlarges. Calcitonin helps maintain the bodys calcium levels. When there is too much circulating calcium, calcitonin responds by promoting increased storage of calcium in the bones and increased renal extretion of calcium. This leads to lower serum calcium levels.
14

The Parathyroids

Are small glands that are about the size of a pea that are on either side of the thyroid gland. Usually, there are four, in two pair. They secrete a hormone called (PTH) parathormone or parathyroid hormone. This helps regulate the amount of calcium and phosphorous in the blood. This helps muscle and nerves to work. Parathormone causes calcium to leave the bones. PTH also enhances the reabsorption of calcium and magnesium and excretion of phosphorus in the kidneys. It also helps formulate calcitrol, a hormone made from vitamin D. Calcitrol helps increase the rate of absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorous from the GI tract into the blood. PTH has the opposite action of calcitonin.

15

The Adrenal Glands

Are also called the suprarenal glands, sit on top of each kidney. The adrenal gland is like the pituitary gland in that it has two parts producing two different hormones.

16

The Adrenal Medulla

This is the central portion of the gland and secretes hormones called catecholamines. They are essentially amino acids. 80% of the secretions are epinephrine and nor-epinephrine and help the body to adapt to stress. They are not essential to life as the bodys sympathetic nervous system can help with that. Epinephrine does help the heart beat faster, constricts blood vessels and causes the liver to release glucose for energy.
Fight or Flight Epinephrine Pens for bee stings Adapt to stress
17

The Adrenal Cortex

The outer part of the adrenal glands Secretes Corticosteroids- derive from cholesterol

Mineralcorticoids- regulate the amount of electrolytes that are in the body. Aldosterone- stimulates the absorption of sodium in the plasma. Results in increased water reabsorption and increased blood pressure. Glucocorticoids- help use glucose, amino acids and fats. Depress the immune response and decrease the inflammatory response. Increases during times of stress. Hydrocortisone (Cortisol) . Topical / oral medications. Sex Hormones androgens estrogens progesterins Supplement the sex hormones of the gonads. Adrenals primarily secrete androgens.
18

Pineal Gland

Also known as the pineal body. Small structure at the top of the brains third ventricle. Produces melatonin- reacts to the amount of sunlight. Effects the sleep-wake cycle. Sunlight effects the distribution of epinephrine / norepinepherine. The pineal gland may also effect the release of gonadatripin. Therefore, the amount of sunlight received influences breeding seasons in animals.

19

The Gonads

The glands of reproduction. Male- Testes- produce sperm and testosterone. Also adrogens, which produce masculine effects. Female- ovaries- progesterone and estrogen.

20

The Pancreas
Is both an endocrine and an exocrine gland. As an exocrine gland- releases digestive enzymes into the duct system leading to the small intestines. As an endocrine gland- one to two million small islets or cells that secrete hormones. The Islets of Langerhans The types of cells that secrete hormones called alpha, beta, delta and F cells. The hormones they secrete are glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. 20% of the cells are alpha cells that secrete glucagon. Glucagon is secreted to oppose insulin, thereby raising blood sugar. Glucagon is needed to break down stored sugar (glycogen) into glucose. This process is called glycogenolysis. It also stimulates the breakdown of fat and protein in the liver to be converted for additional glucose. The process of converting fat and protein into glycogen is called gluconeogenesis. 70 % of the islet cells are beta cells and they secrete insulin. Insulin is a protein that regulates carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism and storage. Its primary function is to control the bodys glucose levels. 5% of the islets are delta cells and they secrete somatostatin. Somatostatin acts much like growth hormone inhibiting hormone. It inhibits the release of insulin and glucagon. 5% of the islets are F cells and they secrete pancreatic polypetptides. These cause the inhibition of secretions of somatostatin and pancreatic digestive enzymes.

21

The Thymus
Lies behind the sternum ( breast bone). The thymus shrinks as we get older. The thymus produces thymosin, which stimulates the production of Tcells. Thus, they help in developing immunity and fighting off disease.

22

OTHER SITES THAT SECRETE HORMONES.

23

Gastrointestinal Tract

The Stomach

Produces Gastrin- a hormone that stimulates the stomach lining to secrete gastric juises. Pancreoenzymin / secretin- stimulates the pancreas

The Upper Small Intestines

Cholecystikinin- stimulates the gallbladder

24

Placenta
Temporary endocrine gland that helps maintain pregnancy.
Estrogen, progesterone, human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG).

Lab tests evaluate for HCG levels to determine pregnancy

25

Kidneys

Juxtaglomerular apparatus produces rennin to assist in blood pressure control. Erythropoietin helps stimulate red blood cell production.

26

Heart

Atrial Natriuretic Peptide- inhibits sodium reabsorption and promotes diuresis resulting in lowering of blood pressure.

27

Most Tissues in the Body

Leukotrienes- hormones that are involved in the bodys inflammatory process. Prostoglandins- fatty acids that resemble hormones. Effects are localized. Causes pain, platelet function, cause contraction or relaxation of smooth muscle.
Ibuprofen- is a prostaglandin inhibitor. Prevents the production of prostaglandin.

28

SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY
The endocrine system is interdependent with other body systems, particularly with the nervous system. Also, the circulatory system transports the hormones as needed.

29

The hypothalamus and the anterior and middle pituitary of a unit called the information relay system. They respond to changes in the internal and external environment. Hormones bind to receptor or target cells in a lock and key fasion. The target cells then respond by inhibiting or speeding up body reactions to stimuli.
30

Negative feedback seeks to decrease a stimulus. When a desired effect is achieved, the negative feedback system works to stop the stimulus and bring the body into homeostasis. A positive feedback system works to enhance the body reaction, so that hormones are then released in response to a stimulus. Thus, increased hormone production takes place until the body returns to homeostasis.

31

Effects of Aging on the System

Decreased Insulin sensitivity Decreased thyroid production Reduced testosterone by testes Reduced estrogen / progesterone Reduced hormone production overall.

32

 Menopause decrease in estrogen levels. Breast tissue changes from glandular to connective / adipose tissue. Uterus/ external genetalia shrink with age. Hirsutism- increase in facial hair. Sperm production decreases Loss of hair Impotence

33

This Ends The Endocrine System

34