Functions and Graphs http://www.intmath.com/functions-and-graphs/functions-graphs-intro.

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By M Bourne

Rene Descartes A very significant development in mathematics was the introduction of the Cartesian Coordinate system (or x-y coordinate system), developed by Rene Descartes (1596 - 1650). We usually draw the graph of a function using the Cartesian Coordinate system. This system made a lot of new mathematics possible, including calculus. The graph of a function is really useful if we are trying to model a realworld problem. Sometimes we may not know an expression for a function but we do know some values (maybe from an experiment). The graph can give us a good idea of what function may be applied to the situation to solve the problem.

In this Chapter Functions Overview

1. Introduction to Functions - definition of a function, function notation and examples 2a. Domain and Range of a Function - the x- and y-values that a function can take 2b. Functions from Verbal Statements - turning word problems into functions Graphs of Functions 3. Rectangular Coordinates - the system we use to graph our functions

The cartesian plane 4. The Graph of a Function - examples and an application 5. Graphing Using a Computer Algebra System - some thoughts on using computers to graph functions 6. Graphs of Functions Defined by Tables of Data - often we don't have an algebraic expression for a function, just tables 7. Continuous and Discontinuous Functions - the difference becomes important in later mathematics 8. Split Functions - these have different expressions for different values of the independent variable 9. Even and Odd Functions - these are useful in more advanced mathematics

Let's now learn about definition of a function and function notation .

1. Introduction to Functions In everyday life, many quantities depend on one or more changing variable quantities eg: (a) plant growth depends on sunlight and rainfall (b) speed determination depends on distance travelled and time taken (c) voltage depends on current and resistance (d) test marks depend on attitude, listening in lectures and doing tutorials (among many other variables!!) Functions A function is a rule that relates how one quantity depends on other quantities. For example, (a) V = IR where V = voltage (V) I = current (A) R = resistance () If I increases, so does the voltage (assuming resistance is constant). If R increases, so does the voltage (assuming current is constant).

(b)

where

s = speed (m / s) d = distance (m)

t = time taken (s) If d increases, the speed goes up (assuming time is constant). If t increases, the speed goes down (assuming distance is constant). Definition of a Function Whenever a relationship exists between two variables (or quantities) such that for every value of the first, there is only one corresponding value of the second, then we say: "The second variable is a function of the first variable." The first variable is the independent variable (usually x), and the second variable is the dependent variable (usually y). The independent variable and the dependent variable are real numbers. Example 1 We know the equation for the area of a circle from primary school: A = r2 This is a function as each value of the independent variable r gives us one value of the dependent variable A. General Cases We use x (independent) and y (dependent) variables for general cases. Example 2 In the equation y = 3x + 1, y is a function of x, since for each value of x, there is only one value of y. If we substitute x = 5, we get y = 16 and no other value.

The values of y we get depend on the values chosen for x. Therefore, x is the independent variable and y is the dependent variable. Example 3 The force F required to accelerate an object of mass 5 kg by an acceleration of a ms-2 is given by: F = 5a. Here, F is a function of the acceleration, a. The dependent variable is F and the independent variable is a. Function Notation We normally write functions as: f(x) and read this as "function f of x". We can use other letters for functions. Common ones are g(x) and h(x). But there are also ones like P(t) which could indicate power at time t. Example 4 We often come across functions like: y = 2x2+ 5x + 3 We can write this using function notation: f(x) = 2x2 + 5x + 3 Function notation is all about substitution. The value of the function f(x) when x = a is written as f(a). Example 5 If we have f(x) = 4x + 10, the value of f(x) for x = 3 is written: f(3) = 4 3 + 10 = 22 When x = 3, the value of the function f(x) is 22.

Mathematical Notation Mathematics is often confusing because of the way it is written. We write 5(102) and it means 5 102 = 500. But if we write a(102), this could mean

"function a of 102" (that is, the value of the function a when the independent variable is 102) or it could mean a 102 = 100a.

You have to be careful with this. Also, be careful when substituting letters or expressions into functions. See a discussion on this: Towards more meaningful math notation. Example 6 If h(x) = dx3 + 5x then value of h(x) for x = 10 is: h(10) = d(10)3 + 5(10) = 1000d + 50 Example 7 If the height of an object at time t is given by h(t) = 10t2 2t, then a. The height at time t = 4 is h(4) = 10(4)2 2(4) = 10 16 8 = 152 b. The height at time t = b is h(b) = 10b2 2b c. The height at time t = 3b is

h(3b) = 10(3b)2 2(3b) = 10 9b2 6b = 90b2 6b d. The height at time t = b + 1 is h(b + 1) = 10(b + 1)2 2(b + 1) = 10 (b2 + 2b + 1) 2b 2 = 10b2 + 20b + 10 2b 2 = 10b2 + 18b + 8 Exercises: Evaluate the following functions: (1) Given f(x) = 3x + 20, find a. f(-4) Answer a. f(-4) = 3(-4) + 20 = -12 + 20 = 8 b. f(10) = 3(10) + 20 = 30 + 20 = 50 Get the Daily Math Tweet! IntMath on Twitter (2) Given that the height of a particular object at time t is h(t) = 50t 4.9t2, find a. h(2) Answer a. h(2) = 50(2) 4.9(2)2 = 100 19.6 = 80.4 b. h(5) = 50(5) 4.9(5)2 = 250 122.5 = 127.5 (3) The voltage, V, in a circuit is a function of time t, and is given by: b. h(5) b. f(10)

V(t) = 3t 1.02t Find the voltage at time a. t = 4 Answer a. V(4) = 3(4) 1.024 = 12 1.08 = 10.92 b. V(c + 10) = 3(c + 10) 1.02c + 10 = 3c + 30 1.02c + 10 2a. Domain and Range of a Function Definitions of Domain and Range Domain The domain of a function is the complete set of possible values of the independent variable in the function. In plain English, this definition means: The domain of a function is the set of all possible x values which will make the function "work" and will output real y-values. When finding the domain, remember:

b. t = c + 10

The denominator (bottom) of a fraction cannot be zero The values under a square root sign must be positive

Example: The function y = (x + 4) has the following graph.

The domain of the function is x 4, since x cannot take values less than 4. (Try some values in your calculator, some less than 4 and some more than 4. The only ones that "work" and give us an answer are the ones greater than or equal to 4). Note: 1. The enclosed (colored-in) circle on the point (-4, 0). This indicates that the domain "starts" at this point. 2. Don't worry about where that graph came from - we'll learn how to draw these later, in section 4, Graph of a Function. Range The range of a function is the complete set of all possible resulting values of the dependent variable of a function, after we have substituted the values in the domain. In plain English, the definition means: The range of a function is the possible y values of a function that result when we substitute all the possible x-values into the function. When finding the range, remember:

Substitute different x-values into the expression for y to see what is happening Make sure you look for minimum and maximum values of y Draw a sketch!

Example 1: Let's return to the example above, y = (x + 4). We notice that there are only positive y-values. There is no value of x that we can find such that we will get a negative value of y. We say that the range for this function is y 0. (The squiggle at the top of the arrow indicates the range goes on forever, beyond what is shown on the graph.)

Example 2: The curve of y = sin x shows the range to be betweeen 1 and 1.

The domain of the function y = sin x is "all values of x", since there are no restrictions on the values for x. More Domain and Range Examples You can see more examples of domain and range in the section Inverse Trigonometric Functions.

Note 1: Because we are assuming that only real numbers are to be used in the domain and range of a function, values that lead to division by zero or to imaginary numbers are not included. The Complex Numbers chapter explains more about imaginary numbers. Note 2: Many people ask for the square root example, "What about the negative values when we find a square root?" A square root has at most one value, not 2. See this discussion: Square Root 16 - how many answers? Also, we are talking about the domain and range of functions, which have at most one y-value for each x-value. Exercise 1 (a) Find the domain and range for the function f(x) = x2 + 2. Answer The function f(x) = x2 + 2 is defined for all real values of x (because there are no restrictions on the value of x). Hence, the domain of f(x) is "all real values of x". Since x2 is never negative, x2 + 2 is never less than 2 Hence, the range of f(x) is "all real numbers f(x) 2". We can see that x can take any value in the graph, but the resulting y = f(x) values are greater than or equal to 2.

Note
1. It is important to label the axes when sketching graphs. It helps with

understanding what the graph represents. 2. We'll learn how to sketch such graphs later, in Graph of a Function.

Please support IntMath! (b) Find the domain and range for the function

Answer The function

is not defined for t = -2, as this value would result in division by zero. Hence the domain of f(t) is "all real numbers except -2"

Also, no matter how large or small t becomes, f(t) will never be equal to zero. So the range of f(t) is "all real numbers except zero". We can see in the graph that the function is not defined for t = -2 and that the function (the y-values) takes all values except 0.

Exercise 2 Find the domain and range for the function Answer The function

is not defined for real numbers greater than 3, which would result in imaginary values for g(s). Hence, the domain for g(s) is "all real numbers, s 3". Also, by definition, 0.

Hence, the range of g(s) is "all real numbers g(s) 0" We can see in the graph that s takes no values greater than 3, and that the range is greater than or equal to 0.

How to find the domain In general, we determine the domain of each function by looking for those values of the independent variable (usually x) which we are allowed to use. (Usually we have to avoid 0 on the bottom of a fraction, or negative values under the square root sign). The range of each function is found through an inspection of the function. (What are the resulting y-values?) Exercise 3 Find the domain and range for the function defined as f(x) = x2 + 4 for x > 2 Answer The function f(x) has a domain of "all real numbers, x > 2" by definition. To find the range:

when x = 2, f(2) = 8 when x increases from 2, f(x) becomes larger than 8

Hence, the range is "all real numbers, f(x) > 8" Here is the graph of the function, with an open circle at (2, 8) indicating that the domain does not include x = 2 and the range does not include f(2) = 8.

The function is part of a parabola. [See more on parabola.] Exercise 4 More Domain and Range Examples In case you missed it earlier, you can see more examples of domain and range in the section Inverse Trigonometric Functions. We are told that the height h, in metres, of a certain projectile as a function of time t, in seconds, is h = 20t 4.9t2 Find the domain and range for the function h(t). Answer Generally, negative values of time do not have any meaning. Also, we need to assume that the projectile hits the ground and then stops - it does not go underground.

So we need to calculate when it is going to hit the ground. This will be when h = 0. So we solve: 20t 4.9t2 = 0 Factoring gives: (20 4.9t)t = 0 This is true when t = 0 s, or t = 20/4.9 = 4.082 s Hence, the domain of the function h is "all real values of t such that 0 t 4.082" We can see from the function expression that it is a parabola with its vertex facing up. (This makes sense if you think about throwing a ball to your friend. It goes up to a certain height and then falls back down.) What is the maximum value of h? We use the formula for maximum (or minimum) of a quadratic function. The value of t that gives the maximum is t = -b/2a = -20/(-2 4.9) = 2.041 s So the maximum value is 20(2.041) 4.9(2.041)2 = 20.408 m By observing the function of h, we see that as t increases, h first increases to a maximum of 20.408 m, then h decreases again to zero, as expected. Hence, the range of h is "all real numbers, 0 h 20.408"

Here is the graph of the function h:

Functions defined by coordinates Sometimes we don't have continuous functions. How do we find the domain and range? Let's look at an example. Exercise 5 Find the domain and range of the function defined by the coordinates: {(4, 1), (2, 2.5), (2, 1), (3, 2)} Answer Here is the graph of our discontinuous function.

The domain is simply the x-values given: x = {4, 2, 2, 3} The range consists of the f(x)-values given: f(x) = {1, 1, 2, 2.5} 2b. Functions from Verbal Statements

Example 1: The fixed cost for a company to operate a certain plant is $3,000 per day. It also costs $4 for each unit produced in the plant. Express the daily cost C of operating the plant as a function of the number n of units produced. Answer The daily total cost C equals the fixed cost of $3,000 plus the cost of producing n units. Since the cost of producing 1 unit is $4, the cost of producing n units is $4n Thus the total cost C, where C = f(n) is C = 3000 + 4n

Here the domain is "all integer values, n 0" while the range is "all integer values, C 3000" Example 2:

An architect designs a window such that it has the shape of a rectangle with a semicircle on top, as shown. (This kind of window is called a Norman window). The architect wants the base of the window to be 10 cm less than the height of the rectangular part. Express the perimeter p of the window as a function of the radius r of the circular part. Answer We label the points on the window for convenience:

Perimeter p, where p = f(r): p = circumference of the semicircle + length AB + length BC + length CD

p=

(2 r) + (2r + 10) + 2r + (2r + 10)

p = r + 6r + 20 Since the radius cannot be negative, and there would be no window if r = 0, then... The domain of the function is: all real values, 0 < r R, where R is some maximum possible value of r (determined by design considerations). Exercises Question 1 For F(t) = 3t - t2 for t 2, find F(2) and F(3). Answer F(t) = 3t - t2 F(2) = 3(2) - (2)2 =6-4 =2 F(3) is not defined since t 2. Question 2 A rocket burns up at the rate of 2 Mg/min after falling out of orbit into the atmosphere. If the rocket weighed 5,500 Mg before re-entry, express its weight w as a function of the time t, in minutes, of re-entry. Answer

Note: 1 Mg = 1 megagram = 1 million grams = 1000 kg Answer: w = 5500 - 2t 3. Rectangular Coordinates A good way of presenting a function is by graphical representation. Graphs give us a visual picture of the function. There are several different ways to graph a function, but the most common way is to use the rectangular co-ordinate system. This consists of: The x-axis; The y-axis; The origin (0,0); and The four quadrants, normally labelled I, II, III, IV

Normally, the values of the independent variable (generally the x-values) are placed on the horizontal axis, while the values of the dependent variable (generally the y-values) are placed on the vertical axis. The x-value, called the abscissa, is the perpendicular distance of P from the y-axis. The y-value, called the ordinate, is the perpendicular distance of P from the x-axis.

The values of x and y together, written as (x, y) are called the co-ordinates of the point P. Example 1 Locate the points A(2 , 1) and B(-4 , -3) on the rectangular co-ordinate system.

Answer To answer this properly, we need to do the following:

2. Put a scale on the axes (the numbers) such that the points will fit on the graph. 3. Then put dots for the required points A and B. Here is our result.

Example 2

Three vertices of a rectangle are A(-3 , -2), B(4 , -2) and C(4,1). Where is the fourth vertex D? Answer Here are the positions of points A, B and C:

Since the opposite sides of a rectangle are equal and parallel, we can see that: the y co-ordinate of D is 1 the x co-ordinate of D is -3 Hence, the co-ordinates of D are (-3, 1). Easy to understand math videos: MathTutorDVD.com Example 3 Where are all points (x , y) for which x < 0 and y < 0? Answer We have:

x < 0 means that x is negative, and y < 0 also means that y is negative,

So the only region where both co-ordinates for all points are negative is the "third quadrant (III)". The shaded area represents the region in question:

Please support IntMath! Exercises Q1 Where are all the points whose abscissas equal their ordinates? Answer "Abscissas" means x-values, while "ordinates" means y-values. So the question means "where on the rectangular system do we have x = y for all points (x, y)?" In other words, we want a line connecting points like (-3, -3) and (0, 0) and (5, 5) and (700, 700). The line we want cuts the first and third quadrants in half at 45. We can write this line as y = x.

Q2 Where are all the points (x, y) for which x = 0 and y < 0? Answer They are on the negative part of the y-axis.

4. The Graph of a Function The graph of a function is the set of all points whose co-ordinates (x, y) satisfy the function y = f(x). This means that for each x-value there is a corresponding y-value which is obtained when we substitute into the expression for f(x). Since there is no limit to the possible number of points for the graph of the function, we will follow this procedure at first: - select a few values of x - obtain the corresponding values of the function - plot these points by joining them with a smooth curve However, you are encouraged to learn the general shapes of certain common curves (like straight line, parabola, trigonometric and exponential curves) - it's much easier than plotting points and more useful for later!

Example 1 A man who is 2 m tall throws a ball straight up and its height at time t (in s) is given by h = 2 + 9t - 4.9t2 m. Graph the function. Answer We start at t = 0 since negative values of time have no practical meaning here. t 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

h 2 5.3 6.1 4.5 0.4

This shape is called a parabola and is common in applications of mathematics. NOTE: (1) This graph is height against time. The ball went straight up, not forward. (Our graph may give the impression the ball moved in the xdirection as well as up, but this was not the case. (2) We could have written the function in this example with h(t) rather than just h as follows: h(t) = 2 + 9t - 4.9t2. They mean the same thing.

Example 2 The velocity (in m/s) of the ball in Example 1 at time t (in s) is given by v = 9 - 9.8t Draw the v-t graph. What is the velocity when the ball hits the ground? Answer Since we recognise it is a straight line, we only need to plot 2 points and join them. But we find 3 points, just to make sure we have the correct line. t 0 1 2

v 9 -0.8 -10.6

Our graph starts at t = 0 (since negative time values have no meaning in this example).

For the first 0.918 s, the ball us going up (positive velocity), but slowing down. Thereafter, the ball is coming down towards the ground. The ball hits the ground at approx t = 2.04 s (we can see this from Example 1). The velocity when the ball hits the ground from the graph we just drew is about -11 m/s. The graph stops at this point. Our graph assumes the ball lands in sand and doesn't bounce. Normally, as we have done here, we take velocity in the up direction to be positive. Example 3 Graph the function y = x - x2 Answer (a) Determine the values in the table x -2 -1 0 1 2 3

y -6 -2 0 0 -2 -6 (b) Since y = 0 for both x = 0 and x = 1, check what happens in between. That is, for , we find that .

Note the curve continues beyond what is shown in the graph. Get the Daily Math Tweet! IntMath on Twitter Example 4 Graph the function Answer (a) Note: y is not defined for x = 0, due to division by 0 Hence, x = 0 is not in the domain (b) Draw up a table of values: x -4 -3 -2 -1 1 0 2 3 4

y 3/4 2/3 1/2

2 3/2 4/3 5/4

(c) Check what happens between x = -1 and x = 1:

when when

, y = -1 ,y=3

(d) As x gets closer to 0, the points get closer to the y-axis, although they do not touch it. The y-axis is called an asymptote of the curve.

There is another aymptote in this curve: y = 1. Notice the curve does not pass through this value. Easy to understand math videos: MathTutorDVD.com Example 5 Graph the function Answer

(a) Note: y is not defined for values of x less than -1 Hence, x < -1 is not in the domain (b) determine the values in the table: x -1 0 y 0 1 2 3 4 5

1 1.4 1.7 2 2.2 2.4

(c) The positive square root is indicated,hence, the range consists of all positive values of y, including 0 (ie. y 0)

Get the Daily Math Tweet! IntMath on Twitter Example 6 The electric power P (in watts) delivered by a battery as a function of the resistance R (in ohms) is :

Plot the power as a function of the resistance. Answer

(a) Negative values for R have no physical significance, hence P is not plotted for negative values of R. (b) Draw up a table of values: R 0 1 2 3 4 5

P 0 44.4 32.0 24.5 19.8 16.5 (c) Check what happens between R = 0 and R = 1 ie. when R = 0.25, P = 44.4 R = 0.50, P = 50 R = 0.75, P = 48

Note the axes are labelled with R (resistance) and P (power). (d) Conclusions: (i) The maximum power of 50 W occurs when resistance R = 0.5 W (ii) P decreases as R increases beyond 0.5 W

Exercises Graph the given functions Q1 y = x3 x2 Answer (a) There are no restrictions on the values that x can take in this example. (b) Draw up a table of values: x -1 0 1 2 3

y -2 0 0 4 18 Since y = 0 when x = 0 and x = 1, we examine what happens between those 2 x-values: When x = 1/2, y = -1/8. Here is our graph:

Q2 Answer We can only take the square root of a positive number so x 0. The square root of a number can only be positive, so y 0. This graph is actually one half of a parabola, with horizontal axis.

Conical water tank Q3. (Application) Water flows out of an inverted cone (ie the water flows through the pointy end of the cone and the widest part of the cone is at the top). The volume of the water is decreasing at a constant rate. Draw a sketch graph of the height of the water in the cone versus the time. Answer We need to model the height at time t based on what we know about cones. We also need to assume several things. The volume of a cone is V = r2h/3.

For simplicity, let r = h, then V = h3/3. So the height of the cone is given by the cube root of 3V/. We take a cone with "easy" values, say h = r = 10. This has volume 1000/3 units. If the water drains out in 10 seconds, it means 100/3 units will drain out each second. Thus the amount of water left after t seconds is given by (1000 100t)/3 units. The height at time t will be the cube root of (1000 - 100t). That is, The graph of our model is given below.

5. Graphs Using a Computer Algebra System

The graph of z = 4x3 + y3 We now have many tools which can help us to do mathematics. All of your mathematics subjects require you to draw graphs. It is good to do lots of practise. Another way is to get some useful tools. Once you start using a Computer Algebra System you will find that it changes your whole view on mathematics. It takes a lot of the tedium out of algebra and frees up time to think about what you are doing. Some of the many commercial CASs available:

Matlab - an industry leader MathCad - a sophisticated CAS Mathematica - also very sophisticated and also has a Web output Scientific Notebook (used in Interactive Mathematics. See SNB Information)and the related product Scientific Workplace LiveMath (used in Interactive Mathematics - see LiveMath Highlights Derive (now part of Texas Instruments)

Open Source Computer Algebra Systems For those of you on a tight budget (aren't we all?), here is a list of open source computer algebra systems. Graphics Calculators I was actually never in the position where I needed to use graphics calculators. They are certainly better than nothing and make class sets feasible.

Online Graphing Calculator: Plot your own SVG Math Graphs

You can plot 2 functions, function 1 (in blue) and function 2 (in green). Edit your functions and then click the "Graph it" button below. Function 1: Function 2: Min x-value: Max x-value: Min y-value: Max y-value: Grid space (vertical): Grid space (horizontal):

Some graphs to try The graphing calculator will accept any of the following functions (use the notation shown):

Straight lines: (like 3x - 2) Polynomials: (like x^3 + 3x^2 - 5x + 2) Any of the trigonometric functions: sin(x), cos(x/2), tan(2x), csc(3x), sec(x/4), cot(x) The inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin(x), arccos(x), arctan(x), arccsc(x), arcsec(x), arccot(x) Exponential (e^x) and logarithm (ln(x) for natural log. For log base 10 you need to put ln(x)/ln(10). I'm using Change of Base rule.) Absolute value: use "abs" like this: abs(x) The hyperbolic functions and their inverses: sinh(x), cosh(x), tanh(x), arcsinh(x), arccosh(x), arctanh(x) Sign (returns 1 if the sign of the function value is positive, 1 if the sign of the function is negative. For example, try sign(sin(x)))

In fact, you can use most of the javascript math functions, including

ceiling: ceil(x) and round: round(x) random: random(x);

square root: sqrt(x)

You can also use any combinations of the above, like "ln(abs(x))". You can just have one graph if you want - just leave one of the "function" boxes empty. More Information The above illustration is an example of vector graphics - images that are made using vectors. The graph is not an image (that is it's not a .GIF or .JPG). It is a scalable vector graphics text file which is being rendered by your browser as a picture. Credit to the developers of ASCIISVG, particularly Peter Jipsen, Chapman University. See also: Math graphs on the Web without images For more information about vectors, see:

Vector Addition (example graphs showing many examples of vector addition) Vector Art (an important new branch of art, made using vectors) 6. Graphs of Functions Defined by Tables of Data

One important way to show the relationship between variables is by using a table of values obtained by observation and experimentation. Such data values would indicate whether the variables are related (ie. have a formula that links them). Such points are normally plotted with a smooth curve. Exception:

When data values are taken only for certain intervals or are averaged over the intervals, then the intervals between the points have no real meaning. Such points are connected by straight line segments. Example 1 The electric energy usage (in MJ) for a particular house for each month of a certain year is given in the following table: Month Energy Usage Month Energy Usage Plot these data Answer Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

10 504 12 363 10 168 7 500 4 825 3 568 Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

2 548 2 887

3 301 5 748 7 302 9 706

Since we are given the total energy usage for each month, there is no meaning to the intervals between the months. Therefore, a histogram is used. We don't join the data points with lines.

Example 2 Steam in a boiler was heated to 150 C. Its temperature was then recorded each minute as follows: Time (min) Temp (C) 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

150.0 142.8 138.5 135.2 132.7 130.8

Plot the graph. Answer Since the temperature changes in a continuous way, there is meaning to the values in the intervals between the points. Therefore, the points are joined by a smooth curve.

The "squiggle" on the y-axis indicates the scale does not start at 0. Estimating values We can estimate values of one variable for given values of the other. For instance, the temperature after 2.5 min can be estimated from the graph as 137 C (dark red arrows below).

Similarly, the time taken for the steam to cool down to 141.0 C is estimated to be 1.4 min (dark green arrows).

Linear Interpolation A more accurate way of estimating values from a graph is called linear interpolation. Linear interpolation assumes that if a particular value lies between two of those listed in the table, then the corresponding value of the other variable is at the same proportional distance between the listed values. Example (3) Use linear interpolation to find the temperature of the cooling steam after 1.4 min: Time (min) Temp (C) Answer 1.0 1.4 2.0

142.8 ??? 138.5

Using the method of proportions:

So x = -1.7 Therefore 142.8 - 1.7 = 141.1 C is the required temperature Exercise The following table gives the fraction f of the total heating load of a system that will be supplied by a solar collector of area A: A (m2) f 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

0.22 0.30 0.37 0.44 0.50 0.56 0.61

By means of linear interpolation, for A = 36 m2, find f. Answer We use one portion of the table and add our required unknown, as follows: A (m2) f 30 36 40

0.30 ?? 0.37

Using proprtions again, we have:

Solving for x gives: x = 0.042 So the required value is f = 0.37 0.042 = 0.328 7. Continuous and Discontinuous Functions by M. Bourne This section is related to the earlier section on Domain and Range of a Function. There are some functions that are not defined for certain values of x. Continuous Functions Consider the graph of f(x) = x3 6x2 x + 30:

We can see that there are no "gaps" in the curve. Any value of x will give us a corresponding value of y. We could continue the graph in the negative and positive directions, and we would never need to take the pencil off the paper. Such functions are called continuous functions. Functions With Discontinuities

Now consider the function

We note that the curve is not continuous at x = 1.

We observe that a small change in x near x = 1 gives a very large change in the value of the function. For a function to be continuous at a point, the function must exist at the point and any small change in x produces only a small change in f(x). In simple English: The graph of a continuous function can be drawn without lifting the pencil from the paper. Many functions have discontinuities (i.e. places where they cannot be evaluated.) Example

Consider the function

. Factorising the denominator gives:

. We observe that the function is not defined for x = 0 and x = 1.

We see that small changes in x near 0 (and near 1) produce large changes in the value of the function. We say the function is continuous for all values of x except x = 0 and x = 1. Note: You will often get strange results when using Scientific Notebook (or LiveMath or any other mathematics software) if you try to graph functions which have discontinuities. Here is the same function default graph view in Scientific Notebook: in the

It is showing us all the vertical values that it can (from an extremely small negative number to a very large positive number) - but we need to restrict those values so we can see the true shape of the curve, like this (I have changed the view of the vertical axis from -12 to 10):

Continuity and Differentiation Later you will meet the concept of differentiation. We will learn that a function is differentiable only where it is continuous 8. Split Functions (Piecewise-defined functions) By D Hu and M Bourne Most functions you are familiar with are defined in the same manner for all values of x. However, there are some functions which are defined differently in different domains. These are known as split functions (or piecewise-defined functions). Because split functions may have drastically different behaviours in different domains (that is, for different x-values), it is quite common for a split function to be non-continuous (and as we learn later, it cannot be differentiated). Example 1 - Ordinary Function for Comparison f(x) = -x2 + 4

This function is not a split function. It is defined the same way for all values of x. To find the value of the function at a given x-value, simply substitute into f(x) = -x2 + 4 Some values for f(x) = -x2 + 4 are as follows: x f(x) -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 -5 0 3 3

4 3 0 -5

Example 1 - Split Function

In the region x < 1, we have a straight line with slope 2 and y-intercept 3. As x approaches 1, the value of the function approaches 5 (but does not reach it because of the "<" sign). Now for the region x 1. When x = 1, the function has value f(-1) = -(1)2 + 2 = -1 +2 = 1. As we go further to the right, the function takes values based on f(x) = -x2 + 2. It is a parabola.

This function has a discontinuity at x = 1, but it is actually defined for x = 1 (and has value 1). Here's how it looks in LiveMath: LIVEMath Later we will learn about Differentiation. This function is differentiable for all values of x except x = 1. Example 2

Answer In the region x < -2, the function is defined as: y = -2x - 8 As x gets closer to -2 from the left side, we can see that the value of the function gets closer to -4.

Now for the region x > -2. The function on this side is defined as y = 3x + 2 As x approaches -2 from the right, we see that the function value also approaches -4. The function is not defined at x = -2 so it is not continuous there. We represent this with an open circle on the graph.

Easy to understand math videos: MathTutorDVD.com Example 3

This function is defined in three ways.

For x less than -2, the function is defined as sin x. Between -2 and 2, the function is defined as 2 - x/2 (straight line). Finally, for x greater than 2, the function is x2 - 8x + 10 (parabola).

So, to determine the value of the function at a particular x-value, it is first necessary to decide which "piece" this value falls within. Only then can we know which expression to substitute into. Notice that the function is defined for all x, but has discontinuities at -2 and 2. Here are some function values for this split function: x f(x) -4 0.757 -3 -0.141 -2 3 -1 0 1 2 3 4

2.5 2 1.5 -2 -5 -6

Example 4 - Split Function (Continuous)

This function is split into two pieces. For negative values of x, the function is identical to x (straight line). For non-negative values of x, the function is identical to 1/5 sin 5x. Again, the function is defined for all values of x. However, in this case, the function is continuous (and differentiable) everywhere. x f(x) -2 -1 0 -2 -1 0 1 -0.192 2 -0.109

Some split functions are so commonly used that they are given special notation. Example 5 - Absolute Value Function f(x) = | x |

This is the absolute value function. It is really a split function defined in two pieces:

The function is continuous everywhere, but only differentiable at non-zero values of x. x f(x) -2 2 -1 1 0 0 1 1 2 2

Example 6 - Step Function You will also encounter split functions in signal analysis (see Fourier Series and Laplace Transforms). For example, a function in electronics can be defined as

9. Even and Odd Functions By M. Bourne Even Functions A function y = f(t) is said to be even if f(-t) = f(t)

for all values of t. The graph of an even function is always symmetrical about the vertical axis (that is, we have a mirror image through the y-axis). The waveforms shown below represent even functions: Cosine curve f(t) = 2 cos t

Notice that we have a mirror image through the f(t) axis. Even Square wave:

Triangular wave:

In each case, we have a mirror image through the f(t) axis. Another way of saying this is that we have symmetry about the vertical axis. Odd Functions A function y = f(t) is said to be odd if f(-t) = - f(t) for all values of t. The graph of an odd function is always symmetrical about the origin. Origin Symmetry A graph has origin symmetry if we can fold it along the vertical axis, then along the horizontal axis, and it lays the graph onto itself. Another way of thinking about this is that the graph does exaclty the opposite thing on each side of the origin. If the graph is going up to the right on one side of the origin, then it will be going down to the left by the same amount on the other side of the origin. Examples of Odd Functions The waveforms shown below represent odd functions. Sine Curve y(x) = sin x

Notice that if we fold the curve along the y-axis, then along the t-axis, the graph maps onto itself. It has origin symmetry. "Saw tooth" wave

Odd Square wave

Each of these three curves is an odd function, and the graph demonstrates symmetry about the origin.

Exercise Sketch each function and then determine whether each function is odd or even:

(a) Answer

We can see from the graph that it is even. OR: The function is even since f(t) = f(t) for all values of t. (b)

and f(t) = f(t + 2) (This last line means: Periodic with period = 2) Answer

We can see from the graph that it is even. OR: The function is even since f(t) = f(t) for all values of t. Easy to understand math videos: MathTutorDVD.com (c)

Answer

We can see from the graph that the function is odd. OR: The function is odd since f(t) = - f(t) for all values of t. Easy to understand math videos: MathTutorDVD.com

(d)

Answer

We can see from the graph that it is neither odd nor even. (e)

Answer

We can see from the graph that it is even. OR: The function is even since f(t) = f(t) for all values of t. (f)

Answer

We can see from the graph that the function is odd. OR: The function is odd since f(t) = - f(t) for all values of t. Functions and graphs Problem Solver

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