Street-Level Desires, Discovering The City On Foot

Pedestrian mobility and the regeneration
of the European city centre
Stre et-level de s ire s

D iscover ing the c ity on fo ot
Editors
F.D. van der Hoeven
M.G.J. Smit
S.C. van der Spek

Pedestrian mobility and the regeneration
Stre et-level des ires

D iscover ing the c ity on fo ot
Delft University of Technology, Department of Urbanism, © 2008.

A transnational challenge
In the spring of 2004, Delft University of Technology was approached by Norwich City
Council with a request to participate in their project Spatial Metro.
Spatial Metro was developed within the framework of Interreg IIIB. Interreg is a
community initiative which aims to stimulate interregional cooperation within the EU,
financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). The programme aspires to
strengthen economic and social cohesion throughout the EU by fostering the balanced
development of the continent through cross-border, transnational and interregional
cooperation. The B strain of Interreg deals with transnational cooperation. As an
Interreg IIIB project in the Northwest European region, Spatial Metro brings together
partners from the United Kingdom, France, Germany, The Netherlands and even
Switzerland.
The Spatial Metro partners

across Europe.
Norw ich
Br istol Delft
Koblenz
Rouen
Zür ich
Biel
The original Spatial Metro project proposal is straight forward. It claims that cities are
chaotic places. It states that tourists, visiting business people, shoppers and even local
residents rarely have a clear or coherently expressed view of what a city has to offer
geographically or thematically. The proposal assumes that people’s stay is shortened by
their lack of overview of or information on what a town can actually offer them. As lead
partner of the project, Norwich explains in quantitative terms what this actually means
to the economy of a city:
Visitors who plan a day trip to a city will stay in town for an average four to four-and-half
hours and spend about £ 100. If the welcome they receive is inhospitable, the destination
is confusing and demands are not met, the same visitor will tend to leave after only two
hours and spend less than £ 50. If their arrival is welcoming, the destination is safe,
clean, relaxed and intelligible and if visitors are able to navigate their way around and
their original expectations are fulfilled or surpassed, they will stay for six to seven hours
and spend in excess of £ 150.
At first glance, these statements may seem somewhat narrow in scope. Not every city is
chaotic and surely there is more to life than just money. However, placed in their proper
context, these words make perfect sense.
Five cities are participating in Spatial Metro: Norwich and Bristol (UK), Rouen (F),
Koblenz (D) and Biel/Bienne (CH). Each of these cities is characterised by a historic city
centre. Norwich itself is proud to have the most intact mediaeval street pattern of the
United Kingdom. Mediaeval street patterns are the product of spontaneous urban
growth and lack the sometimes rigid clarity of modern planned developments.
Mediaeval street patterns are indeed difficult to navigate and pose a true challenge.
Norwich also developed a successful and long-standing policy to prevent out of town
shopping by strengthening the vitality of its original historic district. Such a policy
requires a city to take a serious look at its economic performance.
From this perspective, it is a sound approach to optimise conditions allowing people to

discover a city on foot. As such, the Spatial Metro project prompted Delft University of
Technology to tap into a greater European experience that integrates aspects such as
urban renaissance, built heritage, public space, pedestrian mobility, leisure economy
and even sustainability.
The partnership also included knowledge organisations. Each of these partners has
supported the project in their own unique way. The University of East Anglia deployed its
automated modelling software to visualise the original historic centres. The University
Koblenz/Landau delivered a so-called Blue Box that provides on the spot information
by means of Bluetooth technology. The Swiss Pedestrian Association made various
contributions as a strategic and competent expert organisation on pedestrian mobility.
The Delft University of Technology examined the question as to how to assess of the
effectiveness of the investments made in Norwich, Rouen and Koblenz. How can aspects
like the accessibility and navigability of public spaces be measured? Much of the
effectiveness hereof naturally depends on the way people use the public space.
We therefore used novel tools to analyse in detail the movement patterns of people
visiting these three city centres.
Finally, Delft decided to capture the essence of the Spatial Metro experience in a
document ref lecting the versatility of the transnational response to pedestrian mobility
and the regeneration of the historic European city centre. The document became this
book, ‘Street Level Desires’. The book aims to disseminate our experience and knowledge
to further strengthen social and economic cohesion throughout Europe.
Frank van der Hoeven
Readers
this Way.
Contents
Part 1 In perspective 10
The Norwich approach 12

Frank van der Hoeven and Michael Loveday
Lighting as a way to guide people through city centres 20

Stefan van der Spek
Driven by the federal garden show 28

Reinhard Kallenbach
Welcoming its visitors 36

Sam Gullam
Information and signposting for pedestrians 46

Thierry Burkhard, Jonas Schmid and Pascal Mages
Part 2 Investments and context 52

Stefan van der Spek
Norwich 54
Rouen 60
Koblenz 66
Part 3 Techniques 72
Information systems for Spatial Metro 74

Ulrich Furbach, Markus Maron and Kevin Read
The process and the problems 80

David Drinkwater
Tracking pedestrians in historic city centres using GPS 86

Stefan van der Spek
Part 4 Considerations 112
Disney 114
Ekim Tan
Analogue and digital information for pedestrians 122

Christian Thomas and Pascal Regli
Vermeers wanted 130

Ekim Tan
What the pedestrian wants 136

Ekim Tan
En·core enjoy 142

Bob Mantel
Spatial Metro map 150

Part 5 Reflection 156
A learning experience 158

Part 1
In perspective
Five cities in North-West
Europe took part in the
Spatial Metro project.
What were the main issues
that they had to
deal with?
12
Strategies for a
vital city core
The Norwich
approach
Major out-of-town shopping centres

are still a big issue on the European
planning agenda. The potential threats to Norwich City Council has resisted retail development on
retail activities in the traditional centres greenfield sites and has put considerable energy and effort
into making the existing centre work better. It has made retail
are well known, but some argue that
uses a cornerstone in an overall ‘urban renaissance’ approach
prohibiting major out-of-town retail to building a ‘liveable city’. The city is now performing far better
developments can actually damage the than the national average.
competitiveness of a city or region.

Regional centre
The English city of Norwich shows that Norwich is the capital of East Anglia, an extensive region in
it is perfectly possible to develop a the east of England characterised by relatively modest
settlements dispersed over a wide area. The only sizeable
successful retail strategy based on the
towns besides Norwich are Ipswich (at a distance of 70 km),
qualities of a historic city centre. Cambridge (100 km) and Peterborough (125 km). Norwich itself
is 190 km north-east of London, 90 minutes by train. Its position
Frank van der Hoeven as England’s most easterly city makes it geographically, and in
many respects culturally, closer to the historic cities of Europe
Michael Loveday (Bruges and Amsterdam) than to English cities such as
Manchester and Liverpool.
At first glance, the city seems relatively modest is size. The

municipal population (125,000) gives the impression that
Norwich is a small, unassuming market town. But this is
misleading. In fact, Norwich is a significant regional centre
13 Street-level desires \\\/// In Perspective The Norwich approach
with a wider population (including suburbs) of about 250,000. Historic context

The city serves a regional catchment area of over one million Historically, Norwich vied for the position of England’s second
people, of which 330,000 live within the captive core catchment. city between the Norman Conquest and the late 18th century.
The long distances to Ipswich, Cambridge, Peterborough and This important national role has left the city with one of the
London mean that this population is particularly loyal. The city most significant architectural resources in England and possibly
employs just over 90,000 people, half of whom work within the in Europe. These include the largest walled centre and most
old walled city, where the core retail area is located. complete medieval street pattern in England. Norwich has the
largest collection of pre-reformation churches north of the Alps.
The shopping centre, with 200,000 square metres of retail space, The Norman Castle is said to be the finest secular building of
was ranked eighth in the Experian League 2004 (which grades its generation in Europe and the city houses one of the most
UK shopping locations by the size of the total floor space of important Norman cathedrals in Europe, the largest Guildhall
its shops, the number of big-name chains and its quality with the finest civic regalia outside London, one of the oldest
independent retailers). Other facilities include nationally and largest open air, six-day markets in Britain, and a staggering
important cultural facilities like the Theatre Royal, the Castle 1,600 listed historic buildings spanning nine centuries.
Museum and the Sainsbury Centre for the Visual Arts. The City
hosts the headquarters of regional media organisations, This historic background helps us to understand the enormous
including the BBC, Anglia TV and regional and local radio and post-war regeneration task the city faced. At its peak the
newspapers. It houses the Government’s ‘telematics think-tank’ current Norwich city centre was home to 80,000 inhabitants,
(the CCTA) and a number of commercial companies but just after the war this number had fallen to only a few
(e.g. Norwich Union and Marsh). Norwich is also the home of thousand. Once the second largest city in England, the city
the University of East Anglia, the Norwich Research Park centre had become almost an empty shell and its subsequent
(including the largest food technology research facility in regeneration demanded a much larger effort than in most
Europe) and the city’s international airport. European cities. Moreover, funding constraints resulted in a
14
Norwich city
centre.
Pedestr ial areas.

Strategic (re)developted areas.
Green recreativ on areas.
Impor ted building.
crisis in conserving the City’s rich heritage, a problem Towards a Strategic Approach
compounded by the pressure of 500,000 vehicle movements In the late 1960s and 1970s, Norwich was one of the nation’s
each day and the economic challenges of the 1990s as ‘cutting edge’ planning authorities. Working with an innovative,
traditional industries contracted. All this brought the tensions multi-professional department (transport, landscape,
of sustaining one of the country’s most important historic conservation, planning) the City Council achieved notable
resources while coping with the pressures of the regional successes, including the first pedestrianised shopping street
capital and the challenges of global economic change into in Britain (London Street, 1967). It engaged in some of the first
sharp focus. work in General Improvement Areas to transform areas of 19th
The Royal Mall.
century housing, and it was the first authority to bring people spanning a broad range of interrelated issues:
back to live in the old city. It was responsible for one of the retail, transportation, conservation and greenspace.
first comprehensive conservation area designations under
the Civic Amenities Act 1967. Retail Strategy
The cornerstone of the strategies was the Retail Strategy,
However, by the 1980s, Norwich was reaching a watershed. which over a decade before the latest government guidance
A number of emerging pressures combined to blunt on retail planning, recognised the importance of sustaining
innovation and progress, raising concerns about the quality the whole centre by spanning a range of specific retail and
of life: without remedial action, environmental quality and other connected initiatives, including the existing centre,
levels of service provision could easily have collapsed. major stores, out-of-town shopping and new developments.
The shopping centre was outdated and lost trade to regional
competitors. Pressure was building for out-of-town retailing Existing centre
fuelled by the deregulatory attitude of the Conservative The existing shopping areas were renewed. The city created
Government. a pedestrian priority core in the historic shopping centre and
the main shopping street was fully pedestrianised. Design
Little progress was made with transport planning since the approaches were applied to street furniture and shop fronts
County Council also became the Highways Authority and the and a pedestrian signing strategy was adopted.
city suffered from the constraints on local authority house
building and a general failure of the Council to exploit its Major stores
assets to the full. This prompted the Council into taking a Norwich started to work with anchor stores to improve
pro-active approach to addressing these problems. The root representation and profile. Parking facilities for the major
of the approach was a series of interconnecting strategies stores were improved and the city started to promote food
directed individually at specific subject areas but together stores in and adjacent to the centre.
16
The Forum and the St Peter

Mancroft Parisch Church.
The Castle Mall.
Out-of-town shopping Transportation

Norwich continued to resist out-of-town development and Having achieved some success with persuading the Highway
drew up a Supplementary Planning Guidance statement with Authority to allow further pedestrianisation, the City Council
neighbouring authorities on goods, size of retail outlets and pursued a range of transport initiatives, which were
ancillary retail implemented as the County Council moved towards a transport
strategy. These initiatives included pedestrianisation of the
New developments historic core, accompanied by traffic calming measures where
In response to pressure for out-of-town development, a 17 pedestrianisation in the core areas was not feasible.
hectare retail and leisure complex was developed at the Subsequently Norwich introduced the first 30 km/h traffic
Riverside site next to the Norwich railway station, just outside calming zone in the UK. The Council also introduced
the walled city. Smaller allocations were developed in the controlled parking zones, with charges adjusted to favour
centre, including the Castle Mall. The Castle Mall shopping shoppers and visitors, and Park and Ride facilities.
centre was built in the early 1990s on the unsightly 2.5 hectare
site of the old cattle market in the city centre. Half of the mall This work culminated in a landmark planning inquiry in 1992.
is set into a substantial part of Castle Hill, on which the castle In response to a County Council proposal to complete a four-
stands, and involved the redevelopment of one of Norwich lane inner ring road through the southern part of the medieval
oldest streets, Timberhill. The Castle Mall, which 35,000 square centre, the City Council led a broad-based campaign of
metres of retail space spread over three levels, was built in opposition, which resulted in the proposal being dismissed by
response to a need for unrepresented traders and expansion the secretaries of state. The City and County Councils have
of retail space in the city, and helped to further integrate the since worked together to produce a sustainable transport
dispersed retail core. It became a catalyst for regeneration, strategy for the Norwich Area, which focuses on alternatives
added shopper parking and created new public spaces, to car use.
including the park gardens on top.
Conservation Strategy Green Plan
With a third of shops occupying historic buildings, there is a In 1985, Norwich adopted the country’s first green plan –
clear relationship between the retail strategy and conservation. a three-pronged strategy which sought to conserve existing
Good relationships had been established with English Heritage greenspaces and habitats, extend green areas linking existing
in the 1960s and by this time the City had a long running Town spaces and to involve the community in sustaining and
Scheme programme. The strategic approach adopted in the regenerating its green assets. The Green Plan has now been
1980s provided a more systematic approach. A multi- developed through the policies of the City Plan into a complex
professional team of council officers was brought together to strategy of green links and corridors. The principal elements of
drive the strategy, which included a regular historic buildings the original Green Plan are the Riverside Walk, the 1.6 hectare
condition survey and a buildings at risk programme, which Castle Mall Park (on top of the shopping centre!), the Tree Trail,
identified priorities for action; extensive work was undertaken the protection and enhancement of the Wooded Ridge, the
with trusts to achieve partnership schemes and considerable establishment of wildlife gardens and the greening of traditional
progress has been made with Living Over The Shop initiatives. streets and spaces. Into the New Millennium Beyond the year
Conservation architects were fully involved in traffic design 2000, Norwich has emerged to consolidate and develop the
schemes, innovative work was started with archaeologists and strong position built in the late 1990s.
a facades painting scheme was launched with a Dutch paint
company. Heritage interpretation policies and initiatives were Forum
developed. In 2001 the Forum opened. Designed by Michael Hopkins and
Partners, the Forum is an impressive Euro 97 million multimedia
This work has progressed into a number of initiatives including centre containing a library, TV studio, business and learning
East Anglia’s largest Conservation Area Partnership Scheme centre, visitor attractions, restaurants and interior public
and one of only a handful of Urban Archaeological Databases spaces. Visitor numbers have been considerably higher than
nationally. projected.
18
Chapelfield Success Criteria

The new Euro 480 million retail-based Chapelfield development Success is clearly a relative concept, but a range of indicators
is due for completion in September 2005. Chapelfield is the demonstrates that Norwich’s strategies have achieved a degree
largest retail project so far, adding another 50,000 square of success in enhancing the vitality as well as the viability of
metres of shopping area to the centre, including parking space the city centre. Prime rents in the city are now among the
for 1,000 cars. It replaces the former Nestlé chocolate factory. highest in the country and the improvements to retailing have
The project seeks to redress the lack of a mix of anchor stores elevated the city from 49th to 8th in the league table of shopping
and good sized unit shops and will complement the cultural centres in the UK (Norwich is by no means the eighth city in
and leisure offerings of the neighbouring Forum, Theatre Royal population size).
and Assembly House.
At a more detailed ‘outputs’ level, substantially more people
HEART use the pedestrian shopping area than previously, vacancies
Additionally, a unique trust has been established to take control have fallen and have been kept at a low level, the visual
of the City Council’s historic building stock and act as heritage environment has been greatly enhanced and uses above and
regeneration master planner for the whole City, joining up a host below ground level have been expanded. Traffic accident
of small, poorly resourced organisations and levering in new numbers have fallen substantially. The city centre’s household
funds. The Heritage Economic & Regeneration Trust (HEART) population has risen significantly, tourist numbers have
sees itself as an international exemplar, using heritage as a increased, particularly during traditional troughs, and people’s
potent tool for urban regeneration. The Office of the Deputy attitudes about the centre have become more positive.
Prime Minister, in its report on the Partners in Urban
Renaissance Initiative, made this comment on the work in the Work already undertaken has helped to establish a good track
1990s and subsequently: ‘In many respects Norwich has been record of innovative practice and persuaded the Government
a leader in the Urban Renaissance in England.’ Office of the Eastern Region to award East Anglia’s largest
Artist
impression of
the Chapelfield
development.
Single Regeneration Budget Challenge Fund settlement remains relatively untapped and tourists are a minority, while
(Euro 14.8 million) and one of the highest Capital Challenge local people still shop in the centre. As a result, Norwich lacks
settlements (Euro 5.5 million) to Norwich. The English Tourist the theme park atmosphere that plagues many historic cities
Board’s follow-up assessment of the Tourism Development in Europe. Norwich has not built big boxes on greenfield sites
Action Plan found that for every pound of the Board’s money to make an open-air museum of its centre. For decades now
contributed to that initiative, 96 additional pounds had been the city has put all its energy into making the old centre work
generated in the local economy. for everyone. One can only hope it can retain that strength
without having to bow to pressures for out-of-town
Norwich’s success is also reflected in an impressive number of developments or for commercialisation of the central area.
formal recognitions. The House of Commons Select Committee Rest assured, Norwich seems to be on the right track.
on The Future of Town Centres commended the Norwich Retail
Strategy as an example of good practice. The British Council Photography
of Shopping Centres awarded the Castle Mall the accolade of p.13 and p.14 (charts)
Frank van der Hoeven.
Britain’s Best Shopping Centre. The Mall Park has also received
p.15, p.16 (left) and p.17
a number of awards. Norwich received a prestigious award of Stefan van der Spek.
p.16 (right)
the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors for Green Link City
Frank van der Hoeven.
1996. The Royal Town Planning Institute honoured Norwich’s p.18
Source: Miller Hare.
development and planning process with the Jubilee Cup for Best
Planning Achievement nationally and the Forum received the
2003 Civic Trust Urban Design Award. A historic city without
that theme park feel Its historic resources could make Norwich
an important tourism destination, but somehow the city has
failed to exploit this visitor potential fully. This opportunity
20
Lighting as a
way to guide
people through
city centres
Enchanting light projections

on Rouen Cathedral: not only
to attract large crowds,
but also part of a lighting
concept for the whole city.
Every night in the holiday season – for the

second year now – the Cathedral of
Rouen is illuminated by an astonishing The Spatial Metro project is about developing networks of
light show. Images are projected onto the thematic pedestrian routes and reinforcing the identity of these
routes with special paving, lighting and public art consisting
facade of the Cathedral, accompanied by
of visual devices. An important outcome will be the design of
specially composed music. Most of the metro style maps, information gateways or welcome points
images are paintings by Monet, who lived where relevant information is easily available about the city,
and the design of key locations or ‘stations’ along the routes
in Rouen for several years. The projected
as places to enjoy and discover more about the city. These
images cause the appearance of the will be supported by virtual reality models of buildings and
cathedral to change spectacularly, creating spaces to aid visitors, audible signs to make the information
easily accessible for everyone, and the introduction of
an incredible and surreal atmosphere.
environmentally-friendly transport options within pedestrian
This fabulous show is not just designed to zones.
attract large crowds to the central square
Several workshops were being held during the life of the project.
every night, it is part of a lighting concept
Rouen organised a workshop on its ongoing experience with
for the whole city: lighting as a way to lighting. This article focuses on using light as a tool to improve
guide people through the city centre. the use and quality of public space within the framework of the
project: a legible city that is easy to navigate.
Stefan van der Spek
Lighting principles
Traditionally, city lighting is designed mainly to provide safety
and comfort to all users of the public realm. According to
21 Street-level desires \\\/// In Perspective Lighting as a way to guide people through city centres
22
lighting expert Sylvain Bigot, it now has two other purposes as pollution and ensure coherence between all lighting elements.
well: for city beautification and as direction beacons. The Sylvain Bigot distinguishes between two types of lighting plan:
example of Rouen reveals a third purpose: light as an event. the lighting master plan, which only deals with city beatification
The UK Institution of Lighting Engineers states that ‘good lighting (for example Lyon and Marseille), and the lighting development
promotes a feeling of security and well-being; bad lighting kills plan, which is more technical and focuses on safety, orientation
people, places and jobs’. Safety and comfort is usually provided and comfort.
by street lighting. City beautification can apply to different parts
of the city, such as gardens, buildings, bridges and heritage Bigot identifies five steps in the process of developing
sites. Examples of city beautification are the use of coloured lighting plans:
street lighting, filters, coloured lamps, building illumination, 1 Historic and cultural research to select heritage features;
image projection and dynamic lighting. The underlying concern 2 Analysis of the setting: urban architecture and current
of all lighting principles is to respect the architecture of the street lighting;
buildings and their surroundings. 3 Classification of the elements;
4 Definition of ‘the Image of the City’: selection of image-
Illumination in the city is usually criticised for two reasons: defining buildings and public spaces, and;
energy wastage and light pollution. The key question is always 5 Lighting proposals for street lighting, city beautification
whether the use of light is proportional to the gain in spatial and/or direction beacons.
quality and so it is always necessary to draw up a city lighting
strategy. The goal of a balanced lighting plan is to secure This means that the main goal of the process is first to identify
orientation and safety, conserve energy, minimise light the desired image and define a concept, and then to choose
24
the appropriate technologies. Illuminating objects is not just a must be struck between the illumination of objects and the
question of setting up a projector at a particular place; a real consequences for the direct environment, and between
effort must be made to use the right equipment for the location, demands made by the direct environment and demands
the desired image and the budget. Safety and durability are an (conditions) made on the direct environment.
important consideration, especially the danger of vandalism. The light master plan is a strategy for the night; important routes
can be accentuated and objects that may aid orientation and
Workshop navigation can be illuminated.
Many cities use lighting to accentuate certain locations during Under the Rouen lighting plan the 156 different types of
the night or to radically change the form or appearance of an lampposts will be reduced over the next few years to 10 types,
object. In Hamburg, a part of the harbour is illuminated at night all orange sodium lamps, and the other ‘dirty lights’ will be
to attract people. The pattern of lights on the bridge in Bristol replaced by low-energy and long-life lamps. The new lighting
differs from the shape of the structure, giving the bridge a system allows the lighting scheme to be changed into a
different form at night. Likewise, the Eiffel Tower is transformed variety of different, adaptable regimes during the night.
every month by a new lighting theme. In Delft students can play Different types of streets and public spaces will be defined
Tetris at night with the windows of the Faculty of Electrical by different colours of light and different illuminated objects.
Engineering, Mathematics and Computer Science. A distinction will be made between car streets, pedestrian
streets and streets with historic monuments and important
Conclusion places, which should encourage orientation during the night.
The light master plan is not an entity unto itself but also makes Finally, it means that the illumination of all the key buildings
demands on the environment. It is a strategy whereby a balance in the city will be in keeping with their architecture and
26
surroundings. For example, Rouen’s famous Big Clock is lit up Photographed art works
using Micro-Light technology, while new LED displays light up Sylvain Bigot
the Archive Tower, which functions as a beacon on the other

side of the river.
The Archive Tower illuminated: leds enable it to change

colour and pattern, and even to present large pictures or
commercial images.
Epilogue: outside Rouen

The lighting workshops in Rouen as part of the Spatial Metro
project stimulated the awareness among the other partners of
the value of a public lighting strategy for a vital city core. Based
on the Rouen experience, the cities of Koblenz and Norwich
started working on a lighting strategy. The strategy includes The Archive Tower
illuminated: leds enable
an overall system of street lighting in the inner city and the
it to change colour and
application of new illumination techniques on special buildings pattern, and even to
present large pictures
(such as churches, the city hall, etc.) and at special places
or commercial images.
(such as vital squares, water fronts, etc.).
28
Strengthening
Koblenz
Dr iven by
the Federal
Garden Show
There is an acute need for action in

Koblenz city centre. Although extensive
renovation work since the 1960s has led to All involved were and are in agreement that quick results must
notable improvements in the key areas, be achieved. The reason: The Federal Garden Show (Buga)
2011 will be held in Koblenz. Actually, the city had originally
there are still many clear signs of wear or
applied for the years 2013 or 2015; however, it was ultimately
functional defects. For several months, unable to hold its own against the competition from Hamburg
the responsible members of the city council and Osnabrück. Nevertheless, when Duisburg decided not to
host the Federal Garden Show, Koblenz was given a new,
and administration have been considering
unexpected chance and with it the opportunity of tackling the
a comprehensive package of measures long overdue measures with a degree of urgency. However, this
intended to return the former splendour to requires investments well in excess of Euro 100 million.
Euro 102 million will be due for the Buga 2011 alone, whereby
a city in which the bombs of the second
the State of Rhineland Palatinate is contributing around Euro
world war and the serious mistakes during 49 million. This immense sum does not include the urgently
rebuilding have left ugly scars. The aim: required investments in streets and squares in the city centre.
To strengthen Koblenz in its competition

It was clear from the very beginning that the city can only
with the neighbouring towns and regions, shoulder the major projects by acquiring partners. The fact that
and to attract more visitors and customers. the European Union provides the local authority districts with
funds within the scope of the ‘North-West Europe Interreg IIIIB’
It is a question of rediscovering a city with
programme for the development of cross-border cooperation
ancient mediaeval roots and the resulting in transnational projects and for the implementation of
economic success. concrete urban development projects was a welcome option.
Above all, participation in the ‘City on Foot’ project offered
Reinhard Kallenbach
29 Street-level desires \\\/// In Perspective Driven by the Federal Garden Show
Chistmas market in Koblenz.

The city is rediscovering
its ancient-mediaeval
roots – and the resulting
economic success.
the opportunity of strengthening the city centre with the help

of EU subsidies. However, the actual attraction of the project
was not the possibility of financial support but rather the unique
opportunity of solving inner city problems within the scope of reorganising inner city areas and developing them in a uniform
Europe-wide cooperation. In Koblenz, this would not have manner. One very important point: There was an acute need
been possible without the support of the European Union. for action in the centre of the upper area on the Rhine and
Moselle because visual aspects and axes were not working.
It was above all Lord Mayor Tom Jennings who encouraged Above all, the connection of the two river banks to the inner
his Koblenz counterpart Oberbürgermeister Dr. Eberhard city areas left a lot to be desired. As a result of the differing
Schulte-Wissermann to participate in the project. Jennings, development of the inner city – up to 90 percent of which was
at the time the most senior representative of Koblenz’s partner destroyed in the war – it was and still is not easy for outsiders
city Norwich, knew only too well what he was talking about. to find their way in the centre of Koblenz – although the
‘His’ city was the lead manager in the transnational project in dimensions are easily manageable by comparison. ‘City on Foot’
which Bristol and Rouen (France) were also involved. Additional provided a unique opportunity of designing the city in a
participants were other public facilities and universities in Delft, visitor-friendly manner. The key points: Uniform design of
Koblenz and Norwich. The budget of the partners involved pedestrian links, introduction of a visitor-friendly lighting system
was around Euro 11 million. This included EU subsidies of around and the setting up of points at which free city information can
Euro 5 million, provided in the period between 2005 and 2008. be called up via mobile telephone The initial priority was given
to the redesign of pedestrian areas and the so-called ‘Master
Participating in ‘City on Foot’ plan light’, commissioned and financed by the city’s public
At the beginning of June 2005, the local press announced that utility company ‘Koblenz Touristik’. This plan placed the
Koblenz would also be participating in ‘City on Foot’. After all question of how artificial lighting can be used to supplement
– as the term says – the project offered the opportunity of the footpath concept as a guide instrument for visitors and
30
Model lighting at
Florinsmarkt.
information technology. The electronic orientation and

information system for visitors to the city was implemented at
short notice by the city itself. The telecommunication project
guests at the focal point. The French city of Lyon, where a new for the design of the inner city was planned in cooperation
lighting concept has already proven itself in ideal manner, with the renowned Faculty for Information Technology at the
was repeatedly used as a role model. Now, streets, squares University of Koblenz and the city’s Office for Land Management
and facades in Koblenz should also be given better lighting. and Surveying. This subproject is also being financed by Koblenz
From the very beginning, the Economic Development Office Touristik. The city’s public utility company is responsible as
responsible for coordination of ‘City on Foot’ in Koblenz, has customer. The core idea: Visitors will be able to obtain
emphasised that the ‘Master plan light’ also applies for the information free of charge via electronic means in the very near
already well functioning areas of the historic old city – for future. Examples are digital route recommendations for a
example the ‘Görresplatz’, the ‘Jesuitenplatz’ and the walk through Koblenz as well as information from the most
‘Münzplatz’. The name of the project was by itself an indication varying fields – for example on the history of the city or on
of the objectives: The reorganisation of the inner city lighting local cultural events.
is aimed above all at giving pedestrians ‘priority’ in all cases. In order to communicate the merits of ‘City on Foot’ to the
Conversely, car drivers should be given valuable orientation public as far in advance as possible, the people of Koblenz were
assistance through the selection and effect of the lighting given an early taste of what is to come. Thus the ‘Florinsmarkt’
fixtures. was presented in new form using the medium of light during the
Museum Night in September 2005. Finally, the towers of the
A welcome aspect in the preparations for implementation of ‘Florinskirche’ and the historical details of the neighbouring
the EU project was the fact that, for some years, Koblenz has buildings were lit up brightly. Even more important was the
been promoting itself to an increased extent as a centre for ensuing dialogue with those directly affected, whereby the
researchers, developers and service providers in the field of Economic Development Office also devoted particular attention
Schlossstrasse
before and after.
to the sceptical Koblenz business people. The main topic of

the discussions centred around the past mistakes as regards
the lighting of the inner city and the choice of the correct type
of lamp. participation were followed. Citizens had the opportunity to
express their ideas, reservations and planning suggestions.
Priority projects Ideas and criticism from the citizens flowed into the subsequent
At the focal point of considerations was above all the axis from planning. This made it possible to achieve fundamental overall
the southern Löhrstrasse as far as the Marktstrasse reaching improvements for pedestrians. At this point, it should also be
back to Roman roots, which links the station – redesigned in emphasised that the city administration also took account of
time for the new millennium – with the old part of the city. the requirements of the inner city business people when
A further priority: The western Schlossstrasse Following the coordinating the further steps. Because of the need to keep the
redesign of the eastern and central sections of the former main retail selling months between November and February
showpiece street, the task was now also to finally make a start free of building work to as great an extent as possible, delays
on the ‘end piece’. However, several months were to pass before in the overall proceedings were deliberately taken into account.
concrete building measures could be implemented. This was
due above all to the fact that those responsible attached great Schlossstrasse before and after
important to finding out whether and how the planned individual Despite the prospect of EU subsidies, it made no sense for the
measures would be welcomed by the citizens. For the first time, city administration to opt for speed in the design of the surface
the city organised a virtual survey of its citizens in which the area. It was clear from the very beginning that the forthcoming
proposals could be assessed online. From the very beginning, measures should also be used to renew supply and disposal
this survey was organised in several languages, in order to systems. This decision in favour of the civil and underground
enable foreign visitors to take part. In addition, the classical engineering measures – not subsidised by the EU – did not go
– frequently statutorily prescribed – channels of citizen down well at all with the local retailers; nevertheless, the work
32
The Löhrrondell
in the past and
in the future.
was not opened until the middle of August 2007. Before that,
the pavements were made considerably wider and the
carriageway reduced to one lane. This work, costing around
was and remains indispensable. The citizens were likewise not Euro 1 million, was also one of the most important results of
pleased by the decision. After all, the old chestnut trees on the the virtual survey of the citizens.
Bahndamm in the Löhrstrasse had to make way (they were
subsequently replaced by 14 new trees). However, there was Intensive preparation
no alternative. Large sections of the drainage system in the Following conclusion of the work in the upper Löhrstrasse and
Löhrstrasse as well as in the western part of the Schlossstrasse in the Schlossstrasse, the way was free to tackle the complete
dated back to the 1890s. The extensively brickwork shafts had renewal of the northern half of the Löhrstrasse from the
developed leaks and the condition of the main connections Löhrrondell as far as the Münzplatz. Nevertheless, this section
also left a great deal to be desired. A further problem: Due to required particularly intensive preparation. Initially, the city of
the particular topographical position of the city on two rivers, Koblenz organised an international competition for the measures
the shafts had been laid at a depth of up to six metres. costing a total of around five million Euro. Overall, 220 offices
from all over Europe competed for the appealing planning task.
In the Spring of 2006, after a good year’s delay, work finally Finally, 28 planning offices were requested to provide a
began on the southernmost section of Löhrstrasse whose contribution. Applicants from the project partner cities were
design was based above all on the new station square. ‘seeded’ in order to ensure the international nature of the
The work, costing roughly Euro 1 million and carried out amidst competition and the diversity of ideas. The competition was
ongoing traffic, was completed to a fundamental extent by monitored by a jury of experts made up above all of
the end of the year. The redesign of the western part of the representatives of the project partners. This was an important
Schlossstrasse, where the renewal of the drainage system was precondition for enabling problem-free communication with
particularly complex, was to take somewhat longer. The section local politicians and other opinion leaders – for example in
Studies proving that it is possible to

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the local associations and organisations. At the end, the judges railway stop behind the Löhr Centre. The surface covering of
were very pleased with the quality of the work submitted. All the Löhrstrasse pedestrian precinct was also to be kept
contributions took account of the particular traffic situation in deliberately simple and ‘easy to care for’. The architects opted
the centre of Koblenz. Although fully in line with the international for large-format granite and concrete slabs in the central area
spirit of the competition, other European towns and cities were with small cobblestones on the edges. Koblenz City Council
often the motivating force – without the planners neglecting the gave its basic approval for the concept at its meeting on
regional identity and the particular aspects of local architecture. 1 February 2007.
Finally, at the end of 2006, the result was known: The Koblenz Once the competition had been decided, the aim was to begin
architect Michal Thillmann used his detailed knowledge of the work on the Löhrrondell as early as the end of 2007. Ultimately,
local urban development to win the competition. He had earlier the city administration changed its plans. Work in this area will
formed a planning group together with the renowned Trier now form the final point of the extensive package of measures
landscape architects Helmut Ernst and Stefan Jacobs, which for the Löhrstrasse. Preparatory work for this section of the
ultimately triumphed over well-known offices from Rotterdam, old north-south axis also proved to be anything but easy. The
London and Berlin. The realistic approach of the three experts supply lines in this part of the city centre have to be renewed,
ultimately proved successful. The basic requirement: Redesign thus necessitating extensive preparations – and not only as a
of the Löhrrondell into a ‘Welcoming point’ via which all other result of the old drainage system. In some areas – above all
newly designed areas of the Koblenz city centre are easily in the Marktstrasse – the cellars are below the street, thus
accessible for pedestrians. This was to be achieved through necessitating complex measuring work. Even more difficult
retraction of the carriageways to form a central hub for is the fact that the Löhrstrasse is the main artery of the local
pedestrians. In the end, the triumph of the group from Koblenz retail trade and must not be damaged. From the very beginning,
and Trier was also due to them providing the most convincing the planners were aware that development in several partial
approach for the linking of the Löhrrondell to the planned new stages would not be sufficient. Finally, ways were found of
34
carrying out roughly two thirds of the system renewal below and Moselle. In the past there was just one system which
ground. The uppermost objective had to be as little disruption essentially showed only the equestrian statue and the base
of business operations as possible. of the monument in their true light This represents the
implementation of a further part of the ‘Master plan light’ in
The ‘Löhrstrasse project’ explicitly includes important side addition to Obere Löhr and Schlossstrasse, which should make
streets. Fully in line with the spirit of the EU project, this should the route through the old part of the city and the city centre
lead to the creation of a network making it possible to discover more attractive, and make it clear to car drivers where they
the City on Foot. Thus, in the medium term, the intention is also are not allowed to go. One thing is clear: Pedestrians should
to make the Altlöhrtor, as the most important pedestrian axis enjoy even greater priority in the heart of Koblenz than in the
to the central square – which could be rebuilt as part of a, past – nevertheless, without impairing residents’ vehicles.
nonetheless not undisputed, investor model – more attractive. Three electronic bollards have already been installed for this
Standing in the way of this is the existing access route to an purpose. European towns and cities were also the motivating
important car park which is to be relocated under a change of force behind this subproject.
the development plan.
Even if there are many points of Koblenz city centre at which
‘City on foot’ at Deutsches Eck the execution of the plans – influenced at international level –
Whilst the development work in many parts of the city centre cannot be completed until during the coming months, it is
has not yet been completed, ‘City on Foot’ on the ‘Deutsches already clear that the decision to participate in the EU project
Eck’ has already taken on a clear shape. Since October 2007, was absolutely right – and not only because of the subsidies
a new lighting system designed by the Wuppertal planner granted or promised. For the upper area of Koblenz, ‘City on
Uwe Knappscheider has been in operation on the ‘Deutsches Foot’ offered a unique opportunity to tackle the redevelopment
Eck’; this switches on automatically at nightfall every evening of the city centre from a European perspective and to react
and offers a new presentation of the entire tip of land on Rhine to future developments at an advance stage. The result of the
Plans for the

pedestrian zone.
project is a great central idea which will strengthen Koblenz Photography

in its competition with other regions. Ultimately, everybody p.29 (right) and p.30
Stefan Kesselheim, www.koblenz-bilder.de
will benefit: Visitors to the city from all over Europe and,
p.31 (right and left), p.32 (right), p.33 and p.34
finally, the people of Koblenz themselves. ‘City on Foot’ has Municipality of Koblenz.
also opened up new dimensions in cooperation. The city

administration involved citizens, business people, politicians
and property owners at a very early stage. The echo was
positive in every respect, because the instruments used went
well beyond the statutory requirements. All those involved
agree that, without the cooperation with the European Union
and the project partner cities, qualitatively high-calibre planning
would not have been possible on this level in a major inner city
context. The most important aspect, however, is that there has
already been a notable increase in the attractiveness of the
city of Koblenz. In addition, it is also already becoming very
clear just how true an old rule of redevelopment is: Every Euro
invested by the public sector leads to subsequent private
investment of at least three Euro. At the end of the project was
the recognition that all involved had learned a great deal from
one another through the ‘European variant’ of the redevelopment
of the city. The most important aspect here is that there has
been an increase in the awareness of the interests of pedestrians
who will very soon be able to rediscover Koblenz.
36
Bristol
Legible City
Welcoming
its visitors
Bristol City Council has been developing

the Bristol Legible City Initiative over a
number of years. The Initiative is a project Bristol Legible City was developed to improve people’s
that aims to help people, whether visitors understanding and experience of the city through the
implementation of identity, information and transportation
or residents, to interpret and navigate the
projects. A unique concept at its inception in the 1990s,
city. The Spatial Metro collaboration has Bristol Legible City has delivered projects that include
given Bristol the opportunity to further pedestrian direction signs (see opposing page, left),
on-street information panels with city and area maps, printed
develop its provision of user-centred
walking maps, visitor information identity and arts projects
information for the travelling public in the (see opposing page, left). These projects communicate
form of Welcome Points. information on the city consistently and effectively to visitors
and residents alike.
Sam Gullam
Since the first signs were introduced in the spring of 2001,
over 40 communication projects have been implemented or
are in the making.1 The pedestrian signing sysatem helps
visitors find their way around the city centre and encourages
people to explore the local area on foot or by using public
transport. The projects have provided visitors with a sense of
welcome and a better understanding of Bristol’s attractions.
The aim of developing the system was to make the city open,
easy and connected. The primary principle was to approach
the dissemination of information from a user’s perspective.
This entailed understanding when, where and what people
37 Street-level desires \\\/// In Perspective Welcoming its visitors
Walkie Talkie.
Launch art project
for Legible City
sign System.
Bristol Legible
City pedestrian
direction signs.
want to know and developing the best format for delivering deliver information in the street environment whilst at the same
that information. It also involved creating the opportunity time reflecting the character of the city and contributing to its
to integrate information from various modes of movement sense of place. The goal was the development of an identity
and in doing so, communicating that the systems are inter- that could grow with the system without the pressures of
connected and are not merely entities unto themselves. external influences that would demand change. 2
By taking control of the points at which people touch this system,
it was possible to direct how and the ’tone of voice’ with which From the outset, the highest quality of information planning,
the city addressed the public, giving it the opportunity to design and use of materials was demanded in order to ensure
influence people’s impressions and perceptions of the city. that solutions were developed that could be easily maintained
and would provide longevity of service, also eliciting a
The goal of realising a unique visual identity was realised sustainable response. To ensure that the outcomes were both
through the definition of a graphic palette of colours, fonts economically feasible and sustainable, early on in the project,
and cartographic approaches developed concurrently with a a partnership was built with Clear Channel 3 so that funding
three-dimensional physical style manifesting in a family of and maintenance could be provided through a co-ordinated
street furniture components. In developing this unique visual commercial street furniture advertising contract.
language for the communication of movement and visitor-
related information, the Legible City Initiative specifically A Pedestrian Sign System
avoided the use of the City’s corporate branding or that of any One of the greatest challenges that the city faced was how to
of its delivery partners. The aim was to develop a language encourage and assist the movements of pedestrians around
that could be highly functional and appropriate in its ability to the disparate parts of the city centre and connect them to
38
Bristol Legible
City pedestrian
map and directional
sign panel.
its areas of regeneration around its main train station and environment of the most important routes whilst also making
historic harbour side. these routes accessible to all.
Key to comprehending how to resolve this issue was firstly to The signs themselves have a clear hierarchy of information;
understand the urban form of the city and how this related to this was only made possible by creating a clear naming and
people’s perception and mental maps. 4 In response, a system definition of areas. This facilitates the use of a method of
of pedestrian signage (see opposing page), was developed progressive disclosure, whereby the closer you get to a
with a defined set of connecting routes linking neighbourhoods, destination, the more specific the information becomes.
areas of activity, attractions and key arrival points relating to For example, when travelling to Bristol a sign only needs to
both public transport and private vehicle use. These routes confirm that you are heading in the right direction. It need not
are not made explicit in maps or diagrams aimed at the user and could not list all the destinations in Bristol. As you get
on the street, but define key intersections, or nodes, and the closer the sign might direct you to various areas such as
locations where signage is most relevant. As a planning tool, Harbourside; once in Harbourside, but only once you are
these routes assist in determining the optimum number of actually there, you will see a sign directing you to your specific
signs, ensuring continuity in the information provided to the destination, such as the Watershed.
pedestrian without increasing street clutter or causing excessive
expense. Defining a clear pedestrian route strategy has also Use of Maps
helped in prioritising urban realm and streetscape improvements, The map panels use ‘heads-up’ mapping, i.e. the map is
focusing funding on upgrading the pavements on and the orientated so it displays what is in front of you. When you
move to the other side of the sign the map will have been inclusion on the map of such features as steps and locations
rotated 180º. Using a three-dimensional representation of of pedestrian crossings helps people suffering from mobility
recognisable landmark buildings and drawing of the maps impairment to decide on the most appropriate route. Since the
with the pedestrian in mind helps people who normally have initial scheme was developed and in response to the Disabilities
difficulty using maps to get their bearings more easily. Discrimination Act (DDA) 5 the UK now has clearer guidance. 6
Most maps provided publicly tend to be schematic, representing The Legible City
road hierarchy, and are distorted to help the motorist navigate The project continues to draw international attention, which in
more easily. In order to enable pedestrians to relate to the itself has helped to promote the city. It has also earned Bristol
space surrounding them more easily, the maps within the City Council a number of accreditations including the Royal
pedestrian sign system were drawn representing all the features Town Planning Institutes Award 2001 and the Environment
at true scale; pavements were shown at their correct width Category of the DBA Design Effectiveness Award 2003.
in relation to roads and positions of pedestrian crossings etc.
were included. The maps also included a 4-minute walking The importance of the legibility of the public realm and
circle around the location of the ‘You Are Here’ indicator to urban environments has been an area of growing interest in
provide the user with an immediate understanding of distance. recent years in the UK, largely stemming from a government
drive towards urban regeneration within British cities.7
Inclusive Design The pedestrian sign system in Bristol set a benchmark in good
As well as planning signed routes to be accessible for most practice when first implemented and generated interest among
people, the needs of people with a variety of disabilities were many cities who have referenced it to inform their own approach.
also considered. Strong levels of contrast and the use of A number of cities have introduced or are in the process of
appropriate fonts and scales of type all assist in making introducing signing systems that have been influenced by
information legible to the greatest number of people whilst Bristol; these include Liverpool, Sheffield with its Connect
40
Introduction maps
to Bristol and central
area of the city.
Information on transport
alternatives and transport
system diagram.
South West map at

Bristol International
Airport.
Welcome Information
at the New Bus and
Coach Station.
Sheffield programme 8 Southampton, Newcastle, Leeds, Norwich, system that will span London’s 33 boroughs and form an
Glasgow plus a number of other smaller towns and cities. integrated and consistent approach to pedestrian wayfinding
is now underway. The project presents many factors of a
The influence has been wide-ranging, in some cases leading to different scale to those in Bristol including the size of city, the
the adoption of similar approaches to information content and multifarious transport modes and the political dynamic of the
hierarchies, and in others leading to the use of the ‘heads-up’ various stakeholders and information providers. However, many
format for mapping, sometimes using similar materials and of the initial key concepts of Bristol have influenced the ways
processes to produce the physical signs. Those cities that have in which information is supplied. The project is now led by TfL,
allowed themselves to be influenced by the Bristol system which is developing prototypes and pilots to test thinking.11
rather than attempting to mimic it have arguably created a
response that relates more directly to the local context, creating Spatial Metro in the Bristol context
systems that build on the individuality of the place concerned. The pan European collaboration of the Spatial Metro programme
has enabled Bristol to define what information it should provide
Legible London is a project that started as a response to the at its arrival gateways. The information must enhance people’s
Bristol Legible City Initiative with key stakeholders within experience of the city, whether they are visitors or residents,
Central London investigating how such a system could help by helping them to easily orientate and navigate, understand
to provide benefits to the public in the UK capital. Following the public transport options available and by conveying what
reports commissioned by TfL (Transport for London) 9 and the city has to offer. This can be achieved by helping the user
CLP (Central London Partnerships),10 the development of a create an image or mental map of the city, highlighting potential
destinations and activities and supporting itinerary planning

and way finding.
Delivery
As part of a pilot, provision of information is being tested at
four of the city’s major transport interchanges; Bristol Temple
Meads Station, the new Bus & Coach Station (see opposing
page), Bristol International Airport and Bath Road (Brislington)
Park & Ride.
Signs at each location provide content that has been determined
by addressing the need of the user; this is essentially anyone
who may find themselves moving around the city, whether they
are a tourist, a commuter, a shopper, a resident or someone
from the local region visiting a hospital or similar amenity.
In the Bristol solution, this content has been distilled into a
hierarchy by answering the questions below:
—— Where am I and what is my location in relation to
my destination?
—— How do I move from my current location towards
my destination and what are the transport options?
—— What is there to do in the city of Bristol and how
might I get there?
42
Brunel Mile Super

Graphic.
This has resulted in the following hierarchy of information shift to public transport and walking, and economic benefits
(see page 41, left and middle pictures): in particular are gained by visitors becoming more active and
—— Confirmation of location; potentially returning for alternative activities, i.e. business
—— A map of the overall Bristol area; travellers who return with their families in connection with
—— A map of the central area of the city; leisure activities.
—— Information on each transport alternative for leaving
the location, and; Transferability to other cities
—— A transport system diagram showing the various modes Each city may have a different view of what it should provide
of transport within the city and their connectivity. as welcome information and what form this information should
The airport also has a South West of England map (see page take. This will be affected by a variety of factors specific to
41, right picture), acknowledging the airport as a gateway to the city and it is the difference in how the solution responds
the wider area; in addition to the above, provisions have been to those factors that can help to define a city as an individual
made at certain sites for poster panels that can display time place and provide its visitors with a unique experience. These
sensitive information. These may promote or provide specific factors might include the size of city, its heritage, its transport
transport information on an upcoming city event. An example is systems, who initiated the project and the stage of the city’s
the need to direct large numbers of new university students from development.
Temple Meads Station to the campus on open and clearing days. Although the Bristol solution is not necessarily directly
transferable to other cities in its specific manifestation, there
The benefits are a number of common principles that may be applicable
Providing welcome information and the assistance it gives is elsewhere:
intended to benefit the city in a number of ways; visitors’ —— Create an image of the city
perceptions of Bristol are enhanced, their understanding of it is important to give new visitors to the city an overall
the city is increased, benefits are gained through a modal picture of the city that allows them to create a mental map
of it. This helps people understand the relationship of be encouraged to walk as an alternative to transport. A sign
different areas of the city to one another and to the major system can serve to promote walking by advertising it as
topographical and geographic features. It also assists an option as well as assisting those who have decided to
visitors in navigating and can further give them a greater use walking as a mode.
degree of confidence in exploring the city whilst rapidly —— Integrate transport modes through information provision
allowing them to gain an overall feel of it. key to diverting people’s behaviour away from private
—— Convey what the city has to offer vehicles, or persuading them to make a larger part of their
providing people with information on their arrival stating journey on foot is recognising walking as a movement
how they can get to their end destination is also an mode and subsequently integrating information on this
opportunity to show them the key visitor attractions and and other modes of public transport. Walking is often
other activities the city can provide. This can inform given less significance as a mode of movement and
people’s itineraries and increase the potential for a return historically, public transport modes in the UK have treated
journey at a later date in connection with an alternate information on walking in isolation to other modes.12
activity. i.e. business visitors may be encouraged to return Whether or not the traveller chooses to increase the amount
with their families in connection with leisure activities. of walking he does is a personal decision, but informing
—— Assist movement through increased knowledge people of the options for onward movement by all modes
the more people understand the city and the distance available will enable more efficient journeys and will be
between locations and destinations in walking times, reflected in the city’s attitude towards the travelling
as well as the most direct routes, the more likely will they public.
44
Brunel Mile
interpretive sign.
—— Provide appropriate information relative to the location

customising information to be location-specific allows
for a greater depth of detail in the information given and
the immediacy with which it can be interpreted, although
a balance has to be struck between the above and the
need, regularity and cost of updating this information.
Spatial Metro Influence on Bristol

Having delivered welcome information and signage at three
of Bristol’s key transport arrival points and one of its Park and
Ride sites, the programme of works is currently being extended
to deliver signage at two other locations, one a major transport the city at key nodes within the pedestrian route network as
hub within the city centre and the second a space adjacent to well as at key arrival points.
one of Bristol’s key heritage attractions, St Mary Redcliffe.
These two locations are key nodes within the pedestrian Although Bristol’s pedestrian sign system does not identify
movement system, and although Bristol’s existing sign system specific routes as being more significant than any other, as an
is not based on the concept of routes defined by activity or influence on the Spatial Metro project, it has been decided to
attraction type, they have been treated as ‘stations’ within mark the Brunel Mile (see above), a significant leisure route
the concept of Spatial Metro – spaces where pedestrians can that links some of Isambard Kingdom Brunel’s major
dwell and gather further information about the city and its contributions to the city. This is realised through a series of
attractions. The Spatial Metro programme and the dialogue interpretive signs (see above), which add a cultural heritage
with other cities throughout the course of the project has aspect to the system, one of these signs coinciding with the
informed and reinforced the need to create an introduction to ‘station’ at St Mary Redcliffe.
The welcome points project has been developed by Sam Gullam of Lacock Gullam 8 Connect Sheffield is a major programme of connected information whose
and Tim Fendley of AIG working in collaboration with the City Council’s City Centre main partners are the city council and the South Yorkshire Passenger
Projects team and its Visual Technology department; all are key members of Transport Executive (SYPTE), www.sheffield.gov.uk/whats-new/
the original team that delivered the Legible City pedestrian wayfinding system. connecting-sheffield/connect-sheffield
Further information can be found at www.bristollegiblecity.info 9 Including, Promoting Walking in London: A Draft Business Case (2003), and
Towards a fine city for people – Public spaces and public life (2004), both by
Notes Gehl Architects for TfL.
10 Legible London – A Wayfinding Study (2006), AIG Lacock Gullam for
1 Further information about Bristol Legible City and the projects undertaken
Central London Partnerships (CLP), www.legiblelondon.info/wp01/?p= 34
can be found at www.bristollegiblecity.info
11 www.legiblelondon.info, the’Yellow Book’ describes the first prototype
2 This approach was documented through an exhibition and publication titled
delivery and is available at www.legiblelondon.info/wp01/?p=74
‘you are here’. The publication, also known as ‘the blue book’ is now out of
12 Transport for London through its Legible London programme is now
print. Information about this and other Bristol Legible City publications can
investigating how it can integrate walking information into the on street
be viewed at www.bristollegiblecity.info/r3.html
infrastructure of other modes.
3 Clear Channel is an outdoor advertiser that assists local authorities in
the provision of street furniture through their Adshel business division.
www.adshel.com
4 Defining the city’s urban form in relation to the view of the ‘user’ and how
this can influence the information to be provided builds on the work of
Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City (1960), MIT Press, ISBN 02-62-12004-6.
5 Part III of the Disabilities Discrimination Act (DDA) 1995 (Finalised 2005)
(1995), gives people a ‘right of access’ to goods, facilities services and
premises. TSO, ISBN 01-05-45095-2, www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/
UKpga_19950050_en_1.htm, www.dft.gov.uk/transportforyou/access/
dda2005/pubs/part3
6 Inclusive Mobility, A Guide to Best Practice on Access to Pedestrian and
Transport Infrastructure (2002), Department of Transport, www.dft.gov.uk/
transportforyou/access/tipws/inclusivemobility. Also Sign Design Guide –
a guide to inclusive signage (2000), JMU and the Sign Design Society,
ISBN 18-58-78412-3.
7 Towards an Urban Renaissance – Urban task Force (1999), chaired by Lord
(Richard) Rodgers, ISBN 18-51-12165-X.
46
The concept of
Biel/Bienne (Switzerland)
Information and
signposting for
pedestr ians
Highlighting pedestrian routes,

offering pedestrians a dynamic aid to
find their way and implementing an After the 1980s and 1990s, which were characterized by
information platform for residents and demographic decline and economic weakness, the launch of a
new council policy at the end of the 1990s, which was bolstered
visitors: these are the objectives of the
by economic promotion and a dynamic town planning vision,
signposting concept of Biel/Bienne injected new vitality into the town of Biel/Bienne. For 7 years, the
town council. The new information vectors population of the town has steadily increased, new businesses
have arrived and new districts are emerging on former industrial
incorporate interactive maps and are
wasteland. This controlled urban growth is mainly occurring
located throughout the town in the form of internally, through densification, regeneration of disused areas
routes linking the town centre to the and renovation of the existing housing stock.
residential districts.
This urban renaissance movement is supported by a broader
trend of urban migration, favoured by the development of new
Thierry Burkhard residential districts close to services and leisure facilities,
taking into account the social context and the new needs of
Jonas Schmid working people.
Pascal Mages Coordinated actions to promote pedestrian travel

Observing, according to statistical data, that mobility
needs are increasing at the same rate or more quickly
than demographic growth, and committed to sustainable
development that ensures a quality living environment,
a coordinated transport policy that promotes a modal
47 Street-level desires \\\/// In Perspective Information and signposting for pedestrians
Biel/Bienne,
Place Centrale.
shift, favouring environmentally friendly modes of transport, A great deal of work has been carried out to improve journeys
is essential. on foot in the town centre and link the centre to Lake Biel,
Therefore, a major action plan has been deployed since 1999, which unfortunately is separated by the railway line and a major
with a view to establishing a cycle route specifically adapted secondary road.
to the spatial layout of Biel/Bienne, running east-west, to fill in Firstly, the majority of the busy shopping thoroughfare that links
gaps in the network and increase the amount of sheltered and Place de la Gare and the historic heart of the town, crossing
secure bicycle parking. Projects are still being implemented Place Centrale, has been redeveloped as a pedestrian street.
on an occasional basis. In parallel, in 2002, bus stops were The southern section of Rue de la Gare, the last relic that has
cleaned up and communication was improved for the public motorized traffic, will soon be redeveloped, with access being
transport network with the introduction of a passenger limited to public transport, cyclists and pedestrians. Traffic
information system that uses the local radio network (iqube flows in Place Centrale, the central pivot of this thoroughfare,
equipment), making bus travel more comfortable. In addition, which lends itself to strolling and browsing, were reorganized
feasibility studies for the construction of an urban tram system in 2001. Until then a focal point for motorized traffic, with more
are underway. In this context and within the framework of this than 15,000 vehicle movements per day, Place Central has
article, it seems appropriate to look in greater detail at the become the main meeting area in Biel/Bienne, thus eliminating
completed or planned redevelopment work intended to the break in the Station-Old Town pedestrian link and simplifying
enhance the appeal of pedestrian mobility. readability for all users. Throughout Place Centrale, pedestrians
48
The network of routes

defined by the direction
signs.
Network of routes.
Locations of interactive signs.
D irection signs.
Pedestrian priority zones

and main pedestrian routes
in Biel/Bienne.
addresses the building of new infrastructures – cycle and

walkways (plan to extend Rue des Jardins as a pedestrian
route), pavements and safe walkways for pedestrians; the
second concerns the preparation of a signposting concept,
with signs organized in a network, promoting pleasant and
attractive pedestrian links.
have right of way and can cross the road at any point. The speed
limit for traffic is 20 km/h. Signposting concept
The signposting concept will make it possible to assist visitors
Encouraged by the success and widely recognized improvement and people who are unfamiliar with Biel/Bienne by providing
of traffic flows, characterized by a reduction in motorized traffic information; in addition, it is planned that the signs will indicate
in the short term, other pedestrian priority zones have recently attractive pedestrian walkways between the residential districts
been set up in Biel/Bienne, for example in the historic centre, and the centre, to link up the various parts of town.
or are planned. Moreover, the construction of a convenient
underpass, leading to a new square developed in 2001, called The concept, which was approved by the council in spring
Place Robert Walser after the writer who hails from the town, 2008, has been developed to incorporate interactive elements
has extended the aforementioned pedestrian link towards the into the direction sign network, offering users orientation
lake, particularly the beach and the wharf. assistance in the form of interactive maps and other information.
The aim is to decentralize information regarding public
A major project remains to be undertaken: improving pedestrian transport, public administration, leisure activities, etc. by
links between the different residential districts and the town using the technologies available. Biel/Bienne has made an
centre, with a view to promoting journeys on foot. To achieve international name for itself thanks to the numerous
this, there are two main focuses to the strategy: the first communications firms and renowned watch manufacturers
that have their head offices or production units there, taking destination. Pedestrian and cycle routes will be incorporated,
advantage of local know-how and ideal conditions. The aim as will public transport interfaces.
of the project was to remind people of this, by integrating the Other types of information will also be available, such as bus
themes of watchmaking and communication. route numbers and times, national rail times and information
provided by the town council. The concept has been designed
Interactive signs: dynamic orientation aid so that in future it will be able to receive and incorporate other
Geographical information is summarized in the form of a map information, such as cultural information. The interactive sign
of the town, printed on the upper part of the metal panel of the will be equipped with a clock and will foster Biel/Bienne as
interactive sign. In addition, an interactive map will be available the watchmaking capital of the world.
via a touch screen, enabling users to browse a predefined The project envisages the installation of twenty-two interactive
database. The main purpose of the interactive sign is to provide signs in the town centre and at the nerve centres of the
orientation assistance. The map will have a zoom function, residential districts (district centres, meeting points).
enabling users to browse at both the town scale and the district
scale, zooming right in to find a street and a building number Direction signs: attractive routes
(the Point of Interest POI system, developed by a firm from Visitors and new residents in Biel/Bienne will be able to find
Biel/Bienne). Furthermore, it will be possible for a certain their way around on foot, using pleasant, safe pedestrian routes.
place to request the plotting of a specific route, by defining a Analysis of the relationship between routes and the image of
50
Biel/Bienne,
Place Centrale.
Routes and
information:
direction and
interactive
signs.
the town has not been limited to pedestrians. The interlinkage route that offers spectacular views of the historic heart of
of individual motorized traffic, public transport and slow traffic Biel/Bienne, the modern district and contemporary housing
to various places have also been examined. developments. As well as the interest of the planned routes,
The pedestrian signposting and orientation system will aspects linked to pedestrian mobility, such as safety, journey
reveal the uniqueness of the town, improve its image and time and coexistence with other means of transport have
appeal, and facilitate access and orientation for residents been taken into consideration.
and visitors alike. The direction signs contain thematic, functional information,
Each direction sign provides details of addresses and geographic in both German and French. They will enhance the appreciation
directions (streets, squares, district), public institutions (local of certain places of interest, improve access to district
government buildings, schools), cultural attractions (museums, centres and help users find their bearings in Biel/Bienne.
theatre) or sports facilities (swimming pool, stadiums), as well
as transport information (stations, car parks, bicycle stations, Technical support
bicycle shelters) in relation to the location of the sign. The signs consist of a metal supporting structure covered
There is a main east-west artery for pedestrians and cyclists, with aluminium sheets. Each part is treated with anti-graffiti
largely running along the River Suze. Branches come off this coating, which limits the extent of possible damage.
artery to serve the other districts, following attractive routes. The electronic component comprises a 19-inch touch screen
These routes take into account the proximity of public transport with anti-vandalism glass and a computer which displays the
stations, in order to facilitate transport connections, as needed. orientation map and information, and manages user requests
A second north-south artery links the picturesque district of according to predefined programming. These terminals will
Vignoble – located on the south-facing slope of the town and not offer open Internet access.
characterized by the remains of low walls and steep paths that The search engine is based on a database, consisting of
remind passers-by of the ancient terraced vineyards – to the georeferenced information about streets, buildings, bicycle
southern part of town, via the town centre. This is an attractive parks and car parks, as well as more general information such
as council office and museum opening times, the local events Photography
diary, etc. Access to the system for the purpose of marketing the p.48 (upper middle)
Stadt Biel
town will make it possible to send new information or update
data on the display, which will be automatically transmitted
by the network using a GPRS or WLAN system.
The town laid bare to pedestrians

The signposting project and the work undertaken to increase
the attractiveness and fill in the gaps in the pedestrian network
contribute to enhancing routes intended for daily journeys.
Whether during pedestrian commutes or journeys for leisure
reasons, the town bares itself to the walker. Different
perspectives, districts, buildings, roofs… The myriad details
of the urban fabric and numerous forms of a new urbanity can
only be appreciated when walking through the town on a daily
basis; an experience that is both useful and enjoyable.
Part 2
Investments & context
What investments are required
to make the pedestrian
policy in each city work?
What are the spatially relevant
circumstances of each city?
54
Norwich Cathedral.
Investments Norwich market.
& context
Sweets in Rouen.
This chapter provides an overview of the

main investments made within the
framework of the Spatial Metro Interreg What can you find here?
IIIb project. Most of the investments After this introduction, each city will be elaborated on
separately and it specific context explained. A short
were made in Norwich (United Kingdom),
introduction on each city will be followed by a description
Rouen (France) and Koblenz (Germany). and an illustration of the investment projects. The next
All projects were co-financed with money page will contain a satellite image of the city and an
overview of the arrival points. Finally, the main commercial
from the European Regional Development
activities for each city will be mapped, as well as the major
Fund (ERDF). This chapter also offers the attractions in the city centre.
contextual information on the cities
necessary to understand the research
carried out by Delft University of Technology.
Stefan van der Spek
Koblenz river bank.
Rouen old city.
Koblenz.
55 Street-level desires \\\/// Presentation of the cases Investments & context
56
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City of Norwich
Norwich is situated in the heart of East Anglia, the United
Kingdom. The city functions as a regional capital, offering retail
trade, higher education, heritage and culture. Norwich is an
excellent example of a well-preserved medieval city. The city
is renowned for its medieval churches within the city walls, of
which there are over thirty. Remarkable are the half-timbered
Norwich: Key houses and cobble stone roads of Elm Hill.
ERDF Investments
Norwich is an inspiring and vibrant city with museums, galleries,
in public space.
theatres, buzzing nightlife and year- round festivals such as
Heritage Open Days, Norwich & Norfolk Festival.
Information point .
Before railway connections were introduced from London to
Welcome point . Norwich in 1845, the city was so geographically isolated that
it was quicker to travel by boat to Amsterdam than over land
Indicates Norw ich Lanes shopping distr ict . to London. Today, the railway links Norwich to the rest of the
country via London and Peterborough. Norwich International
Investment project area. Airport has connections to Central European countries, such as
the Netherlands (Amsterdam Schiphol Airport) and Germany.
Norwich is a twin city of both Rouen and Koblenz. The City

accommodates the University of East Anglia (1964).
About 129,500 people live in the Norwich City Council Area.

Norwich: Google Within the East of England, Norwich is the fourth most densely
Earth Map.
populated area with 3,320 people per square kilometre.
Norwich Key ERDF Investments in public space

Revitalising the St. Andrews Plain area
‘The area between the Playhouse Theatre, St. Andrew’s Hall,
the Art School and Cinema City will be transformed, with part
of the area closed to traffic, pavements widened, trees planted,
and new lighting, paving and street furniture installed. The first
phase of the project includes the installation of pedestrian
crossings.’
Norwich Lanes – Makeover adds stronger identity

‘A facelift of the Norwich Lanes area of the city promises to
further highlight and promote the quaint cobbled streets, narrow
alleys, and innumerable visitor attractions in this vibrant and
historic specialist shopping district. This will include New Signs,
New Paving, Pavement Markers, improvements around
St. Gregorys Green and improvements for cyclists.’
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Gateways – Welcome Points at key arrival locations

‘First impressions count when visitors arrive in a city – and few
things put people off more quickly than unwelcoming, grubby-
looking airports, railways stations or car parks where basic
information is hard to find or hard to understand.’
Norwich Google Earth Map

The aerial photograph shows the city centre of Norwich.
A central item in this picture is the Castle on the hill. The historic
city and shopping core is located east of the Castle. Here the
Market, Forum and Chapelfield Mall and Chapelfield Gardens
can be distinguished.
Norwich:
Arrival Points.
On the western side, the railway yards can be recognised.
To the south, a large scale development has been realised.
P A direct route connects the Railway Station with Castle Meadow,
Multilevel car park. namely the Prince of Wales Road. North of this road, the green
area around the Great Hospital is clearly visible. The city
Access road. centre is enclosed by a core ring road and partly bounded by
the River Wensum.
Access road.
Norwich Arrival Points
The map shows the arrival points in the city. These include
the railway and bus station and several multi-level car parks.
These locations can be seen as pedestrian access points into
the city.
The largest car parks are St. Andrews (north) and Chapelfield
(south), both containing approximately 1000 parking spaces.
Both opened in 2005. Castle Mall also has many parking spaces.
Norwich: Other multi-storey car parks are located on the eastern and
Commercial
western side of the core.
Activities.
The station is located on the other side of the river, next to

the Riverside development. The railway station is directly
Ret ail.
connected to the city by the Prince of Wales Road. The bus
station is located behind the building block opposite the street
Shopping Mall.
of Chapelfield. Most buses also stop either on St. Stephens
Street (opposite the Chapelfield Mall) or Castle Meadow,
Daily Needs.
providing direct access to the historic city centre.
Dr inking & D ining.

Outside the centre, along the outer ring road, a number of
P+R locations offer alternative transportation into the city.
Norwich Commercial Activities

Norwich functions as a regional attractor for its commercial
activities. Norwich is among the top places to shop in the
United Kingdom; in 2006 Norwich was the eighth most
flourishing shopping destination.
Norwich Market is the largest open-air market in the country.
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Further, Norwich boasts a large number of specialist and

independent retailers. Most of them are situated in The Norwich
Lanes area. The Royal Arcade is a beautiful covered shopping
street in Art Nouveau style.
In addition to the commercial activities in the core, there
are five main streets: St. Giles Street, St. Benedicts Street,
Magdalen Street, Prince of Wales Road and St. Stephens
Street.
Norwich accommodates two shopping malls: Castle Mall

(1993) and Chapelfield (2005). The malls are very precisely
designed to sensitively add larger scale shopping to the fine
Norwich: Places historic city centre. Castle Mall is a multi-level mall which is
of Interest.
partly built into the Castle Hill. On the roof, a public garden
provides access to the Castle and a view of the city. Chapelfield
was developed on the location of the old chocolate factory.
Significant building. Chapelfield has two main entrances: one on the market side
and one along St. Stephens Street.
Significant public space.
For leisure, the main attractions are The Forum (2002) and
Riverside Entertainment Centre.
Norwich Places of Interest

Main attractions in the city centre include The Forum
(information, library and BBC Norfolk), the Market and
St. Peter Mancroft Church. The Castle on the hill overlooks
the city, but forms a barrier to King Street, the historic
throughway. The main attractions on the eastern side are
Dragon Hall (along King Street), Elm Hill, Tombland,
Rouen: Key ERDF the Norwich Cathedral and the Cow Tower behind the
Investments in
Great Hospital. The second cathedral, the Roman
public space.
Catholic Cathedral, is situated to the west of the centre.
St ations Spatial Metro.
Spatial Metro por t als.

City of Rouen
Spatial Metro lanes w ith project .
Rouen is the Capital of Normandy and has approximately

Spatial Metro por t als w ith project .
106,500 inhabitants. The French city is situated along the
River Seine, with the centre on the right side. Much of the
historic city centre has been preserved.
Rouen is a vibrant city with both a thriving retail trade and
culture, and is a popular tourist destination. The city is
renowned for its famous characters such as Joan of Arc,
Pierre Corneille and Gustave Flaubert. The city is also
known as ‘Ville aux cent clochers’.
62
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Important buildings in the city are the 13th century late-gothic

Cathedral (the Notre Dame) and the renaissance style
Gros-Horloge, a giant medieval clock which is a city symbol.
The city contains many other gothic monuments such as
St. Ouen Abbey, St. Maclou Church and the Palais de Justice.
Further, many half-timbered houses still exist giving the city a
historical image.
Year round the city offers cultural events and impressive

performances. One example is the ‘From Monet to Pixel’
performance, a magnificent light show on the façade of the
Cathedral.
Rouen: Google
Earth Map.
The University of Rouen and the well-known ESC Business
School are situated in nearby Mont Saint-Agan.
Rouen Key ERDF Investments in public space

In general
In Rouen the investments are aimed to provide strategic
improvements both in the daytime and at night. The strategy
consists of three pillars: gateways, stations and lines.
Gateways
The gateways provide information at the entrances to the city
and at changes from motorized traffic to pedestrianism.
The gateways form a ring around the core of the city. The
projects include a feasibility study into a bike & cycle park,
the development of coach parks and the improvement of car
parks.
Rouen:
Arrival Points.
Stations
Stations are major destinations. Rouen defined several
P station projects: Gros-Horloge, St. Ouen Abbey, Natural
Multilevel car park. History Museum, Saint-Maclou.
Access road. Lines

The lines consist of concrete projects with regard to routes
Access road. and spaces such as the redevelopment of public space,
pedestrianisation, traffic calming, pedestrian links, a lighting
strategy, a signage strategy and activities for day and night
Rouen Google Earth Map

The aerial photo of Rouen emphasizes the orthogonal structure
of the city. An exception to this structure is the area around
the City Hall and St. Ouen. Further, some streets do not run
straight or parallel to the river. An example is the Rue du
General Leclerc.
The aerial photo shows a very limited number of green areas.
Potential green areas are the gardens around the City Hall
and Place Verdrel, a landscaped square.
64
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The city centre does not have a clearly defined border.

The sequence of boulevards such as Boulevard des Belges,
Boulevard de la Marne, Boulevard de l’Yser, Boulevard de
Verdun, N28 and the quays form the boundaries of the city
centre.
Two major roads cross straight through the centre starting

from the river: Rue Jeanne d’Arc and Rue de la Republique.
The quays are also occupied by major roads.
Rouen Arrival Points

Although there are some clear clusters, most multi-level
Rouen: arrival points are spread through the city in Rouen. The largest
Commercial
car park, Car Park du Palais, is located in the core of the centre.
Activities.
All car parks are well accessible by car.
The main train station is located just outside the city centre to
Ret ail.
the north. The station is accessible via the Rue Jeanne d’Arc.
Shopping Mall.
Public transport consists of METRO, Bus Rapid Transit (BRT)
and a BUS system. The metro line is located underneath the
Daily Needs.
Rue Jeanne d’Arc and connects the railway with the city
centre and the left side of the river, including the Saint-Sever
commercial district. The metro stops are indicated on the
map. The TEOR is the BRT system in Rouen. This high quality
bus system is situated on the Rue du General Leclerc.
Rouen Commercial Activities

Rouen has an extended shopping district. It mainly covers the
Rouen: Places area between Rue Jeanne d’Arc and Rue de la Republique,
of Interest.
plus the area up to the Charles Nicole hospital and the area
up tp l the Boulevard de Belges. Except for the Saint-Sever
commercial district on the other side of the River Seine, there
Significant building. are no shopping malls in Rouen.
Significant public space. Rouen Places of Interest

Rouen has a large number of interesting places and objects.
The most significant building is the late-gothic Notre Dame
Cathedral. At 150 metres, the tower ‘La Tour Grêle’ is the
tallest clock tower in France.
Other important buildings are the City Hall and St. Ouen,
the Palais de Justice, the Musee des Beaux Arts, the Eglise
St. Maclou and the Eglise Jeanne d’Arc nearby Vieux Marché.
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City of Koblenz
Koblenz, a German city with around 106,000 inhabitants,
is situated on the corner of Rhine and Mosel. The city is
encapsulated in the glowing landscape which surrounds the city.
The city centre is bordered by the River Rhine on the eastern
side and the River Mosel on the northern side. The place where
the rivers merge, known as ‘Deutsches Eck – The German
Koblenz: Key ERDF Corner’, is marked by a re-erected equestrian statue of
Investments in
Emperor William II.
public space.
The city is truly European; the name Koblenz is based on the

Spatial Metro investment . castle the Romans constructed here. In wars, the city was
captured by the Franks, conquered by the French and fortified
C ity lighting. by the Prussians.
Pedestr ian zone. The historic city centre contains a lot of small square, such as
the Florinsmarkt, Münzplatz and Jesuitenplatz, and distinctive
Future developments. medieval churches such as St. Florins Church and Our Lady’s
Church.
Tourists arrive at the city by car or coach. The main coach

park is located near the German Corner. Many also visit the
city by boat, or take boat trips along the River Rhine. This
makes the waterfronts vital parts of the city.
Koblenz: Google
Earth Map.
Koblenz Key ERDF Investments in public space

Safeguard old town tranquillity
Traffic calming measures have been introduced to ensure
car-free pedestrian areas and to enable pedestrians to stroll
about freely and safely. Bollards prevent unauthorised traffic
from entering this part of the historic city.
Facelift for Schlossstrasse

The Schlossstrasse connects the Löhrrondell to the
Kurfürstlichen Schloss near the River Rhine. The western
section of the Schlossstrasse was improved to reinforce its
status as a first-class shopping destination. The street was
designed according to the principles of Shared Space,
realising a balance between pedestrians and motorised
traffic. Traffic calming measures succeed in reducing traffic
speeds to 20 km/h. Raised crossings and tactile street
surfaces make access and crossing easier for all.
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Redesign of Löhrstrasse and Löhrrondell

Through a competition, new ideas for the Löhrstrasse and
Löhrrondell were obtained. The Löhrrondell is a key location
in the pedestrian network, connecting three urban axes with
the Löhr-Center and the future city railway station.
Waterfront
The waterfront is a vital part of the tourist area in Koblenz.
Both Rhine and Mosel quays offer port facilities for tourist
ships. Improvements of the quays are necessary to meet
today’s needs. Within the project, a feasibility study has been
carried out.
Koblenz:
Arrival Points.
Future developments
Key developments in the near future are a new railway station
P close to the Löhr-Center, Zentralplatz and both Rhine and
Multilevel car park. Mosel quay.
Access road.
Koblenz Google Earth Map
Access road. The aerial image shows the city centre including the historic
city centre. The boundaries of the city centre are the River
Rhine (east), the N49 main road, the railway tracks and N9
and the River Mosel (north).
Within the centre area, the medieval city core can be recognized
by its dense and curved pattern of streets. Other deviating
areas are the palace (Schloss) with lots of green, and the
waterfront (boulevard). Further, the city is based on an
orthogonal grid with two special long lines: Schlossstrasse
Koblenz: (east-west direction connecting Palace and Löhr-Center) and
Commercial
Löhrstrasse (north-south direction connecting the historic
Activities.
city with the DB train station). These long lines meet at the
Löhrrondell, the square near the southern end of the
Löhr-Center shopping mall.
Ret ail.
The quays are used for port functions. The Mosel Quay
Shopping Mall.
accommodates the cruise ships. The Rhine Quay accommodates
the tourist boats which make day-trips along the Rhine.
Daily Needs.
Two intensely used roads for traffic pass straight through the
city centre, namely Pfulgasse/Clemesstrasse and Neustadt.
Koblenz Arrival Points

Most multi-storey access points are located in the southern
and western parts of the city centre. This is due to the location
of the city’s access routes and waterfronts. The coach station
is located near the German Corner. The largest car park is
Löhr-Center with 1400 parking spaces. The Rhein-Mosel Halle,
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south of the N49, also offers parking facilities. Further, parking

is possible at ground level around the palace.
The train station is situated outside the city centre. A new

railway station is planned behind the Löhr-Center. Most bus
lines go straight through the city centre, providing high quality
access to public transport.
Koblenz Commercial Activities

Commercial activities are situated on a limited number
of streets. Main shopping locations are Löhrstrasse,
Koblenz: Places Schlossstrasse, Entenpfuhl, Firmungsstrasse and the
of Interest.
Altstadt. The colour indicates the type of activity.
The Altstadt and Görresplatz are generally populated by bars
and restaurants, while for daily shopping and department
Significant building. stores, the Löhrstrasse and Phulgasse are the places to go.
Both Altstadt and Zentralplatz have a large variety of shops.
Significant public space. For the time being, the Zentralplatz is clearly not able to
accommodate any activities.
Koblenz Places of Interest

The places of interest consist of public spaces and
exceptional buildings. The public spaces are the German
Corner with its statue, Görresplatz with its fountain,
Am Plan at the edge of the Altstadt and Florinsmarkt.
The main buildings are the large scale shopping mall
Löhr-Center, the palace, City Hall (Rathaus) and three
churches in particular: St. Kastor Basilica, Liebfrauenkirche
and Florinskirche.
Part 3
Techniques
What techniques
are available and
necessary to make
the pedestrian
policy in each
city work?
74
Information The Stationary Info System.
systems for
Spatial Metro
Waiting at a train station in a small

Dutch city in the mid 90s together with a
colleague who had a brand new Palm III, This was the beginning of a series of projects on this topic
we began dreaming; suppose we could use which we aim to describe in this paper. Recently, Raj Reddy
and Jaime Carbonell, declared a new ‘Bill of Rights’ of the
the Palm to obtain information about the
Information Society, claiming therein that we should:
location where we were, about interesting —— get the right information;
places around the station and so —— to the right people;
—— at the right time;
forth and so forth. On returning home,
—— in the right language;
we drew up a project proposal and —— with the right level of detail, and;
succeeded in acquiring funding for a —— in the right medium.
We feel that the project described here contributes to at least
project called ‘MIA’ 1, eventually resulting
some of these claims.
in an application-oriented product.
The projects
Ulrich Furbach This sections starts with a short review of the history of
such projects, before focusing on the various systems we
Markus Maron developed in connection with Spatial Metro. The first project
in this series, the MIA project mentioned above, assumed
Kevin Read that the palmtop device was equipped with a GPS system
for its localisation and had access to the internet. In addition
the system had access to a user profile on a server and
was hence able to answer personalised and location-based
queries. In successive projects, we avoided connecting to
75 Street-level desires \\\/// Considerations Information systems for Spatial Metro
The Stationary
Info System as
a tourist guide.
project and is able to do more than just storing and displaying

incoming messages. Internally, it uses a powerful logic
reasoning engine called Pocket KRHyper, 4 the first theorem
prover to run on a mobile phone. More information about the
the internet via the mobile device, instead focusing on entire approach can be found in. 5
free-of-charge access to Bluetooth access points.
One of these successive projects was ‘IASON’, 2 and aims The SpatialMetro project
at providing mobile users (users of PDAs or mobile phones) One goal of this European Commission project 6 is the use of
with location-aware personalised information. In a so-called AI techniques for the efficient guidance of tourists in a city.
Semantic Mobile Environment, service nodes are installed For this purpose, tourists are guided along themed routes on
at chosen points of interest. These service nodes broadcast special maps that are reminiscent of Metro or Underground
messages to nearby mobile users using bluetooth wireless line maps, hence the name (see above left). Points of interest are
technology. The kind of message depends on the access point the equivalent of Metro stops in this analogy. We developed a
it will be broadcasted by, for example a bookshop could send stationary information system for this project, channelling our
out its latest orders, a pub could present its menu and its experiences from IASON into a wireless information system.
schedule of events to its customers or a bus station could
provide information on delays in bus schedules. The most The Stationary Info System – this is a terminal placed at public
interesting feature from a scientific viewpoint is filtering areas like train stations (see above left), to welcome the
technology. The huge amount of information to be sent is tourist at the location at which he starts his stay.
filtered by the mobile device according to the profile set by The Stationary Info System can offer information on current
the user. To achieve this, it is necessary to install a small events in the city, on accommodation in the immediate vicinity
application on the user’s mobile. and more. The terminal can help to present tourists with a basic
This application 3 was the first usable prototype of the aid to orientate and guide them through the city. A clearly
76
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structured user interface guides the visitor through the varied information sites. For city planners, the terminals are easy to
information provided by the terminal. Both the navigation and maintain, especially considering the advantages they provide.
contents are multi-lingual, so that visitors from foreign countries The existing content can be easily handled, and new content
can make use of the terminals. The terminals can run in both can be added rapidly. In this way, the Stationary Info System
online and in offline modes. and the Outdoor Info System can contribute to increasing the
attractiveness of the city.
The Outdoor Info System is a modification of
the Stationary Info System A mobile Information System was also introduced
Outdoor terminals should be placed in front of important Each point of interest will be equipped with a Bluetooth-enabled
buildings and other sights. In this way, the Outdoor Info Access Point that will broadcast information about the location
System can give an explanation of the buildings and concerned (see above). Examples would be historical
monuments on-site. These terminals propose what sight to information, directions to next underground stations or shopping
visit next and guide the tourists to the next point of interest. facilities. Tourists’ PDAs or mobile phones can be contacted by
Current events taking place at the building or monument the Access Point and can display the information after reception.
concerned can also be incorporated. The terminals have This is naturally free of charge, in contrast to wireless LAN or
to be outside and must therefore be weather resistant. GPRS/UMTS technology, and is location-based by nature.
Like the Stationary Info System, the Outdoor Info System
can run in both online and offline modes. The Mobile Info System keeps users up-to-date on events.
Recapitulating, it can be said that the Stationary Info System This makes the Mobile Info System interesting for tourists as
and the Outdoor Info System help tourists acquire information well as for local residents. The reasoning engine is based on
and orientate in an uncomplicated manner (see page 75). the efforts of the IASON project. Enhancements where made
They are easy to use, so that even tourists who aren’t used to to the profile generation. There are several profiles bundled
working with computers can simply navigate through the together with the SpatialMetro application, one or more of
The Infonetz map.
The Mobile Information System.
which can be selected. The description logic terms of the

activated profiles are disjunctively linked together. In addition
to this disjunction, the profile selection also makes it possible
to activate attributes that further narrow down the users’
interests. These attributes are then added as a conjunction At the same time the supplier of the Access Point technology
to each profile term. An example would be the attribute announced the End-Of-Life for this product range. All these
‘vegetarian’, that would narrow down all food interest profiles to developments led to the realisation that we had to redesign
this kind of food, without overriding profiles such as ‘Italian food’. the concept to overcome these problems.
A test run at the local university cafeteria brought significant First we had to look for a new access point platform, which
empirical results. Log data showed that there was a technical was not a trivial task. To reduce the requirements of mobile
barrier in the installation of applications via Bluetooth. Mobile users and enable us to carry out even more complex reasoning
phone providers disable this data transport to force users to in the future, we chose to move the reasoning process from
download applications over their data networks, thereby the mobile phone to a server. For broadcasting the services
generating revenue. This technical barrier was accompanied we adopted standard bluetooth transport mechanisms
by a social barrier – installing a foreign and potentially instead of java-based communication. In this way, we also
dangerous application on a mobile phone. This was reflected increased reachability. Various test cases carried out at public
in the feedback forms and generated online discussion. events show that we can now reach all Bluetooth-enabled
Today’s mobile phones do not offer a baseline of technical (mobile) devices.
features. Quite to the contrary, the power of the embedded
operating system and even standardised features like the The Infonetz Koblenz
Java virtual machine differ significantly. This posed another The conceptual change appeared to be so good that public
major obstacle. bodies were highly interested in our research, and following
our presentation, the city of Koblenz decided to introduce a
78
Usage of the Campus News System.
Semester
Semester break Total Maximum Minimum
Found devices 5 ,108 865 5 ,508 754 1 ,974
Ser ved devices 1 ,593 178 1 ,676 364 139
Transmitted data 15 ,102 595 15 ,697 2 , 400 862
Acceptance rate 31 .18% 20.58% 30. 42% 48. 28% 7.04%
city-wide information system. This led to the development of Results and outlook
an information system called Infonetz Koblenz. It introduced a Now, ten months after introducing the Campus News System
Client-Server architecture and a web based Profile Editor that at the University of Koblenz, it appears that its usage and
stores users’ interests in a central database. The reasoning acceptance by the students is fairly good.
engine used by this project is based on our deduction model. The lowest ratio of found devices to devices that received
For use in high load situations, we optimised the theorem information was 7.04% in April 2007 (roll-out was on 16 April).
prover. After a while and following certain promotional activities, this
In addition, we consulted the participating companies, utilising ratio rose to 48.28% in December. The overall acceptance
our experience gained in our projects and research. The City rate is 30%. Unsurprisingly, this ratio is higher during the
of Koblenz has decided to use the system at various places in semester than at breaks. The acceptance rate is defined by
the city. A map of some of the planned points of interest can us as the number of phones that accepted files sent by our
be seen on page 77, with a total of twenty points planned. system divided by the number of Bluetooth-capable devices
owned by users willing to activate Bluetooth functionality.
In addition, the University of Koblenz is actively using the We detected over 5,508 different mobile devices with Bluetooth
system as a campus information system for mobile users. 7 activation and served 1,676 of them. Of these 1,676 devices,
Some of the local area personal information systems initially 1,340 were unregistered users that received the cafeteria menu
mentioned differ conceptually from our approach; 8 they use and urgent public announcements, and 336 were registered
Bluetooth only for positioning but send the information over users that obtained news according to the profile set. All in all
non-local wireless links such as GSM. The project ‘mobile we transmitted over 15,600 different messages within this time
cafeteria menu’ 9 is used in similar scenarios to our campus frame (see table above). The message sent out most often
project but is completely unaware of location or personalisation was the menu of the cafeteria which was also transmitted to
aspects. unregistered users. To put the numbers into perspective,
the campus Koblenz has around 6,000 students. Taking into
account occasional visitors, scientific workers and other Notes

employees, more than 80 percent of all people on the campus 1 MIA is short for: Mobile Informaton Agents for the WWW. See also:
C. W. Gerd Beuster, Bernd Thomas. Mia – an ubiquitous multi-agent web
have visible Bluetooth-capable devices and more than a
information system. In of International ICSC Symposium on Multi-Agents
quarter have received CampusNews information. and Mobile Agents in Virtual Organizations and E-Commerce,
December 11-13 2000.
We also conducted a questionnaire on user wishes and
2 Short for: A Location-Based Information Announcement System with
opinions regarding Campus News. We sent out a code and Ontology- Based profiles, http://www.uni- koblenz.de/~iason
3 M. Maron, IASON Mobile Application – Konzept und Realisierung einer
asked the students to enter that code on the answer sheet.
mobilen Anwendung für profilbasiertes Matchmaking von Nachrichten
We moreover enquired about their mobile phone brand and (2005), Master’s thesis, Universität Koblenz/Landau.
4 T. Kleemann and A. Sinner. Krhyper – in your pocket, system description.
model, their opinion of the system in general and wishes or
In R. Nieuwenhuis, editor, proc. of Conference on Automated Deduction
suggestions for future work. Of the 97 students that replied, (2005), CADE-20, volume 3632, pages 452–458, Springer.
5 T. Kleemann and A. Sinner, Decision support for personalisation on
12 could not receive the code. Using the stated information
mobile devices (2005). In Proceedings of the 21st International Conference,
on the mobile phone brand, we gained insight into the pages 404–406. ICLP 2005, 2005.
6 www.spatialmetro.org
workings of Samsung and Motorola brand phones and were
7 Rhein-Zeitung: ‘City Guide Blue’ bringt ortsgebundene Informationen aufs
able to increase compatibility in this area. Opinions varied MoBiltelefon, and Rhein-Zeitung: Info-Netzwerk wird im Alltag getestet.
8 L. Aalto, N. Göthlin, J. Korhonen, and T. Ojala, Bluetooth and wap push-
from a general vague acceptance of the concept to
based location-aware mobile advertising system. In MobiSys ’04:
enthusiasm. The most desirable feature was a higher density Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Mobile systems,
applications, and services (2004), pages 49–58, New York, NY, USA.
of service nodes and up-to-date information in the system on
ACM Press.
changes in course schedules. 9 http://www.studentenwerk-dresden.de/mensen/handy.html
The next step is to support public bodies in building up the

Infonetz, which is based on our research work, in the city of
Koblenz as a tourist and citizen information guide. We hope
that its adoption will be as favourable as the university
project.
80
Making a virtual city
The process and

the problems St John’s Cathedral virtual
model. On the left, the ‘plain’
geometric shape – on the
right, the same shape
‘textured’ – over twenty
separate textures have been
used for this model.
The last few years have seen an increase

in the power of computers and a decrease
in their cost. This has resulted in the Creating the models
increased accessibility of high-powered Automatic modelling
The Urban Modelling Group has developed software to create
computing and rapid developments in
buildings automatically using three sets of data. The first set is
software. A whole range of computer a digital map containing the ‘footprint’ of every building (i.e. the
applications that were either impossible ground outline of every building), the second is the ground
surface data (i.e. the topography or contoured shape of the
or unviable just a few years ago are now
land including roads and rivers), and the third is a set of data
accessible to many. One of these is the that includes the heights of every building. The surface and
ability to create complex 3D computer height data sets are now routinely collected using planes
and satellites, and are obtainable from different sources.
models – such as those of complete
By combining these data sets, a model of the ground surface
towns and cities. of an area can be created, along with a model of each building
with the correct basic shape and height. The software also
David Drinkwater applies a roof to each building depending on the size and shape
of the building footprint, and has the facility to automatically
generate refinements such as dormer windows, eaves and
chimneys. The accuracy of the roof shape depends on the
quality of the data, which currently is often available at 50cm
intervals and with a height accuracy of plus or minus one metre.
The software, whilst creating each building automatically,
allows for manual correction of heights, roof type and other
details.
81 Street-level desires \\\/// Techniques The process and the problems
It should be mentioned that there are research teams working Subsequently each surface of every model has a ‘texture’
on other automatic techniques for modelling urban areas, for applied to it. These textures are, in nearly all cases, images
example the creation of 3D geometry from multiple photographic made from photographs of actual buildings in Norwich.
images, or the use of laser and infrared depth scanning, with The number of surface textures used in a building varies
cameras and sensors fixed on vehicles that drive through enormously – some of the buildings may only use two textures,
streets to record the facades of the buildings. but the complex handcrafted buildings often require many
textures, representing the different surfaces such as wall
‘Hand crafted’ models materials, paint finishes and decorative panels.
The automatic models provide a backdrop to the whole ‘Virtual
Norwich’ city model. The landmark buildings and many of the For the automatically generated models, sets of these textures
buildings in the street models have been ‘handcrafted’ using a have been created to cover a range of building periods,
variety of software applications. Some buildings are modelled materials, styles and sizes. They are applied automatically to
from architectural plans and drawings but for most, photographs each model according to the style required, and the heights
are used as the basis for the model. Whilst a variety of and lengths of the walls of the building. With the handcrafted
techniques is used, in all cases the process involves creating buildings, the correct textures have to be created and applied
the exterior surfaces (walls and roofs) of the building, before individually to all the separate elements.
applying image ‘textures’ to them. The more detailed models
involve the creation of accurate details such as window frames, To create the textures, photographs of buildings are taken and
doorways, porticoes, steps, eaves, columns etc. This can be then processed. The processing of the photographs involves
painstaking and time-consuming. removing distortions produced by the camera lens, straightening
out the image so it is aligned correctly both horizontally and
Texturing the models vertically, and then cleaning up the image. Cleaning up the
The models are initially created with plain ‘untextured’ surfaces. photographs requires removing, or replacing, all the unwanted
82
An area of Virtual Norwich

with a combination of
automatically generated and
‘handcrafted’ buildings.
elements that appear in photographs of buildings in a busy city, are required if the output is to be viewed in high quality on a
e.g. plants, trees, people, railings, chairs, cars, buses, bicycles, large surface (e.g. a cinema-size screen), the texture sizes are
etc, etc. For some buildings this can be a relatively quick usually unnecessarily large after processing, and can be
process – if there is a good clear view which allows the whole reduced in size and compressed to minimize memory use for
building facade to be included in a single photograph. But this general viewing at low resolution.
tends to be the exception. Streets and squares are full of
people, vehicles, signs, plants, trees etc., and these have to be Another issue relating to the photographs is the prevailing
removed using image processing software (such as Photoshop). lighting conditions at the time they are taken – the quality of
Narrow streets pose a particular problem as they require photographs obtained depends on the time of day, the time of
multiple photographs to be taken, and must subsequently be year and the weather conditions. Generally good results are
undistorted, straightened and then joined together. Because of obtained in early spring (few leaves), towards the middle of a
the angles involved these photographs are often very distorted, day with thin cloud covering (creating shadows without too
particularly of the upper levels of buildings, and require extensive strong a contrast and allowing photographs of north facing
processing. Textures for separate elements, e.g. columns and facades )
doors, are extracted from the processed photographs.
The processing of photographs, and creating textures from The Virtual Norwich model and its uses
them, often takes significantly more time than the creation of The Virtual Norwich model began as a series of models of
a building’s geometric shape. individual buildings created to highlight some of the outstanding
architecture in Norwich, ranging from the 12th Century Castle
The buildings made automatically use the same texture sets and Cathedral to some notable medieval buildings, including
and on average therefore consume less computer memory than over 30 medieval churches, through to Georgian domestic and
the handcrafted buildings, the texture of which usually only religious buildings and some notable 20th century monuments.
appears once on a single building. Whilst large detailed textures This work was funded by the ‘Liveable City’ Interreg III project.
For the Spatial Metro project this core of models of notable a set of high quality models gives a greater understanding of
buildings was expanded to include the construction of the the impact of such a development.
whole of the city centre. The resulting model has been used
to create animations of individual buildings and of routes The application of the models to tourism is being developed,
through the city streets, along with an interface which allows and the interface and visualisations mentioned above are in
users to explore Virtual Norwich. The current model, along the process of being placed on the internet allowing potential
with the in-house software, was created by a team of three visitors throughout the world to explore Virtual Norwich.
researchers over a period of three years. Uses within education are varied; for younger students, the
models give new views of the city and individual buildings
Having created the model, Norwich is now in possession of an extracted from their surroundings; for older students there
outstanding resource which has many uses. The most obvious are uses within the studies of architecture and urban planning.
practical use is urban planning – the models have already been
used by Norwich City Council Planning Department for three A significant development with regard to the Virtual Norwich
projects; to view changes to two pedestrianisation schemes and model is its basis in connection with several virtual historical
also for a visioning project with respect to a set of sculptures reconstructions. Funded largely by HEART, a trust set up to
that have been installed in a square in the city centre. The encourage the appreciation and regeneration of Norwich,
visualisations produced enable a clearer understanding of several major virtual reconstruction projects have been
such schemes by officials and members of the public, whilst undertaken, including the Cathedral Close, the St Andrew’s
they also provide feedback to the planning department, which Hall monastic complex, the Great Hospital and the Market
sometimes sees problems that were not obvious before. Place. The Cathedral reconstruction will be on display at the
The models have also been used by commercial architects in new education centre currently under construction in the
planning projects, and are currently being used in visualisations Cathedral Close.
for a major riverside redevelopment in the city centre – having
A historic virtual reconstruction of Koblenz in the 19th century
was produced for our Spatial Metro partners. This was done Virtual model of
Koblenz around 1880.
using mainly automatic modelling techniques, and data sources
which included some very detailed maps of the period. The
texture sets were based on photographs of existing buildings The first is the time involved in creating the model on such a
from that period. scale – the area in Norwich contains approximately 8,000
buildings, and for each of these buildings there are the two
There are also two incidental, but not insignificant, by-products elements as mentioned above, namely the geometric shape
of all the work done. The first is that the model itself forms, and the surface textures. The geometric shape can vary from as
in its own right, an historic document of a city at a particular few as five surfaces in a simple structure, to well over a million
period. The second is that the thousands of photographs taken surfaces in the (still incomplete) model of Norwich Cathedral.
in the process of creating Virtual Norwich have created a huge Likewise the number of textures required can be large.
resource, for current use, and for use by future historians and As a result, the complete model of the whole of Norwich will
researchers. not currently fit into any of our computers. This means that
the model has to be divided into smaller sections, which
A few issues relating to the creation of a virtual town or city might be a street or a detailed landmark building. To create
The creation of a complete virtual town or city raises a variety an animation or complex view across the city, the sections
of problems and issues. that will be visible are called up as required. The software
View from a
walkthrough
animation
of Virtual
Norwich.
used provides tools to help do this, but the process can A more general issue to be considered is what to include in the
nevertheless be time-consuming. model. On a basic level, should traffic signals and road signs
and road markings be included? Rather less obvious are issues
The ultimate aim is to allow the user to ‘wander’ around virtual such as whether to include ugly repairs of old buildings or to
Norwich at will, in ‘real time’, for example by using a mouse to cover them up with more sympathetic materials, thus ‘returning
control movement. However, memory requirements mean that the building to its original state’. Should graffiti be included or
this is not possible with the current models – they need adapting ‘airbrushed out’? And what about television aerials, satellite
for this purpose, and this has only been achieved successfully dishes and advertising hoardings?
for small sections of the city. In the meantime our output is The software used allows sophisticated lighting control,
pre-processed, i.e. we have generated a range of animations but should the weather always be beautiful and sunny?
which the user can select to view with the interface we have And finally, cities change – the building the virtual model of
created,. Generating these animations with the detailed which was made yesterday, might today be repainted, or even
models is time-consuming. Our animations need 30 frames per demolished. Keeping up with these changes is a significant
second and thus 1,800 frames for one minute’s viewing. Whilst task.
typically frames take between thirty seconds and a minute to
generate, some frames take over five minutes – and at that rate Though the creation of a high quality set of models represents
it requires over 9,000 minutes’ time to generate one minute of a significant investment of time and money, it provides
output – i.e. over 150 hours. Sometimes our computers are opportunities that were not previously available, and it is surely
very busy. inevitable that all cities, town and urban areas will eventually
Hardware storage concerns are also an issue – the output wish to possess a similar tool and resource.
images and raw uncompressed animations taken by just one of
the routes, generated at high resolution (1,200 by 900), take up
70 GB of hard disk space.
86
GPS devices.
Tracking
pedestr ians
in histor ic
city centres
using GPS
This chapter describes the results of a

series of pedestrian observation studies
carried out in Norwich, Rouen and Koblenz. The purpose of the observation studies was to evaluate the
The goal of these studies was to observe use of space in relation to investments, (rather than using the
outcome as a design tool to pinpoint) opportunities and threads
pedestrian behaviour and to investigate
in the city; the outcome focuses on a comparison between
pedestrian movement and experience in the actual situation and real use.
the city centres. The cities are engaged in For the observation, a specific method using Global Positioning
System (GPS) devices capturing the movement of pedestrians
improving the physical conditions and the
was developed and put into practice. The recording of
experience of their city centres by pedestrian behaviour was accompanied by a questionnaire
investing in landscaping and engineering adding background information on the participants.
of public spaces, city beautification,

What is to be found here?
wayfinding and in communication and After this introduction, the setup and implementation of the
information technology. fieldwork will be explained in ‘Way of Working’. Here, the
methods for processing the data and the criteria for analysis
Stefan van der Spek will be clarified. After that, the context of the cities will be
illustrated by analysis drawings. Next, the results will be
described in the paragraph ‘Findings and Conclusions’.
The chapter lastly concludes with a synthesis comparing the
findings of the different cities.
‘Old-fashioned’
paperwork.
87 Street-level desires \\\/// Presentation of the cases Tracking pedestrians in historic city centres using GPS
read out real-time or later and projected onto maps in a

Geographical Information System (GIS). GIS has the ability to
join different layers of information or different sources, but
GIS also provides tools to process, model and visualize data.
Why tracking pedestrians

With traditional methods it is possible to gain insight into
pedestrian movement. However, this insight is limited to the
scope of the method. Counting people at certain locations
leads to insights into the density of the use of the public
space only at these locations. Such methods do not collect
information on journeys, patterns of use or route choices.
Models could possibly estimate where people might walk.
However, this would be based on a prediction, and not on an
actual situation. Travel diaries might give insights in actual
behaviour, but depend on the accuracy of people’s minds.
A case study in Delft showed that the ability of people to
reproduce a walked route in a map is inadequate. The actual
walking pattern based on GPS tracks deviated repeatedly
from the drawn map.
Using GPS technology it is possible to acquire accurate and
detailed insights into actual behaviour. The technology will
provide insights into the exact departure and return time, time
spent at specific locations, destinations, the walked route or
geographical route of the journey, the speed and the mode of
transport.
Way of working An important aspect of GPS tracking is to collect information
The method of collecting data on pedestrian behaviour is based on the whole journey from departure to return. In the event of
on the Global Positioning System (GPS). GPS is primarily a activity-based research, people will probably have a GPS
system for navigation and orientation. The GPS system makes device for a certain period of time at their homes. In the event
use of a network of satellites in orbit which send signals to of studying pedestrian behaviour, this would make no sense,
earth. A GPS device has the ability to receive these signals as it is not clear when and how often people will visit the city
and compute its geographical position. At least three to four centre. Collecting data about pedestrian movement in cities
satellites are necessary in order to accurately determine a requires other ways of distributing and collecting devices and
position. gathering data. Other systems could involve tracking people
GPS devices are mainly known as navigation or orientation living or working in a specific building, street or area or
instruments such as car navigation systems or outdoor tracking people from a specific point at which they enter the
orientation equipment. The technique has been developed city centre.
in the military in the United States. Since the year 2000,
the technique has been more widely available to the public, For the Spatial Metro project, the main target group is visitors
although its accuracy is still limited. Today, accuracy is around of the city centre. The main points of interest are shopping
three to five meters in the open field. Europe is building its (retail) or leisure (culture, heritage, drinking, dining). The most
own global positioning system called Galileo. feasible way of collecting as much data as possible within a
short period of time is to distribute and collect the tracking
GPS tracking devices at an access point to the city. Access points are e.g.
The method of collecting data on pedestrian movement makes train terminals, bus stations and parking facilities. Parking
use of the ability that some GPS devices have to store a facilities assure that people will return to their cars and thus
sequence of positioning data at a determined time interval. return the device. Free parking was offered to people who
This sequence results in a place-time log. The log file can be decided to participate. This way of working meant that no
88
facility on the northern side of the centre core near The

Lanes. The second location was Chapelfield Shopping Mall
(1,000 cars, opened in 2005 as well), located on the southern
side of the centre core and developed at the location of an
old chocolate factory. In Rouen the first location was Vieux
Marché (400 cars), on the Westside of the city centre. The
second location was Haute Vieille Tour (430 cars) on the
Southwest side of the city centre. Finally, in Koblenz the location
on the Westside was Löhr-Centre, a car park on top of the
shopping mall (1,400 cars). The second one on the Eastside
was Görresplatz, an underground car park (350 cars).
Procedure
The information and co-ordination point for the distribution and
collection of GPS devices was located near the pedestrian
entrance/exit of the parking garage. People leaving the parking
garage were handed out flyers explaining the background and
setup of the study and asked to contribute to the research.
Rouen, old city centre.
If they matched the ‘shopping’ or ‘leisure’ target group, a GPS
was presented in return for their parking ticket. To understand
GPS devices were lost. The drawback was that only visitors the behaviour better, a questionnaire had to be filled in on
arriving by car were recorded. return. Participation was extremely high. No personal
To collect generic useable data without different weekdays information on any of the participants was kept.
affecting the data, data needs to be covered throughout the
week. The time frame depends on both the target group and the Processing data
opening hours of the activities in the city centre – the so called Data was collected from two different sources: track logs
destinations or anchor points. In general, the distribution of resulting in temporal-geographical quantitative information
the devices started around 10am and continued until around and questionnaires resulting in social-geographical qualitative
5pm. People returning late were able to return the devices to information. For data management reasons and to keep all
the car park information desk (24/7). This practical time data anonymous, a unique code was allocated to every entry.
constraint excludes people who expect to arrive late. Processing the data consisted of 5 steps:
1 validation;
Field work 2 cleaning, filtering and repairing;
From June 20th until June 26th 2007, a team from Delft 3 individual analysis;
University of Technology (DUT) in cooperation with Norwich 4 collective analysis based on the questionnaire, and;
City Council (NCC) carried out fieldwork in Norwich. After 5 findings and conclusions.
that, the field work in Rouen was carried out from October 1st The results of processing are layered analysis drawings in GIS,
until October 6th 2007 in cooperation with Rouen City Council Photoshop and Illustrator. A selection of these drawing will be
(Marie de Rouen). Finally, from October 8th until October 14th, used to illustrate the results.
fieldwork was carried out in Koblenz in cooperation with
Koblenz City Council (Stadtverwaltung Koblenz). In each city,
fieldwork was carried out from two different parking facilities
at the same time. This made it possible to collect sufficient Norwich.
and comparable data within one week. The data will be
generically useable and comparable as all data from the
Koblenz.
different locations is collected under the same conditions.
In principle, the chosen facilities were on either side of the
city centre. In Norwich the first location was St. Andrews Car
Park (1,000 cars, opened June 2005), an important parking
1 Validation The following step in this type of analysis is the investigation

The assessment of tempo-graphical data was based on existing of destinations and the time spent on these activities. Starting
track data, matches between track data and questionnaire, with a list of individual destinations, the result will conclude
the start point of the track, the end point of the track, and the with a growing list of collective destinations ranking in time or
readability and consistency of the track. If all questions received frequency. This is very detailed research and as such has not
a positive response, the file was marked as valid. Otherwise, yet been proposed within this study.
the file was rejected or had to be cleaned. In further steps of An important aspect for the analysis of tracks starting from
the analysis only valid tracks were taken into account. Chapelfield and Löhr-Center is that people might start or end
their journeys in the shopping mall. Time spent out on the
2 Cleaning, filtering and repairing streets can thereby be compared to time spent in a shopping
The quality of the raw track log files varies depending on mall and differences in behaviour can also be compared
several factors. Cleaning, filtering and evaluating the tracks based on the type of starting point.
are necessary to determine validity. Within this study, tracks
were only filtered and assessed, with no information which 4 Analysis of collective data
was lacking being added. The tracks themselves give an impression of use of the city
when projected onto a map. Each individual track represents
3 Analysis of individual data a person or group. Computations are required to create the
After validation of the tracks the next step was the specific collective image covering a selection of respondents. This can
analysis of the route from the access point to the activities. be established in GIS software where the tempo-graphical
For all distribution points a map with the alternative routes data was analysed using density calculations. With density
was generated. All tracks were checked with regard to the calculations the number of lines or the number of points within
route used to walk into the city and the route used to return a range of a certain locations are computed and visualised
to the car park. Further, the type of journey was determined. using a specific colour. The colour differs between lower and
A distinction was made between three types: (A) AREA, the higher values. This technique simplifies line or point drawings.
destination is within the direct surroundings of the car park; Using a legend it is possible to limit the visible data and
(B) RETURN TRIP, same route to/from destination, probably emphasize structures.
a single destination and (C) ROUND TRIP, circular journey, All data were collected with a frequency of 5 seconds.
different route, probably multiple destinations. This means that every dot on the map represents 5 seconds.
Point density represents the time spent at a location. Using
the outcome of the questionnaire, density drawings were
made for four themes: (1) origin, (2) purpose, (3) familiarity
and (4) duration.
Within the theme ‘Origin’ four subgroups can be distinguished:
local, regional, national and international visitors. The theme
‘Purpose’ can be divided into shopping (retail), leisure
(i.e. drinking, dining, culture, heritage) and other purposes,
including living, education, business or other formal
appointments. Within ‘Familiarity’ the subgroups are first
visitors, occasional visitors and regular visitors. Finally, the
‘duration’ of the trip is based on the period of time between the
distribution and the return of the GPS device. A representative
subdivision is based on a two-hour time period, leading to the
categories ‘less than two hours’, ‘two to four hours’ and ‘more
than four hours’. Per theme two representative subgroups were
chosen for the visualisation of the results and conclusions.
5 Findings and conclusions

The background data provided in the questionnaire was
analyzed using statistical software, namely SPSS. Frequency
90
400 m 800 m
400 m 800 m
tables show how many times an alternative was mentioned.

Cross tabulations provide insight into the relationships
between subjects or categories.
The analysis also includes the fabrication of conclusion
maps. These maps summarize and elaborate the outcomes
of the analysis drawings. The maps contain three elements:
1 Edge
Hard borders in the city which are hardly crossed.
2 No-go area
Neglected parts of the city within the range of the
access point.
3 Attractors
Main destinations, buildings and spaces/places.
01 | Norwich The findings in this study are based on the explanation of

St. Andrews.
the statistical information, the assessment of the drawings
All valid tracks
of seven days. (density image of a theme), a comparison within the series of
the theme and a comparison between locations. All outcomes
Each dot represents should be considered as results of the participating population.
5 seconds.
The study does not provide insight into the background and
behavior of all visitors, but only the selected population.
What to find next?

In the following paragraph the results will be amplified per
location. After that, the generic conclusions of the outcomes
will be presented. In ‘Synthesis’ a comparison will be made
between the cities and the locations. In the last paragraph
‘Reflection’, the method will be discussed in respect to the
Spatial Metro project and the investments.
02 | Norwich
Chapelfield.
All valid tracks
of seven days.
Each dot represents

Results
5 seconds.
Norwich, St. Andrews

4> The fieldwork in Norwich was carried out from Wednesday
<2 June 20th until Tuesday June 26th 2007. The first distribution
location was located at St. Andrews car park on the northern
side of the historic city centre. This relatively new car park has
2-4
approximately one thousand parking spaces. Most of them
Duration. are used by commuters, but specific spaces are reserved for
shoppers. The car park is open 24 hours, 7 days a week. The full
No/first
daily rate is 5.00 pounds. The fieldwork facilities were located
Occasional
near the southern exit on the route to the city centre. This car
Regular park is an ideal starting point for destinations around St. Andrews
Plain and the Norwich Lanes shopping district. In total, 370
people responded resulting in 173 directly useable tracks.
Familiar ity. The graphical result of the collective use of space is illustrated
92
400 m 800 m
400 m 800 m
in image 01. The origin of the respondents at this location was

generally local (84%), although regional visitors were also
represented (11%). As expected, the main purpose was
shopping (80%), followed by leisure (12%). Most respondents
were regular visitors (80%), followed by occasional visitors
(18%). People generally stayed in the city centre 2-4 hours
(48%), with 40% staying for a shorter period. The main route
people took to walk to the centre was Exchange Street, directly
in front of the exit and leading to the market and the main
shopping street. Alternative routes were along St. Andrews
Street and Charing Cross. The return route was generally the
same.
Norwich, Chapelfield
03 | Rouen 4> The second distribution location in Norwich was located at
Vieux Marché.
<2 Chapelfield mall, a car park and shopping mall on the southern
All valid tracks
of seven days. side of the historic city centre. This is also a relatively new car
park with approximately one thousand parking spaces. The
2-4
Each dot represents main focus of the car park is shopping and leisure. The full
5 seconds.
Duration. daily rate is 20.00 pounds, but special flat rates are also
available. Access to Chapelfield Car Park is limited from 8am
to 10pm. This car park is an ideal starting point for destinations
Occasional
on the southern side of the city centre. The distribution facilities
Regular were located near the main exit to the car park in the central
hall. In total, 270 people responded resulting in around 80
directly useable tracks. The graphical result of the collective
Familiar ity. use of space is illustrated in image 02. The origin of the
respondents at this location was generally local (80%), although
regional visitors were also represented (17%). There were
04 | Rouen scarcely any national or international visitors at the location.
Haut Vieille
As expected, the main purpose was shopping (90%), followed
Tour. All valid
tracks of by leisure (8%). Most respondents were regular visitors (72.5%),
seven days.
followed by occasional visitors (27.5%). People generally stayed
in the city centre for 2-4 hours (45%), with 40% staying for
Each dot represents
somewhat shorter periods. The main routes taken leaving the
5 seconds.
car park and returning to it were the same, namely Malthouse
Road in the direction of Gentleman’s Walk. The main
destinations were the shopping streets leading to Norwich Lanes
and Tombland. In comparison to St. Andrews, the response
was far lower, and there were more regional visitors, more
shopping as the main purpose, more occasional visitors and
people generally stayed for a slightly shorter period.
Rouen, Vieux Marché

4>
The fieldwork in Rouen was carried out from Monday October
1st until Saturday October 6th 2007. The first distribution
2-4 location was located at Vieux Marché car park on the western
<2
side of the historic city centre. The fieldwork facilities were
located near the pedestrian exit of the garage. The car park is
Duration.
94
400 m 800 m
400 m
800 m
No/first
located in the main pedestrian area, which makes it an ideal
starting point for the main cultural and commercial destinations.
Regular In total, 240 people responded resulting in 150 directly
Occasional
useable tracks. The graphical result of the collective use of
space is illustrated in image 03. The origin of the respondents
Familiar ity. at this location was generally regional (46%), although local
visitors were highly represented (37%). As expected, the main
purpose was shopping (69%), followed by leisure (18%). Most
respondents were regular visitors (64%), followed by occasional
visitors (25%). People generally stayed in the city centre less
than 2 hours (57%), with 35% staying for longer periods.
The main route people took when walking to the centre was
Rue du Gros-Horloge, directly leading to the Gros-Horloge
ending at the Cathedral. Alternative routes were two parallel
05 | Koblenz streets, namely Rue Saint-Lô and Rue Rollon. The route back
Löhr-Center.
was generally the same. The main destination was the
All valid tracks
of seven days. shopping area between Vieux Marché and the Cathedral.
Each dot represents Rouen, Haut Vieille Tour

5 seconds. 4> The second distribution location was located at Haut Vieille
Tour car park on the south-eastern side of the historic city
<2 centre, directly south of the Cathedral. The fieldwork facilities
were located near the main pedestrian exit of the garage. The
2-4
car park is not located in the pedestrian area, but is relatively
Duration. close to the main cultural and commercial destinations. In total,
180 people responded resulting in over 130 directly useable
No/first tracks. The graphical result of the collective use of space is
illustrated in image 04. The origin of the respondents at this
Regular location was both regional (42%) and local (39%). The car
06 | Koblenz park is also used by international visitors (11%). As expected,
Occasional
Görresplatz.
the main purpose was shopping (66%), followed by leisure (21%).
All valid tracks
of seven days. Familiar ity. Most respondents were regular visitors (58%), followed by both
occasional visitors (22%) and people on a first-time visit (20%).
Each dot represents People generally stayed in the city centre for less than 2 hours
5 seconds.
(50%), with 38% staying for longer periods of 2-4 hours.
The main route people took to walk to the centre was Rue de
L’Epicerie, directly leading to the Cathedral. Most other
alternatives were also used. Remarkably, the route back varied
significantly to the route taken in. The main destinations were
the Cathedral and from there Vieux Marché via the Rue du
Gros-Horloge. In comparison to Vieux Marché, the response
was lower, but the origin of people was more or less identical;
the same applies to the respondents’ purposes. In Haute
Vieille Tour, more respondents were new visitors and people
tended to stay for longer periods.
Koblenz, Löhr-Center
The fieldwork in Koblenz was carried out from Monday
October 8th until Saturday October th 2007. The first
96
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4>
distribution location was located at the Löhr-Center – a car
<2
park on the roof of the main shopping mall on the western
side of the city centre. A new railway station for the city centre
is planned at the rear of this mall, with its main entrance
2-4
situated at the Löhr-Rondell. The fieldwork facilities were
Duration. located near the main pedestrian exit of the garage. The mall
is located on the edge of the pedestrian area and is relatively
No/first close to the historic city centre, but the main tourist destinations
Regular such as the riverfronts are beyond reach. The mall has three
exits: one on the Southside to Löhr-Rondell, one in the middle
on the western side and one on the northern side of the building
07 | Norwich which connects to a pedestrian tunnel. In total, 180 people
Occasional
St. Andrews.
Familiar ity. responded resulting around 100 directly useable tracks. The
Density analysis
of primary graphical result of the collective use of space is illustrated in
purpose shopping.
image 05. The origin of the respondents at this location was
mainly regional (60%). National and international visitors also
use this car park (20%). As expected, the main purpose was
Neglected area. shopping (75%), followed by leisure (22%). Most respondents
were occasional visitors (50%) but the location is also used by
Edge. new visitors (20%). People generally stayed between 2-4 hours
(58%) or less than 2 hours (26%). A large group only uses the
Low use. car park to access the city (40%), but the car park is also used
for the mall itself – 33% of all visitors stay in the mall for over
High use. one hour. The exit people mainly took when walking to the
centre was the Western exit directly leading to the Löhrstrasse.
However, the route back varied significantly to the outbound
route. The main destinations were within a range of 400 metres,
and were mainly on the Löhrstrasse – the shopping street.
08 | Norwich Koblenz, Görresplatz

Chapelfield. 4> The second distribution location was located at the Görresplatz
Density analysis
<2
of primary car park on the eastern side of the city centre between the
purpose shopping.
shopping district and the waterfront. The fieldwork facilities
were located near the main pedestrian exit of the garage.
2-4
The car park is located in the pedestrian area and is relatively
Neglected area. Duration. close to the main cultural and commercial destinations. In
total, 120 people responded resulting in around 100 directly
Edge. useable tracks. The graphical result of the collective use of
Regular No/first space is illustrated in image 06. The origin of the respondents
Low use. at this location was mainly regional (54%). A fair number of
national and international visitors also use this car park (38%).
High use. The main purpose was shopping (48%), directly followed by
Occasional
Familiar ity. leisure (43%). Most respondents were new visitors (40%),
followed by both occasional visitors (32%). People generally
stayed in the city centre between 2-4 hours (51%), with 36%
staying for shorter periods of less than 2 hours. The main
route taken on leaving the location led to the shopping streets
via the Firmunstrasse. However, remarkably enough, the route
back varied significantly to the route in. People tended to
98
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browse their way back to the car park leaving a sprawled

pattern of use. In comparison to the Löhr-Center the response
was lower but more profitable. The origin of people in both
locations was mainly regional, although Görresplatz had a
greater number of national and international visitors. This
factor affects the purpose statistics; in comparison to
Löhr-Center, virtually twice the number of visitors to Görresplatz
had leisure as their purpose, a number almost equal to that
for shopping. In Görresplatz, far more respondents were new
visitors, but people tended to stay for shorter periods.
09 | Norwich
Conclusions
St. Andrews.
Density analysis
of primary
purpose leisure.
Norwich, St. Andrews > Shopping

Neglected area. The main visitors participating in the study carried out at
St. Andrews were identified as shoppers (79%) visiting the city
Edge. centre regularly or occasionally. Most of them stayed for 2-4
hours (50%) or less (40%). The main type of shopping indicated
Low use. by the respondents was fashion and luxury (50%) followed by
non-daily shopping (28%). Remarkably, daily-needs shopping
High use. was also significant at this location (10%). The area visited
mainly covered the main shopping streets from St. Andrews
to Chapelfield, a distance of 800 metres, bordered by the
City Hall and Forum on one side and the Castle and Castle
mall on the other. Surprisingly, the destinations also included
some satellite locations within a range of 400 metres.
10 | Norwich The Chapelfield Shopping Mall is clearly also a destination.
Chapelfield.
Neglected or scarcely visited areas were King Street, Tombland
Density analysis
of primary and the area behind the Norwich Cathedral including the
purpose leisure.
Great Hospital and the Cow Tower.
Norwich, Chapelfield > Shopping

Neglected area. For Chapelfield too, the main type of shopping indicated by
the respondents was fashion and luxury (63%) followed by
Edge. non-daily (21%). Shopping for daily needs was therefore only
marginally represented at this location (4%). The visited area
Low use. mainly included the main shopping streets from Chapelfield
till The Lanes within a range of 600 metres, bordered by the
High use. City Hall and the Forum on one side and the Castle and
Castle mall on the other. The destinations also clearly include
Tombland at a distance of 800 meters and surprisingly, the
more incidental destinations of Great Hospital and Riverside.
Neglected or scarcely visited areas were King Street and
parts of Norwich Lanes; Lobster Lane and Bedford Street
function as the borders of the visited area.
100
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8($$
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)&(:/$9#/$.
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400 m 800 m
Norwich, St. Andrews > Leisure

The main destinations of the visitors who indicated that their
primary purpose was leisure (12%) were within a 400-metre
radius, with some destinations located to the south within a
range of 800 metres. Main destinations for this group generally
consisting of national and international visitors included the
Market, the Forum, Castle and Castle Mall, the Norwich
Cathedral via Tombland and Elm Hill. The visited area was
mainly limited to the central business core: Gentleman’s Walk
and Castle Street. Neglected or scarcely visited areas were
King Street, the northern side of the river, east of the City Hall
and west of the Castle.
11 | Norwich
St. Andrews.
Density analysis Norwich, Chapelfield > Leisure
of regional origin.
The main destinations of visitors who indicated that their
primary purpose was leisure (8%) were within a 400-metre
radius, with some destinations in the south within a range of
Neglected area. 600 metres. The main destinations for this group generally
consisting of local visitors included the Market, the Forum
Edge. and Castle. The visited area was mainly limited to the central
business core: Gentleman’s Walk and Castle Street. Neglected
Low use. or scarcely visited areas were King Street, the northern side
of The Lanes, Tombland, Norwich Cathedral, east of the City
High use. Hall and west of the Castle.
Norwich, St. Andrews > Region

The origin of the visitors was determined by their postal code.
The regional visitors (11%) showed a very distinctive pattern
of use. In the image, Gentleman’s Walk can be recognized as
12 | Norwich the main pedestrian artery. Castle Street offers a parallel
Chapelfield.
alternative, but was only partly used. The main destinations
Density analysis
of regional origin. are clearly the main shopping streets and the two malls of
Castle Mall and Chapelfield Mall. From the exit of St. Andrews
to the central shopping area, the main route for regional
Neglected area. visitors was clearly Exchange Street. Neglected or scarcely
visited areas were once again King Street, the northern side
Edge. of the river, east of the City Hall and west of the Castle, but
also Tombland, Norwich Cathedral and Elm Hill.
Low use.
Norwich, Chapelfield > Region
High use. Compared to the regional visitors starting from St. Andrews
(11%), the pattern of use of the regional visitors starting from
Chapelfield (17%) is equal except for two points, namely
Norwich Lanes and the routes to the Great Hospital and
Riverside. In Norwich Lanes, Lobster Lane/Bedford Street form
a border. London Street more or less functions as a divider
and funnel, leading people from Chapelfield to Tombland.
There, people turn back or walk in different directions, e.g.
heading to the Castle via King Street. Remarkably, historic
King Street is otherwise neglected.
102
400 m 800 m
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Rouen, Vieux Marché > Regular

The main group of respondents starting from Vieux Marché
were regional visitors (50%) whose primary purpose was
shopping. The main purpose of the shopping was fashion and
luxury (42%), followed by non-daily shopping (21%), other (22%)
and daily shopping(15%). The main routes through the centre
for this group were Rue du Gros-Horloge, Rue Rollon and
Rue Saint-Lô. Rue de Jeanne d’Arc functions both as a divider
and border and Rue du Bec mainly as a border. The maximum
reach of the visitors starting from Vieux Marché was
approximately 400 meters. Only some reached the Hotel de
13 | Rouen Ville at approximately 800 meters. Neglected spaces were
Vieux Marché.
Place Vendrel and Hotel de Ville. Remarkably, the waterfront
Density analysis
of regular was completely ignored by the participants.
visitors.
Rouen, Haute Vieille Tour > Regular

The main group of respondents starting from Haute Vieille
Neglected area. Tour were regional visitors (42%), followed by local visitors
(39%). 90% of both groups consisted of shoppers. The reasons
Edge. for shopping were almost identical to Vieux Marché, except
for daily shopping which was only 10% at this location.
Low use. From the car park, the main route to the city centre was along
the Rue de L’Epicerie to the Cathedral and along the Rue du
High use. Gros-Horloge. From here, people tended to stroll around.
On their way back, people tended to take the shortest route
leading to a sprawled image. The main routes through the
centre for this group were Rue du General Leclerc, Rue du
Gros-Horloge and Rue de Jeanne d’Arc. The maximum reach
of the visitors starting from Haute Vieille Tour was approximately
14 | Rouen Haute 600 meters. Only some reached the Eglise de Jeanne d’Arc at
Vieille Tour.
approximately 600 meters. Neglected spaces were again
Density analysis
of regular Place Verdrel and Hotel de Ville. Remarkably, the waterfront
visitors.
was completely ignored by the participants.
Rouen, Vieux Marché > International

Neglected area. The national and international respondents (8%) starting their
trip from Vieux Marché generally visit the city for the purpose
Edge. of leisure (100%). The used public space is clearly limited to
the Rue du Gros-Horloge and ends at the Cathedral. The area
Low use. around the Vieux Marché car park, including the Eglise Jeanne
d’Arc, also receives some visiting time. A limited number of
High use. people make a detour, i.e. to the Hotel de Ville and around the
Palais de Justice, but this does not generally extend beyond
600 metres.
Rouen, Haute Vieille Tour > International

The national and international respondents (11%) accessing
the city from Haut Vieille Tour principally visit the city for
leisure purposes (100%). In comparison to Vieux Marché, the
104
400 m 800 m
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used public space not only includes the Rue du Gros-Horloge

starting at the Cathedral and ending at Vieux Marché (800
metres away), but people tend to forage more around, especially
to the north. Remarkable is the use of Rue Jeanne d’Arc in the
direction of the railway Station. The area around the Vieux
Marché, including the Eglise Jeanne d’Arc receives a certain
amount of visiting time as well as the Saint Maclou and Place
St. Marc toward the east of the Cathedral. The route into the
pedestrian zone is mainly through the Rue de L’Epicerie. Some
alternatives in the east have also been used. The waterfront
was scarcely accessed, also not by national and international
15 | Rouen visitors.
Vieux Marché.
Density analysis
of international Koblenz, Löhr-Center > Region
visitors.
The origin of the visitors was determined on the basis of the
questionnaire. The regional visitors (60%) showed a very
distinctive pattern of use. In the image, the main shopping
Neglected area. street Löhrstrasse running North-South can be recognized as
the major pedestrian artery. From there, people tended to
Edge. spread into other streets, such as Altlöhrtor and Pfuhlgasse
in the direction of Zentralplatz or via Am Plan in the direction
Low use. of Görresplatz. Generally, main turning points were Am Plan
and Zentralplatz. Zentralplatz was only partly visited. All exits
High use. of the shopping mall were used, but the primary exit was the
middle exit along the Hohenfelderstrasse. The visited area
matched the shopping district, except for the Schlossstrasse,
which runs from the southern exit of the shopping mall in a
line directly leading to the palace. The regional respondents
failed to visit the cultural buildings and heritage sides, such
16 | Rouen Haute as the palace, the waterfront, Deutsches Eck or the historic
Vieille Tour.
city centre. The regional visitors indicated that their primary
Density analysis
of international purpose was shopping (84%) or leisure (12.5%). The results
visitors.
overlapped with the visualisation of the shopping. The main
range was 400 metres, with a single arm up to 800 metres.
Neglected area. Koblenz, Görresplatz > Region

The regional visitors starting from Görresplatz (54%) also
Edge. showed a very distinctive pattern of use. Most of these visitors
were shoppers (64%). The pattern was partly identical to the
Low use. Löhr-Center, but use of the section between Görresplatz and
Am Plan was more intense. The visitors tended to proceed
High use. westward to the main shopping streets such as Firmungstrasse,
Entenpfuhl and Löhrstrasse. From there, different routes were
taken back to the car park. Alternatives were Pfuhlgasse,
Altlöhrtor and Schlosstrasse. The Schlossstrasse was scarcely
used and when used, people only walked along short stretches,
looking for short cuts back to the original location. The Löhr-
Center and waterfront were also destinations. The Zentralplatz
is a centrally situated square and is part of the route. The
6#/!6/0'7"&/!
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square is potentially a significant public space and attractor

in the middle of the city centre. People seem to walk further
distances from Görresplatz, but compared to Löhr-Center, the
spatial borders or so-called edges are the same. Especially
the area north of the Firmungstrasse and thus directly north
of Görresplatz is a barrier which is scarcely crossed.
Koblenz, Löhr-Center > Local

Local visitors formed a smaller group (20%) in respect to
regional visitors (60%). National and international visitors
represented around 20% of the population. The pattern showed
17 | Koblenz more or less the same core as for regional visitors, but limited
Löhr-Center.
to the Löhrstrasse and Am Plan. The local visitors seemed to
Density analysis
of regional stay in and around the mall more and to spend less time on the
visitors.
street. In both cases, the majority were shoppers (90% local
and 84% regional respectively). The Zentralplatz was not part
of the walking system of the local shoppers. Görresplatz and
Neglected area. the Altstadt were also neglected. Remarkably, the respondents
concerned also failed to visit the Schlossstrasse.
Edge.
Koblenz, Görresplatz > National
Low use. As opposed to the Löhr-Center, a greater number of national
and international participated in Görresplatz (38%). The national
High use. visitors were highly represented (31%). Their primary purpose
was leisure (70%). The respondents visited the main shopping
streets (Firmungstrasse, Entenpfuhl and Löhrstrasse), but also
the historic city centre (Altstadt) and the waterfront including
the Deutsches Eck. Further, this group foraged along both
riverfronts.
18 | Koblenz
Synthesis
Görresplatz.
Density analysis
of regional
visitors.
This paragraph will give an overview of the results and

Neglected area. conclusions of the different cities and locations. The result of
the themes will be compared with a view to understanding the
Edge. differences and similarities in visitors’ behaviour in different
cities. The comparison will be based on the four main themes:
Low use. purpose, origin, familiarity and duration. Two graphical themes
have been added, namely distance and spatial pattern.
High use.
Origin
Origin is divided into four separate categories: local, regional,
national and global. In all cases, national and global were the
smallest groups. Especially in Koblenz, national and global
visitors were represented (Görresplatz 38% and Löhr-Center
21%). In Koblenz, the majority of visitors were regional (59 and
54% respectively). Rouen is more orientated toward regional
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800 m
(42-46%) and local visitors (37-39%). Norwich therefore

seems to be operating on the lowest scale with mainly local
visitors and a tendency toward attracting regional visitors
(81-84% and 11-17% respectively).
Purpose
The primary purposes of the visitors were shopping and leisure.
Not surprisingly, the shopping purpose was much higher at
the two mall locations (Norwich 89% and Koblenz 75%). The
main purpose in Norwich was shopping (79-89%), followed
by Koblenz (48-75%). Rouen was somewhere in the middle
(66-69%). The leisure purpose was mainly represented in
19 | Koblenz
Koblenz Görresplatz (43%). In the other cities, leisure was
Löhr-Center.
Density analysis only indicated for 8-22%. Within shopping, a distinction is
of local visitors.
made between daily, fashion and luxury and non-daily shopping.
Koblenz represents the highest ranks for daily purposes
(15-18%), followed by Rouen (10-15%) and Norwich (5-10%).
Neglected area. In Norwich on the other hand, Fashion & Luxury were more
frequently indicated as shopping purposes (50-63%)
Edge. compared to the other cities (26-43%).
Low use. Familiarity

The assessment of familiarity with the city was based on the
High use. frequency of visits: first-time visitor, occasional visitor or regular
visitor. The respondents in Norwich clearly marked themselves
as regular visitors (73-79%). The group hardly included any
new visitors (0-3%). Rouen was visited by a mix of regular
(58-64%) and occasional (22-25%) visitors. In Koblenz, the
visitors were a mix of occasional (32-50%) and new visitors
20 | Koblenz (18-40%). These figures correspond with the origin of the
Görresplatz.
participants, assuming that locals visit the city centre more
Density analysis
of local visitors. often and national and international visitors only incidentally.
Duration
For the duration, the time between distribution and collection
Neglected area.
of the GPS devices was calculated. Three workable divisions
were made: less than two hours (< 2hrs), between two and four
Edge.
hours (2-4hrs) and more than four hours ( > 4hrs). The first
conclusion is that the presence of a mall does not influence
Low use.
the total time spent. Both malls function as attractors and
access points to the city. In this sense, a short time is spent
High use.
in the mall and a longer period in the city. However, people
also stay in the malls for longer periods and leave the malls
for more limited periods. This influences the registered image
of use outside the mall. A clear distinction can be made
between the time spent in these three cities. Participants
stayed in Rouen for the shortest period of time: most of them
under < 2 hrs (50-57%) and some 2-4 hrs (35-38%). In Norwich,
the respondents mainly stayed 2-4 hrs (45-48%), and some
110
shorter (40%). Koblenz was the city where people generally

stayed the longest: 2-4 hours (51-58%) and some shorter
(26-36%).
Walking distance and form of covered area

For the spatial pattern, three types can be distinguished: line
(or axis), area and main area with satellite destinations. Most
locations fall within the area type. Exceptions are Koblenz
Löhr-Center with a strong axis as spatial character for all
movement, and Norwich St. Andrews, undoubtedly an area with
satellite destinations. To measure the maximum distance,
circles of 400 and 800 metres were projected into the result
drawings (5 and 10 minutes walking time respectively, depending
on the spatial structure and local conditions). Evidently, Koblenz
Löhr-Center has the smallest reach of approximately 400 metres.
The other exception, also a mall location, was Norwich
Chapelfield. Here the maximum walking radius was
approximately 600 metres. All other examples had a maximum
walking radius of approximately 800 metres.
Reflection
The tracking and questionnaire data give good insights into
the behaviour and background of a large group of various
types of visitors to the city centre. The technology makes it
possible to collect and visualize data of movement. The
background data provides the opportunity to select data and
focus on specific themes and aspects. Using this method,
it becomes clear that people behave in different ways in
these historic European city centres. Different programme
(functions) are available, as well as different ways to access
the city and different structures to use the city as a pedestrian.
Up to the present, the method has only been used to monitor
and visualise the dynamics in the participating historic cities.
The method has not yet been used as a tool to evaluate or
address urban design issues. However, this application of the
tool can be foreseen.
The application of the results

In Norwich, various design issues can be mentioned. St. Andrews
seems to be well-integrated its surroundings and contributing
to the city. Especially Exchange Street has become a key
access street into The Lanes. Chapelfield on the other hand
seems to rely on connections to the north alone. The route
between Chapelfield Mall and Gentleman’s Walk is not
consistent. The Chapelfield Gardens and the area around the
bus station are scarcely used and scarcely directly accessible.

More integration could be useful to activate these opportunities.
Remarkably, King Street and Prince of Wales Street were both
scarcely used by the respondents. It might be that the
participating population is not attached to these areas,
and that tracing visitors arriving at the railway station would
show a different response. Still, in combination with Tombland
as a turning point, the position in the network of the historically
rich King Street could be improved. New access or arrival
points on the eastern and western side would create new
access streets. Finally, the investments in St. Andrews Plain
should be part of a strategy to attract people to the area
and connect smoothly to other areas such as Tombland and
The Lanes.
In Rouen a frame has been developed based on strategic

routes (the lines), nodes (the stations) and access or arrival
points (the gateways). The frame is strengthened by a light
master plan, the illumination of key buildings and guiding
people safely at night. The GPS tracking study indicates
several issues. One of these is the neglect of the waterfront.
A new route along the water has been suggested, but connections
to the current urban tissue are required to improve the
waterfront’s attractiveness and accessibility. The Rue du
General Leclerc offers High Quality Public Transport (TEOR),
but is scarcely used by pedestrians. It is a border area between
the pedestrian zone and waterfront. The Rue de la Republique
is a barrier and due to the intensity of the traffic, not a pleasant
route for pedestrians. Finally, the area around the Musee des
Beaux-Arts is not well-integrated into the routes followed by
the participants on their visits to the city centre. The area has
an interesting public square.
Finally, in Koblenz the Spatial Metro investments are part of a

strategy for the Bundes Gartenschau in 2011. Up to the present,
the research results have shown a limited use of the network
and public spaces in the city centre; pedestrian activity is
located in the main pedestrian streets. The Spatial Metro
investments include essential upgrades of the current shopping
streets for pedestrians. Other investments are crucial with a
view to completing this work and providing a consistent system
of public spaces and programmes. Essential projects are the
Schlossstrasse and Zentralplatz. Further redevelopment is
necessary to upgrade the waterfront and connect it better to
the city centre and historic city. A first essential step has
been set by redesigning the Löhrrondell, the key location
connecting Schlosstrasse, Löhrstrasse, Löhr-Center and the
new railway station.
Part 4
Considerations
There is an increasing amount of
competition between European cities.
At the same time, people are becoming
more aware of and articulate about
their needs. Improving the experience
of today’s critical
users is a key
component of a
city’s success.
114
Downtown
Disney
Lichtenstein’s
‘Look Mickey’: is the
big fish (consumer)
imaginary?
Are we giving up our freedom by turning

our cities into fake themescapes and
temples to consumerism? If so, then it is A fundamental shift is taking place in European town and city
high time we took a critical look at our centres. In the past they used to offer a mix of production, trade,
residential accommodation and services, but now consumption
town and city centres and public spaces.
dominates. Increasingly, the city centres offer a range of
Can we stop them becoming predictable consumer attractions (shopping), culture (museums, galleries,
and boring money-machines? restaurants, bars and cafes) and leisure and entertainment
(events). But are we going too far and simply creating ‘downtown
Ekim Tan Disneylands’. The implications, as Michael Sorkin warned as
long ago as 1992, may be far-reaching: ‘There are no
demonstrations in Disneyland. The effort to reclaim the city is
the struggle for democracy itself.’ 1
The question that occupies the minds of commentators and

professionals alike is whether cities can maintain their
productive edge in the current service economy, while at the
same time remaining attractive and pleasant places to live.
Or should they even try? The upcoming creative industries
that many predict will be the mainstay of new urban
employment could follow manufacturing out to the urban edge.
The larger cities have been quite successful in maintaining

diversity, while metropolitan cities such as London, Paris and
Amsterdam also benefit from having a well-known and
115 Street-level desires \\\/// Considerations Downtown Disney
distinctive character. On the other hand, many medium-sized The ultimate objective of local authorities, real estate investors
European city centres lack a strong identity and urban and retailers is to attract user groups and encourage them to
redevelopment tends to be rather one-sided, so they feel the stay longer in the city centre and spend more money. Besides
competitive pressure all the more. Local policies are heavily the need to retain local users, the greatest competition is for the
influenced by this ‘battle of the city centres’. Fearful of losing fun-seeking regional consumers and tourists. Redevelopments
out to other urban centres in the region, these towns and cities must be familiar enough to make the visitor feel at home, but
are upgrading their facilities in a process of constant renewal. also ‘unique’ enough to make them more attractive than other
This ‘urban renaissance’ is not a temporary hype, but began town and city centres. But although the aim is to create unique
in the early 1980s and has been accelerating ever since. places, all too often the results are standardised commercial
Running parallel to this is a heated debate on building unique marketing machines and nameless open air museums devoid
city images, city branding and inventing new identities. of inhabitants. According to Berci Florian, as long as these
116
transformation projects are inspired by the same homogenous this ‘promising mobile fun-shopper market’ and questions the
market, the outcomes will all be identical, hopelessly dull and assumptions underlying the competition between city centres.
predictable. 2 The same old formula is repeated endlessly. Even He compares these consumers with the illusionary big fish
cities with strong identities are falling victim to this process of illustrated by pop art painter Lichtenstein in his work ‘Look
‘Disneyfication’. Venice, for example, has seen its population Mickey’ (page 115). ‘The big fish is imaginary, but Donald
plummet from 120,000 to 60,000 over the last 25 years. believes in it. The duck feels the presence of the fish. He even
seems to think he actually saw the fish. Donald might stand for
Many cities feel compelled to take part in this rat race, but very the cooperating city centre actors that believe in the existence
few question whether it is the right approach to take. In his of the mobile shopping ‘flaneur’ (promenader – ed.). They feel
doctoral thesis, Bas Spierings doubts the mere existence of the need to keep pace and perhaps even perform better than
Almere centre: diverse

worlds co-existing.
other shopping centers in general and city centers in particular. the historical (pedestrianised) shopping streets. Alternatively,
…Mickey is laughing. He sees Donald Duck fooling himself, as in the case of Veenendaal in the Netherlands, public streets
which is to say his fishhook is stuck in his coat.’ 3 may be converted into a network of shopping passages. 4
An exceptional example is the Bullring in Birmingham, where
We have seen how Spierings and others question the several blocks have been converted into a shopping mall,
assumptions behind the competition between city centres. and even the public streets and squares are covered with
Now let us turn to the role designers play in this process. glass roofs. 5
Operations on European city centres Extreme makeover

Divide and rule The second layer of operations includes road surfacing,
One of the dominant interventions in the regeneration of planting and refurbishment of public spaces. In most cases,
medium-sized European city centres has been the separation these kinds of interventions immediately follow the upgrading
of transportation modes, in particular the pedestrianisation of of the traffic network and pedestrianisation. Surfaces are
streets and squares. Shopping areas are usually turned into replaced and the street furniture is renewed to make the public
car-free zones, which are gradually extended. The centre of realm more attractive. Landscape architect Frank Josselin de
Copenhagen is a typical example of such an extended network, Jong comments on this phenomenon as follows: ‘Wrinkles are
with 7 km of pedestrian streets and 4 km of other car-free areas. removed, pleats are filled in and the skin is stretched smooth.
The accessibility diagram is consistent in all cases: visitors And despite all the effort and expensive design tasks, not all
arrive by car and park in the underground or multi-storey car the time they are convincing enough to make the center
park, which has direct access to the pedestrianised zone. serve.’ 6 He describes a common tendency in Dutch cities when
The alternation between covered (mall, arcade) and open-air it comes to profiling public spaces, drawing particular attention
shopping areas caters for all weather conditions, and most new to the type of surface materials: for example, the yellow bricks
urban shopping malls are cleverly plugged into the edge of used in the city of Groningen to conjure up a Mediterranean
118
feel (in the ‘controlled city’ district in the plan ‘Space for Space’ parks, bus stops and shopping areas. The De Demer shopping
by Mecanoo), and the use of light grey and rose coloured street in Eindhoven, with the new shopping mall at its head, is
granite paving slabs in the Kerkplein in Den Bosch inspired by an interesting case in point. Cameras belonging to a big chain
paving schemes in Barcelona. store in the mall survey the entrance and the whole street 24
hours a day, every day of the week, turning the public domain
Theme it, trade it into an ultimate ‘controlled space’. 8
Another new trend in city centre projects that is closely
connected to the core commercial city programme is the use Non-critical collaborators
of signage systems for pedestrians, themed routes and lighting When I discussed my scepticism about contemporary city
master plans. Digital welcome booths located at entrance design practices with Christine Boyer, 9 she referred to her
points, such as train stations, car parks, deliver ‘necessary book Cyber Cities,10 in which she is explicitly critical of the
information’ on hotels, restaurants, bars and cafes, leisure future of urban physical public space:
activities, ongoing sales, expected weather conditions, etc.
Sometimes the user is persuaded to consume the city, which
is presented like a series of IKEA boxes along predetermined ‘... surveillance video cameras scanning and
routes.
interpreting more and more parking lots, entrances,
Surveillance
banks, supermarkets, malls, theaters, and ball parks.
Not directly related to the design discipline, but definitely These fortified enclaves that seem to be on the
related to the planning concepts and design of public spaces,
increase around the western world. ... space of our
is the widespread presence of closed-circuit television (CCTV)
surveillance to promote public safety. 7 CCTV cameras are now
contemporary cities is disappearing from sight/
commonplace in and around train stations, underground car consciousness/memory into the realm of the virtual.’
The Mobile Speakers

Corner, Delft.
‘In the beginning of the nineties, when everyone was euphoric problem in communicating with each other, and more important,
about computers and the cyberworld, I wanted to show the other neither one is capable of producing a strong social agenda
side of the coin. Definitely, physical space did not disappear for the city.’ The majority of architects and planners seem to
and we did not erase face-to-face contact. But our city spaces be silent and uncritical collaborators in the conversion of city
continue to be more fragmented than ever before.’ City centre centres into places of contemporary consumerism. ‘What we
regeneration processes tend to be defined into specific zones observe today is that designers turn away from the city and
with clear borders, and each zone even has its own specially the essence of public space.’ People like Alison and Peter
designed litter bins. She finds all these efforts rather Smithson and Team 10 in the 1950s and 1960s, she says,
counterproductive. ‘These over-controlled city spaces also filter were the last ones who produced clear and operational ideas
the audience, a process which ends up in social fragmentation about how the city and society needed to be organised. It is
as well. I am very critical about the beatification of certain time they took back their active operational role and pursued
parts in the city without looking at the locations in between.’ a vision for urban development.
In her opinion, more or less the same questions can be raised
in relation to the separation of transportation modes. ‘I never Counter action
liked pedestrianisation. It simply takes away the dynamism. Contemporary practices in the regeneration of medium-sized
Yes, maybe traffic needs to be slowed down here and there, European city centres seem to be driven by nothing but
but there must be a way for different movement forms to consumerism, and in turn trigger further waves of consumption
survive together. I cannot imagine New York city without yellow fever. This leads to one-sided development and anonymous
cabs.’ Planning within certain borders creates non-planning environments. How can we escape from this tunnel vision?
outside these borders, or creates left-over spaces, she claims. What role could designers play in countering this process,
and are there any signs of a fresh approach? Three conditions
All in all, Boyer is critical about the role of designers. need to be satisfied.
‘Architecture is in crisis. Both theory and practice have a
120
The first condition is a recognition of the fact that every design The second condition is the understanding that identity can
intervention by architects and planners is a social intervention only evolve, and cannot be built or created by city managers,
as well – even outside the borders of the plan, as Boyer city marketers or urban designers. Identity is embedded in the
stresses. Designers should be fully aware of the fact that the genotypes of a particular environment (history, geography,
way spaces are organised can convert city cores into well- sociocultural profile, etc.). Designers can only decode and
balanced containers for a diversity of development programmes. strengthen these authentic qualities, and at best make room
Design strategies with vision can provide and sustain creativity for possible future mutations. A real understanding and
and a multiplicity of lifestyles, as well as the production of positioning of a region also requires a holistic interpretation
different ideas and cultures. For example, at first glance the instead of disconnected interventions. An interesting step in
central area development in Almere by OMA (Floris Alkemade) this direction is the latest report of the VROM Council (which
looks like another shopping-dominated area, but the project advises government on policy relating to housing, planning
illustrates the power of permitting a range of different worlds to and the environment) on leisure tourism and spatial quality.11
co-exist above each other. An elevated neighbourhood, which It basically recommends that different players pool their efforts
is diverse but coherent, has been created on top of the shopping to collect clear and consistent regional images and stories,
level. This neighbourhood makes clever use of the roofscape, and form alliances to create a coherent picture of natural
with continuous paths and public terraces overlooking the areas, cultural institutions, commercial activities and so on.
world below and the nearby lake. The underground world for
cars is also well connected to the life above (page 116). A more The third condition is the exploitation of bottom-up processes
or less comparable attempt to bring the function of housing for profiling central urban areas. Although such local initiatives
back into the centre is the ‘Living above the shop’ initiative in often start in a piecemeal way, they can have a major effect.
Maastricht, which has spread to about twenty towns and cities Their strength comes from the high level of acceptance by
in the Netherlands. the local population. The Sprekershoek Foundation in Delft
(launched in September, 2005) is a good example. It aims to
The Mobile Speakers

Corner, Delft.
close the gap between politicians and the residents and bridge 5 The scale of this transformation is enormous, with a retail package
consisting of two department stores and nearly 150 shops, cafes and
the gulf between cultures. Inspired by Speakers Corner in
restaurants. The new Bullring pulls together the city’s fragmented retail
Hyde Park, London, the members organise meetings in a city components and turns Birmingham’s city centre into a market town.
It is dramatically capped by the 7,000 sqm SkyPlane glass roof.
centre café to discuss local issues. A Mobile Speakers Corner
6 F. De Josselin de Jong, ‘External Space is given Botox treatment’ in
has been built to allow these sessions to be held in a public Landscape Architecture and Town Planning in the Netherlands 0-03 (2004),
Uitgeverij THOTH, Bussum.
space, bringing them to a wider audience (page 119-121).
7 The first CCTV cameras used in public spaces were low-definition black and
white systems without the ability to zoom or pan. Modern CCTV cameras are
able to focus on minute details and computerised control systems allow
Although new and limited in number, these examples show
semi-automatic tracking of objects. For example, they can lock onto a single
that alternative approaches are possible. However, it would object in a busy environment and follow it. The new systems can check many
thousands of faces in a database in less than a second.
be premature to see these isolated examples as pieces of a
8 This street is the subject of the book De Vierkante Meter and the DVD Control
coherent and robust planning and design movement with a Space by the Dutch journalist Tijs van den Boomen, which describe in great
detail the changes that have taken place in this main shopping artery of the
strong social agenda.
city. The book tells how the small shops with their owners living above were
replaced by the major retail chains that are increasingly turning the shopping
areas of Dutch cities into generic zones. The DVD is a documentary on
Notes
24 hours in the life of De Demer.
1 M. Sorkin, Variations on a theme park: the new American city and the end of 8 While researching this article the author interviewed Christine Boyer on
public space (1992). Hill and Wang, New York. September 22nd, 2006.
2 B. Florian, ‘The City as a Brand’ in City Branding: Image Building and Building 9 M. Christine Boyer, Cyber Cities (1996), Princeton Architectural Press,
Images (2002). NAI Publishers, Rotterdam. New York.
3 B. Spierings, Cities, Consumption and Competition: The Image of 10 Groeten uit Holland, Qui e fantastico! Advies over vrije tijd, toerisme en
Consumerism and the Making of City Center (2006), PhD thesis, ruimtelijke kwaliteit (2006). VROM-raad, advies 055, The Hague.
Radbout University Nijmegen.
4 Veenendaal is town of 60,000 inhabitants in the province of Utrecht.
Photography
Although the city has no well preserved historic centre or well designed
street furniture or paved areas, its booming shopping centre is considered p.114
to be successful. Look Mickey by Lichtenstein, www.kunstikeskus.ee
p.119–121
Ekim Tan.
122
The Swiss
experience
Analogue
and digit al
information for
pedestr ians
What information do pedestrians need

to find their way through our cities? What
offerings are necessary, appropriate
or desirable now and in the future to
facilitate this process? IT offers new
possibilities alongside the traditional fixed The current increase in mobility for business and leisure
pedestrian signage, and also creates new purposes increases the need for wayfinding information,
since more and more pedestrians are venturing beyond
demands and sets new standards.
their accustomed bounds. The growth of mobility has led
The Swiss Pedestrian Association has been to a rise in the demand for such wayfinding information.
considering these issues within the A mature system of road traffic signs has been in existence
for many years, and is subject to detailed regulations
framework of the Europe-wide ‘Spatial
concerning such matters as the size of the letters used
Metro’ project, which is aimed at the and the design of the symbols. It allows drivers to find
development of modern wayfinding systems. their way to their destination without the aid of maps,
and without geographical knowledge.
The Swiss cities of Biel and Zurich have
also been participating in this project. In Switzerland, the signposting of footpaths for ramblers
and walkers has also reached a very high level. Thanks to a
Christian Thomas network of more than 60,000 km of well signposted attractive
nature trails, hiking is one of the most popular leisure and
Pascal Regli holiday activities in the country.1 In addition, there are about
20 National Trails and a hundred well signposted 1 to 3-day
routes leading to scenic or sightseeing highlights for hikers
123 Street-level desires \\\/// Considerations Analogue and digital information for pedestrians
The need for wayfinding

increases.
(5,300 km), cyclists (7,500 km), mountain-bikers (2,500 km), variety of relevant details. In addition, pedestrians can take a
skaters (1,100 km) and canoeists (400 km), which with effect wide variety of printed information with them, such as national
from this year have been under the aegis of SchweizMobil 2 – maps, town plans, travel guides, public-transport time-tables,
a national organisation set up to promote sporting and leisure address lists and the like, which they can consult en route to
mobility. A new standard is being developed for uniform signage help them find their way.
of all these routes. Switzerland thus has a first-class network
of routes for leisure activities outside the urban areas, which Pedestrians and their requirements
are well-signposted in accordance with national standards. Motorists generally want to get from point A to point B as
The situation is different in the towns and cities. While there quickly as possible, and are not very interested in what they
are statutory requirements which stipulate that networks of see along the way. Pedestrians have quite different
footpaths in larger towns should be signposted in a uniform requirements. People going to or from work form a special
manner in order to help pedestrians to find their way, 3 there case in this connection. They know the way, and are generally
are as yet no signs of a uniform standard in this field. only interested in completing the journey on foot in the
available time without looking at the sights they pass. They are
The analogue tradition however interested in such matters relating to their personal
There are two different kinds of information that may be supplied comfort as the temperature, the presence of sunshine and
to pedestrians in the public space: wayfinding information shade and the availability of canopies and other building
(Where am I, where does this street lead to?), and local features that will help to keep them dry in case of rain. People
information including tips for sightseers (What is this building on the other hand who are strolling through the town with time
in front of me? What other sites of interest can I find in the on their hands have quite different priorities from motorists.
locality?). Wayfinding information is generally presented in They want to enjoy their walk through the network of streets
the form of plans, signposts or traffic signs, while the local that separates them from their chosen destination, without
information is presented on pillars or panels containing a losing their way. Often, in fact, they do not have a fixed
124
wayfinding information originally provided.

On the other hand, many of the sectional town plan
displays at public transport stops have been
upgraded during the past two years by providing
internal lighting. This creates attractive areas of
light during the hours of darkness, which improve
the appearance of the street scene in general and of
the public transport stops in particular, and are
greatly appreciated as such by local residents and
public transport users.
The municipality of Zurich has also been trying to

develop new pedestrian wayfinding systems in urban
development areas, where so much building work
has gone on during the past decade that even local
residents have some difficulty finding their way
around. The first project investigated the possibility
of including details of local business, cultural
establishments, restaurants etc. in the wayfinding
information. The idea was not to provide advertising
space for such locations, but merely to indicate
where they could be found. This scheme was never
put into practice, however, since it was found that the
owners of the locations in question were in general
not interested in participation. This result led to
reconsideration of the role of the municipal
authorities in such matters, and it was decided that
wayfinding information provided by the city should in
Wayfinding information for pedestrians in Zurich
principle be publicity-free. A pilot project has been
The municipality of Zurich has devoted many years tram to check how you can walk the last part of your set up to deliver a new urban wayfinding system for
to ensuring that each tram or bus stop is provided route. Many cyclists and motorists who are not sure the Oerlikon neighbourhood of Zurich in the course
with the relevant section of the official city plan. This of their way are also glad to be able to consult these of 2008. This will comprise high-quality display units
is greatly appreciated by travellers, since it means maps. containing the relevant part of the city plan and any
that you no longer need to take a city guide with you It should be mentioned, however, that the system in other wayfinding information considered necessary.
on your travels: you just have to know which stop is Zurich has been compromised of recent years The system will be designed so that suitable
closest to your chosen destination, and then consult because the timetables for the night buses have state-of-the-art display elements (such as monitor
the map at the stop where you get off the bus or been displayed at a number of stops, thus hiding the screens) can be included later if so desired.
destination but simply want to explore a certain neighbourhood. wide variety of sites. The street scene is further occupied by
In any case, they do not want to get lost and will use landmarks the whole system of traffic signs, traffic bollards cutting off
and main thoroughfares to guide them. They are often glad to access to certain routes, lampposts, pillars or billboards
see unobtrusive signposts pointing the way to well-known where posters may be placed, public seating, parking
sights which, even if they do not want to visit them, will help facilities for motor vehicles, bicycles etc., pavement displays
to give them a sense of direction. of greengrocers and similar shops, outdoor seating of cafes
or restaurants, all of which reduce the space available for
Need for systematic information pedestrians. The latter may have to compete for space with
A wayfinding system for pedestrians is designed as a network slaloming skaters, while all the street furniture will give the
of nodes, arranged so that even if one deviates from it at a municipal street cleaning services extra work. Wayfinding
certain point one can still rejoin it at the next important point systems for pedestrians must thus be compact and relatively
along the route. A number of Swiss cities (Basle, Lucerne, unobtrusive, while the individual units should still be designed
Chur and Berne) have built up a wayfinding system, aimed for recognisability and so as to contribute to the image of the
mainly at guiding tourists to destinations – chiefly in the inner city.
city – of interest to them. Such a wayfinding system should
comprise a fairly large number of uniform elements, so that The project for provision of comprehensive pedestrian
visitors can recognise them and know that they should stop information in Biel is initially aimed at updating the
there to find the information they seek. conventional system of information panels and signposts.
However, it was decided at a certain point in the planning
It should be realised in this connection that such a wayfinding process that a much more radical approach to modernisation
system is only a small part of the overall street scene. A large of the wayfinding system would have to be introduced. Biel,
number of well-meaning organisations try to help pedestrians the watch and clock capital of the world, needs to use the
by putting up signposts pointing them in the direction of a visual elements present in the street scene to project the
The town maps provided at the

stops of VBZ public transit system
in Zurich are not just appreciated
by pedestrians.
image of the city as a dynamic centre of technology. they received. They therefore tested a system supplying tourist
Conventional signposting is too old-fashioned to provide a information via the (free) Bluetooth service currently installed
future-proof solution to this problem. The planners therefore on many mobile phones. It may be expected, on the other hand,
started from scratch and developed new interactive techniques that more and more people will use their mobile phones so
for the presentation of local and wayfinding information much in the future that they will switch to a flat-rate contract
(cf. separate article on Biel). An interactive element that can in the future instead of a pay-as-you-go set-up. This group of
be used for this purpose has been developed at Delft University users will then be able to download as much graphic
of Technology in the Netherlands. This allows the relevant information as they wish via an ADSL connection without extra
section of the city plan to be printed out, and provides charge. With such a configuration, the information gateway
interactive information on museums, restaurants, shops and will be able to supply pedestrians (in particular tourists) with
other services that might interest tourists. The old signposting all the local information the pedestrians might want – or as
system used in Delft no longer provides the kind of information much information as the information suppliers would like
that is expected from a future-oriented ‘information gateway’. them to have. Pilot projects similar to that in Koblenz have
been set up elsewhere, for example in Winterthur near Zurich,
The digital revolution where ‘Bee Taggs’ 5 – information carriers similar to bar codes
It was decided right at the start of the Spatial Metro project – are photographed with the aid of the mobile phone. The code
in 2005 that a modern pedestrian information system should picked up in this way is sent to the information supplier, which
include the possibility of audible information picked up from sends information about the relevant location in reply. The
information gateways via the mobile phone. In the pilot trial Legible London 6 wayfinding system introduced early in 2008
set up by the University of Koblenz, however, it was decided also makes use of information gateways that can provide
that the system used initially should be independent of the pedestrians with audible information in addition to traditional
mobile phone network, 4 since it was assumed that mobile phone local and wayfinding information.
users would not want to pay for the pedestrian information The provision of such digital information from designated
126
booth but also town plans, tourist guides, cameras, signposts,

Wayfinding system in the Oerlikon diaries, a stack of credit cards, soon even the coins in our
neighbourhood of Zurich.
pocket and even the keys on our key ring – in short, everything
whose use is information-based. The current trend is thus
information gates is however only of limited use to tourists towards the situation where everyone who wants to receive
who travel from town to town as long as each town has its information via their mobile phone (or laptop) will get it from
own standard for the architecture of the pedestrian information the Internet and not from local information points that have to
system. There is thus an urgent need for uniformity in these be separately fed with data and updated from time to time.
standards.
GPS navigation has the disadvantage that the system cannot
Digital timetables for various forms of transport, digital cameras, ‘see’ in which direction our interest extends starting from a
on-line dictionaries, telephone directories and GPS navigation given point. The technical problem that a GPS system does not
systems for motorists have all been available since 2005. It work in towns with very narrow streets, or in an underground
would seem an obvious idea to combine all these services, transport system, because it does not have a direct line of
but there are no signs that pedestrians can make use of such sight with a navigation satellite will however be solved in the
combined services at present. Interactive town plans left much foreseeable future as the number of WLAN antennae (which
to be desired. Now, however, the use of mobile phones to pick replace the satellite as a source of navigation information)
up information from fixed information gateways may already grows. 7
almost be a thing of the past, since many mobile phones have
their own GPS navigation system and/or computer keyboard. Another very recent possibility is to take a picture of something
A kind of digital ‘Swiss army knife’ – an all-purpose pocket with the mobile camera, feed this into an image analyser and
information acquisition device – is already reality or very thus create a link to all kinds of information about the object
nearly so. Such a device could replace not only the phone of interest which is then displayed on the screen of the phone.
development since 2006, and the first mobile phone working

Wayfinding in Luzern. on this principle, the ‘Neo1973’ (the name of which is derived
from the fact that 1973 was the year when the first mobile
In other words, instead of typing in the words ‘Eiffel Tower’ or phone appeared), was made available to consumers in 2008.
‘Matterhorn’ in order to find out how high the object in question No one can predict the results of this development, but it
is, you just take a snapshot of it and you will soon receive this seems clear that users will be able to employ a system like
information and much more about the entity shown in the Wikipedia to build up a huge mass of information for use on
picture. 8 At present, however, such systems only work for a the move, employing not only a keyboard but also GPS
limited number of selected images. coordinates or a photo to trigger the acquisition of the
relevant data.
It is thus highly likely that the amount of information available
to travellers will undergo a quantum leap in a few years, as Effective division of tasks
private suppliers offer information mixed with advertisement It thus seems clear that much of the information currently
free of charge. No prediction can be made at present about available can in principle be accessed in real time with the
what various companies will offer, and in what sequence, aid of a mobile phone. The key question is no longer ‘What is
since profit-making enterprises are understandably reluctant technically possible?’ but ‘What are the information needs of
to release details of such schemes in advance of the market the traveller?’ And even these needs are changing fast. A few
launch in order to keep ahead of the competition. years ago, it would have seemed unlikely that people would
want to make phone calls to distant locations while walking
Another possibility is that the amount of information that down the street, and it would have been considered highly
consumers build up themselves for use while travelling will unusual – and undesirable – to use one’s mobile phone in a
undergo an explosive increase. Open mobile communication public space; while today it is very common.
(OpenMoko 9) is based on software that has been under When we now consider what the future division of tasks will
128
be between wayfinding systems for pedestrians installed in – can use them.10 There will thus always be a place for
public space and mobile phones, we need to ask ourselves conventional wayfinding systems. They will never offer such
which solution offers us most comfort physically, mentally and detailed information as that available on the Internet, but the
emotionally. Even though much more information is stored on information that is provided must be well thought out so as
the Internet than in a newspaper, this has not led newspapers not to contain serious gaps.
to die out. The fact is that it is a lot more pleasant to sit at
one’s ease in a comfortable armchair and leaf through the Tasks for the authorities
daily paper than to sit at a desk scanning web pages with What is the role of the (municipal) authorities in the context
the aid of the mouse and keyboard. Similarly, it is not to be of the rapid development of the (wayfinding) information
expected that pedestrians will make much use of state-of- market? They must ensure that even IT-illiterate, disabled and
the-art information technology when they want to find their older people can still find their way readily through our cities.
way in a new location. Even in the future, most people who There will thus continue to be a need for a basic wayfinding
are walking through a city street are much more likely to go system in our towns and cities. In every town of a reasonable
to the nearest tourist information point – especially if this is size, a town plan or neighbourhood plan should be displayed
a clearly visible piece of street furniture – than to get out near the railway station and at other prominent sites. A town
their mobile phone. that provides more information about itself is regarded as
more interesting than one that does not, and that does not
In addition, there will doubtless always be people who prefer draw visitors’ attention to noteworthy sights.
to be independent of any kind of gadget or who are not very
good at handling the latest technology. Similarly, great efforts There are also basic services at a digital level that the local
have been made within the frame of the ‘design-for-all’ authorities should provide. A comprehensive, fully up to date
philosophy to design products, systems and services so that digital map of routes open to pedestrians should be available,
as many people as possible – including those with disabilities so that private information suppliers have a reliable basis e.g.
Getting rid of misleading information

Most information provided by road signs is mainly
intended for motorists. For example, many indications
of the route to follow to get to important destinations
in city centres refer to the often circuitous route,
involving many one-way streets that motorists have
to follow. They are misleading for pedestrians,
who can generally follow a more direct route.
For example, the road sign ‘To the Station’ generally
indicates not the most direct route to the station
entrance but the circuitous route, full of diversions
and one-way streets, that will lead the motorist to
the station car park. In addition, many ‘No through
road’ signs apply only to motorists, while
pedestrians and cyclists can use these routes freely.
It is important for the authorities to take the time to
correct such minor errors, and make sure that the
correct information for pedestrians and cyclists as
well as motorists is presented on all road signs.
The municipality of Biel is trying out a new traffic

sign indicating that there is no through road for
motor vehicles but that cyclists and pedestrians
have free passage.
for the tourist routes they recommend, without having to rely Conclusion
on guesswork. The elaboration of a coherent map of There is an urgent need for coordination of the wayfinding and
pedestrian routes gains added significance when it is made tourist information currently supplied via various media. For
available in digital form: even before any signposting or road example, the analogue information supplied on strategically
markings are put in place on the ground, a good (pedestrian) placed wayfinder panels and the digital information available via
route map already proves its utility if the routes represented monitor screens and acoustic devices should be properly matched.
on the digital map represent short, direct ways of getting to The extent to which travellers can pick up information with the
the intended destination. In addition, the authorities must aid of their mobile phones from special information gateways
ensure that the providers of vehicle navigation systems do situated along their route will depend on further technological
not indicate that vehicles can drive through pedestrian zones developments and on the availability of a standard for such
or down footpaths or streets where vehicular access is information systems that is adopted by a large number of cities.
forbidden, since there is an increasing tendency for motorists
to regard the information they receive from a navigation Notes
system as more reliable than the road signs put up, which 1 www.wandern.ch
2 www.schweizmobil.ch
they hardly look at any more.
3 Verordnung Fuss- und Wanderweg-Gesetz, Artikel 4, Abs. 3
The authorities should further ensure at least that correct (Swiss Regulation of Footpaths and Nature Trails Act, article 4, section 3).
4 www.uni-koblenz.de/~spatialmetro/Spatial%20Metro/Das%20Konzept.html
information about buildings of interest to the public such as
5 www.beetag.com
museums, hospitals and (local) government offices is readily 6 www.legiblelondon.info/wp01/?p= 39
7 www.skyhookwireless.com
accessible in the currently available digital information
8 www.kooaba.com
systems. For example, inspection of the maps available in 9 www.openmoko.org
10 www.ask-it.org
Google Earth shows that the authorities have not yet taken
the trouble to enter the basic information in their sector there, Photography
while the amount of commercial information is growing steadily. Christian Thomas.
130
Vermeers
wanted
Ekim Tan interviews Floris Alkemade,

the veteran designer at Rem Koolhaas’s
Office for Metropolitan Architecture, Floris Alkemade has no doubt that the European City is a
who argues for an innovative future for distinct entity, with deep Roman and Medieval roots. It clearly
differs from the American City, which is not necessarily
European city centres. For more than
organised around a centre. In fact, in most American cities all
a decade he has been building up a the attraction has already moved to the periphery. But even in
unique portfolio of city centre projects in Europe, much growth now takes place between the cities and
many cities have undergone a process of decentralisation.
Lille, Almere, Essen, Paris and many
As the boundaries between town and country are blurring,
other cities in Europe and Asia. scholars like the American professor Christine Boyer argue
that it is pointless to use old-fashioned terms like ‘centre’ and
Ekim Tan ‘periphery’. Indeed, all around the world the urban periphery is
becoming denser, and the traditional central or downtown areas
are increasingly envious of their peripheral counterparts, with
their larger shopping malls, alternative housing settlements and
less congestion. ‘Nevertheless,’ asserts Alkemade, ‘there is
resistance to give up the centre. In my opinion, despite this
erosion the urban core will maintain its key role here in Europe.’
And the European city definitely differs from its Asian

counterparts, where history is a more marginal component in
definitions of urban identity. Even in cases where history matters,
there is a huge gap in understanding. ‘Take Singapore, for
example. The city has just built a totally fake historic China
131 Street-level desires \\\/// Considerations Vermeers wanted
‘Just like Johannes Vermeer used to

draw inspiration from ordinary
scenes of everyday life, we should be
able to capture the culture of our time.
It’s foolish to repeat the cultural
elements of the past.’
OMA’s proposal for

Les Halles: next
generation
solutions.
Town, for the sake of authenticity, alongside the existing one,
which city officials consider to be run down and overused.’
At the same time, these acts are evidence of a changing
approach in Asia. ‘After all, concern about the identity of the
city core may be a sign of luxury!’
Preservation trap the largest railway station in Europe, with 800,000 travellers a
Coming back to the issue of preservation here in Europe, day. In the early 1970s, the steel-and-glass markets were torn
Alkemade adopts a critical stance towards absolute down and replaced by 12 pavilions, but these were never
preservationism. ‘We need a more revolutionary approach. popular. The city government is trying to reinvigorate the area
European cities are different, and they are trying to be different. again. It was the subject of a widely debated design competition
However, copying historical forms creates only frustration. in 2003 that sought to resolve the design triangle of
We have to find modern ways to respond to today’s needs. complicated uses, the historical context and the infrastructure.
In the design competition for Les Halles in Paris we tried to OMA was one of the four international finalists, together with
find next generation solutions. We initiated a public debate on MVRDV, Jan Nouvel and David Mangin of SEURA. The winning
adding modernity to a historic context in a way that transforms entry was Mangin’s scheme, which was deemed to be the most
the way people think about the city.’ economically feasible, but was also seen by some as a rather
conservative proposal.
Les Halles, once the food-and-meat marketplace of Paris, is
today an urban void, also known as the ‘belly’ of Paris. Beneath Although OMA’s proposal was not selected, Alkemade argues
the surface lies a busy transport hub for metro and fast that blending the old and the modern was the right approach.
suburban rail services and a bulky shopping centre, the whole ‘We proposed opening up the deepest level of Les Halles to
complex consisting of four underground levels. It is said to be the sky, making both the transit and commercial centres
132
visible from the surrounding historic neighbourhoods, with Complex in Essen was closed down. At that time, everyone
an array of 21 towerettes emerging from different depths. found it ugly and wanted to see it demolished, but by 2002
A good example of how this would work is the Centre Georges the whole site was declared a Unesco World Heritage Site.
Pompidou. This avant-garde urban intervention shows that Unbelievable, this shift in 15 years!’
people are open to a new language, if done in the right way.
They love it. Ironically enough, under the current building European city ethics
regulations in Paris, a project like this would not be possible In their struggle for survival, European cities always seem to
today. There seems to be an increasing desire to preserve refer to a set of basic requirements for success. Every city
heritage, but I am sure it is a dead-end street. Within ten centre must:
years people will regret this as much as they regret what —— have culture and art – no one has the right to live in a
was done in 1960s and 1970s. culture-free city;
—— have retail, mainly organised around pedestrian
‘In a way, there are fashions in preserving particular time movement – trade fed by car traffic can be segregated in
layers in the city. At the moment, waterfront transformations the downtown areas, and;
are highly regarded, and who knows what will be next.’ —— offer a clear routing for its visitors – getting lost
Alkemade points out the relativism in discussions on historic diminishes the quality of the experience and reduces
conservation. ‘In 1985, Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial shopping activity.
Almere, the Netherlands:
new centre in a new town.
thin layers of history. A relatively short history may sound

disadvantageous, but it is not. A new town like Almere has a
free playing field to invent new cultures. Existing cities have
the richness of their multi-layer cultures, but their challenge
is to re-invent and re-interpret the use of this historical
culture.
Given these ‘ethical’ notions, cultural preservation,
pedestrianised shopping and legible routing are the inevitable A shopping/pedestrian-free city?
one-liners. But can cities do without them? What about a ‘Obviously, shopping has its own physics. Sixty per cent of
culture-free city, a shopping-free city or a routing-free city? what we buy is impulse buying. That is the simple trick – if
more people pass by, more people will see your products
A culture-free city? and more will buy them. This relies on there being no barrier
‘It is true that cities do need culture to exist, but it depends between wanting and buying. From the retail point of view,
on what sort of culture. To me combining high and low therefore, pedestrianisation is important. On the other hand,
cultures has always been very captivating. For example the the Calvinist notion that everything to do with the automobile
popular TV show Big Brother was invented in the Dutch new is by definition bad is a poor basis for the development of
town of Almere, east of Amsterdam. The show spread all an urban centre. For example, in Almere we first proposed a
around the world in a short time. That is already a cultural direct car connection on the Weerwater, the lake that is
value to be taken into consideration. Just like Johannes geographically in the centre of the new town. The reaction
Vermeer used to draw inspiration from ordinary scenes of we got was that people would actually use the road! But why
everyday life, we should be able to capture the culture of our not let people experience the lake and the centre by car as
time. It’s foolish to repeat the cultural elements of the past.’ well?’
This raises the question of how to think about new towns with
134
Lille Europe under

construction,
back in the 1990s.
A routing-free city? So how does OMA deal with unpredictabilities and special
‘Last week I was in Milan. I had no map and my mobile phone conditions? OMA took an influential role in shaping the core
battery had run down. It is a great experience to get lost, in Lille and Almere – the first a historic city centre in France
but I have to agree that it may cause less shopping. From a and the other a thirty-year-old new town in the Netherlands.
commercial point of view, readability is significant. But then What were the underlying design ‘ethics’ demanded by
again, getting lost is part of what a city is all about. To my mind, Alkemade? Lille was put firmly on the map as an important hub
some places in a city should be ugly, unsafe and unpredictable.’ in Northern France between Paris and London by Euralille,
the peripheral high speed train (HST) station. ‘In Euralille,
(Un)predictability and the city the synthetic new city was and wasn’t part of the old town.
Talking about (un)predictability, Alkemade comments that That was the hardest thing to explain to the city council about
designers and planners overestimate their influence on the city. realising this utterly complex programme located on the site
‘Almere was planned as an anti-city. Despite that, it became of old city walls.’ Until the end of the 1980s, Lille was a historic
bigger and bigger and its autonomous growth forced it to industrial and provincial city. It has gone through a substantial
become urban. The same happened with nature. transformation, boosted by a mammoth development
Oostvaardersplassen was planned to be a business park, programme including the HST station, a World Trade Centre
but instead it became one of the most important natural and 100,000 square metres of space devoted to retail outlets,
environments in Europe. Even the main developments were offices, parks, residential buildings, hotels and cultural facilities.
not always planned.’ Can unpredictability be part of a ‘Our reaction was to create a kind of hypermodern central
development strategy? ‘One way is simply providing a well environment on the edge of the old centre. Instead of copying
organised machine that also creates special conditions. the old centre, we added a band of modernity around the
A grid, for example. Organise it and then let go! But the city historic city. Besides this contrasting language of forms, we
should not be just any city.’ proposed multiple linkages of mobility and functions between
the existing and emerging new city. This subtle connection
135 Street-level desires \\\/// Considerations Vermeers wanted
Euralille: hypermodern central environment

on the edge of the old centre.
organised mainly around the infrastructure between the old layer was the Alkemade’s trump card. A multi-storey car park
and the new city became the key to the project.’ underneath the city now serves the upper shopping layer,
allowing a large supermarket to be incorporated into the
Alkemade’s approach in Almere, as opposed to the contrasting scheme, which otherwise would have been impossible.
modernist attitude in Lille, is a centralistic downtown scheme.
At first sight, this approach sounds very unlike OMA; why create Dare to change
a traditional central core for a new town that emerged in reaction Running through Alkemade’s projects we can detect acceptance
to the city? ‘Our first reaction to creating a centre was, why? of and adaptation to change, capturing the contemporary
To us, Almere was proof that you could live without a centre. culture and avoiding the monoculture of form and development
But in the end, there is an unavoidable need for centrality in programme. ‘Today, the dominant development model, adopted
European cities.’ For a new town like Almere this discussion by many cities without even realising it, is to create a centre as
must have been rather sensitive. Although Almere emerged as a theme park. Even in Amsterdam, which has an untouchable
an antithesis of city in the mid 1970s, it later switched back to 17th century image, constant change has been unavoidable.
being a city with a traditional centre as a point in space.‘ Interestingly, while the building facades represent this identity,
Even in Los Angeles, of all places, it is possible to find similar they are only envelopes that cover what is really going on inside.’
instincts for centrality. In Universal Studios Hollywood, for Indeed, behind the well preserved facades of the stately canal
example, a parking garage was built some distance from the houses there is a vibrant economy with the most advance
theme park. People had to walk this distance. In time, some services. ‘After all, the only way forward is to modernise the
shops appeared. Then people needed shade and a second existing city. You must dare to change. In the late 1960s our
layer of development was added. This in-between zone was mindset was much more open to change. In Europe there now
gradually filled in with offices, schools and shops. Without seems to be a very conservative mindset. We really need to
realising it, they were inventing the walking city centre.’ tackle this.’
Doubling Almere’s new centre by adding an underground
136
What the
Pedestr ian
Wants
Many European cities face a common

challenge: giving the old centre back
to the pedestrian. The transformation of Cities often contain complex networks of roads, streets, parks
Copenhagen city centre provides many and pedestrian networks or zones, making it challenging for
pedestrians to explore the city or reach their destinations.
clues and the process was researched
If people find it difficult to navigate their way around, their
and documented by Lars Gemzøe and experience is compromised and they are discouraged from
Jan Gehl. Lars Gemzøe told Ekim Tan spending time in the city. The successful pedestrianisation
of Copenhagen city centre over a forty year period has been
what they learnt.
analysed, described and documented by Professor
Ekim Tan Lars Gemzøe and Jan Gehl.
The Copenhagen experience

Fourty years ago, when the pedestrianisation process began,
the shopkeepers in central Copenhagen were unconvinced
and apprehensive. ‘We are not Italians, we are Danes. It will
never work here.’ ‘Shops will die off if there are no more cars.’
‘The climate over here is not suitable for mingling in the
streets.’ These were just some of the objections they raised.
‘There was literally no culture of public space and public life;
we used to sit at home and have a black coffee at the dinner
table,’ recalls Lars Gemzøe. ‘However, since then, things have
changed a lot in this city. When the first street was closed to
traffic as an experiment, people found it interesting, and then
came the next car-free street. The critical shopkeepers soon
137 Street-level desires \\\/// Considerations What the Pedestrian Wants
Lars Gemzøe culture. This was a time when people became increasingly
Associated partner at Gehl Architects in Copenhagen and a senior lecturer in
familiar with alternative lifestyles and travelled in growing
urban design at the Centre for Public Space Research, School of Architecture,
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, and at Denmark’s International Study numbers to southern European countries; incomes rose and
Programme in Copenhagen. He is the author of Improving Public Spaces,
the population enjoyed an increasing amount of leisure time.
New City Spaces and Public Spaces Public Life.
What makes the work of Gehl and Gemzøe special is the
documentation of the effect of this radical shift in people’s
Jan Gehl
Partner at Gehl Architects in Copenhagen and has recently been appointed by behaviour patterns from a largely home-based culture into
the municipality of Rotterdam to fine-tune and support their ideas in developing
active users of public space. They were the first to systematically
a more inviting urban network for the pedestrians and slow traffic in the inner
city, such as by creating extra connections and shortcuts or dealing with longer study and record pedestrian movements in the same way that
urban blocks and creating more interactive building facades on the ground floor,
every city measures and records traffic flows. ‘Facts – such
etc. analyse the city’s pedestrian public space network.
as being able to point out that public life in Copenhagen has
increased dramatically after twenty years of work – have
realised that it was working to their advantage, and people played a major role in showing the value of what has been
discovered that they liked to explore their city on foot. Because happening in the city,’ declares Gemzøe.
the city council made it gradually more difficult to drive and
park, visitors had time to get used to the idea that it was too Over the years the researchers systematically counted
complicated to take the car, and took the bus or bicycle instead. pedestrians and the numbers of people sitting and standing
And so the centre of Copenhagen underwent a dramatic in certain Copenhagen streets, at different times of the day
change from a car-orientated to a people-orientated place.’ and in different seasons. This allowed Gemzøe to track the
gradual change in the behaviour of the city’s population,
This transformation of the physical environment is indeed which he describes in his book Public Spaces Public Life.
striking. The changing socio-economic environment played a A unique working method was used to describe the urban
significant part in driving the transformation of public space complexity: study what is happening, examine the problems
138
GI Strand before
and after
pedestrianisation.
and potentials, improve the situation, re-evaluate, and then retail, leisure and residential uses can have very positive results.
monitor developments. On a cold winter night, for example, 6,800 inhabitants living in
the centre of Copenhagen means 6,800 lighted windows
As the monitoring study revealed the positive effects of overlooking public squares and streets.
pedestrianisation, such as increasing activity in the streets,
a growing feeling of safety and diversification of activities in Gehl and Gemzøe’s research clearly shows that there is a
the centre, the pedestrian network was expanded. When the one-to-one relation between the area of pedestrian space in
research results indicated that a saturation point was being the city and the rise in the numbers of people using the city
reached (simply because the capacity of the streets to centre. ‘From 1968 to 1995 the number of people who spent
accommodate people on foot was fully used), urban designers time in the public space of the city centre increased three and
created specially designed public places to sit and stand: a half times. Over the same period, the total area of car-free
places for visitors to rest, and thus extend their stay in the streets and squares increased three and a half times.’ Not only
centre. The city architect calls this concept ‘pearls on a has the number of visitors to Copenhagen city centre risen,
string’. The individual squares along the city’s main streets but the time they spend in the centre has also increased.
have their own design and the streets connecting them are ‘A good pedestrian network offers a pleasant experience
surfaced with a simple, uniform paving materials. through the centre,’ stresses Gemzøe. ‘Given the opportunity,
people can walk for kilometres. Here the issue is not about
The researchers also concentrated on the time dimension of the design of one grandiose square or a street, but more
public space, exploring the use of the public space network about the consistency of the network and the continuity of
at night and during the winter. They counted the lit windows linkages. How does someone entering the city find their way
and shop fronts by night as an indication of public life and to a particular destination? This does not necessarily mean
concluded that good distribution of night-time functions connecting every square to another, but a conscious definition
creates a safer and friendlier city centre. A balanced mix of of entrances and continuities within the network.’
Saturation point
for a pedestrian
quay in
Copenhagen.
Public life in
Copenhagen
has increased
dramatically.
5 km/h versus 60 km/h at regular time intervals based on movement through the urban
Understanding the perception of the user of the pedestrian space at the uniform pace of a pedestrian.
public space is an important aspect of Gehl and Gemzøe’s
work on improving legibility. They explored the area where While Lynch’s work reveals a much larger vision about the
urban design and architecture meet; a dimension that has urban environment, the importance of Cullen’s work is the
received little attention so far. structure of surfaces and depth of detail. The difference in
the definition of scales depends on the speed of perception.
Gemzøe recognises two masterpieces in the urban design ‘Lynch refers to a car driver, whereas Cullen looks through
literature that investigated the perception and orientation of the eyes of the pedestrian,’ explains Gemzøe. The speed of
the city user moving through the urban space. The first is the movement in the street influences the exchange of information
famous study by Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City, in which and quality of communication in urban space, and thus its
the city is rendered legible by five basic structural elements; legibility. Stressing this difference in the speed of movement,
paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. The second Gemzøe refers to the research paper he wrote with Gehl at
work is The Concise Townscape by urban theorist and graphic the Centre for Public Space Research in Copenhagen:
artist Gordon Cullen. Cullen’s sketches illustrate legibility as a ‘Close Encounters with Buildings’. ‘While our perception of
serial vision, the frames representing the subject’s perception public space naturally depends on viewpoint and distance,
140
Mismatch
between 5 km/h
and 60 km/h
signposting.
60 km/h
architecture:
short on details,
signs are large
and simple.
the speed at which we move is crucial. Rooted in its biological a rather blank three-dimensional surrounding that contains
history, the human sensory apparatus is designed to perceive insufficient detail for a user on foot. ‘This mismatch needs to
and process sensory impressions while moving at about 5 km/h.’ be overcome if the experience of the pedestrian perceiver is
He went on to describe the difference between 5 km/h not to be compromised.’
architecture and 60 km/h architecture. The first corresponds to
our walking pace. On this scale the viewer’s interaction with Conceptual model
the environment is more intimate: you can smell, hear and Copenhagen’s consistent urban design policies dating from
feel all the details. Signals and the 1960s and the works of Professor Gemzøe provide a source
signs are viewed at a close range of inspiration for the EU Spatial Metro project, which aims to
5 km/h
and so they can be small and provide a way of making city centres legible and navigable for
architecture:
interaction with refined. Walking becomes even visitors and local people. Like Gemzøe’s work, this project tries
the environment
more appealing if the details and to understand the pedestrian’s experience of historic city
is more intimate.
displays along the way are centres and adopt a conceptual model for pedestrian movement.
carefully crafted, and if there are Delft University of Technology, one of the research partners in
things to smell and touch so that all the senses are engaged the project, has already conducted field studies in Norwich
at some point. In contrast to this ‘slow’ architecture, (October 2005) and Rouen (December 2005) that focus on the
the 60 km/h architecture along the roads used by vehicles is user’s experience. The ambition is to integrate street interviews
short on detail and signs are large and simple to allow easy with electronic surveillance, such as GPS tests and video
communication of information. observations, to enable the movement patterns of the visitor to
be documented and understood more precisely and effectively.
According to Gemzøe, some European city centres originally
characterised by ‘slow’ architecture have been invaded by cars, Photography
leading to a ‘perceptive gap’. Some parts of these centres present Jan Gehl.
142
En·core enjoy
Shopping,
esthetics and
culture.
Historical city centres. The part of the

European city where ‘it all began’, where a
great part of our collective consciousness The experience economy A is big business and the (urban)
developed, places we love to return to on environment is gradually becoming a consumer good, also in
the historical city centre. Amidst the thriving competition, city
holidays. They still form the cores of many
centres are in search of a unique identity to attract visitors.
cities and in the last century, they have What is the task of urban designers in this process? Are we
been challenged to face modernity, becoming mere producers of consumer goods or can we
aspire to being the directors of the theatre referred to as the
industrialisation, the invasion of the car
‘city centre’?
and lately the rise of consumer society.
In this consumer society, it is not just Conditions of stay, state of the art
The conditions of stay in the public space are an important part
goods that are consumed but
of the urban experience and are therefore often included in
increasingly ambiances too.1 economic revitalisation strategies. By offering a pleasant and
unique ambiance, the city centre is made more attractive and
Bob Mantel more competitive in relation to other city centres. The general
idea is that people will thus tend to stay longer and spend more
money. In search of this ambiance, city centres are renovating
their cultural heritage, repaving their streets and organising
events. In 1990 for example, Groningen wanted to improve
its city centre. It consequently had its pavements renewed,
removed a large part of its commercial signboards and
appointed a ‘city-guide’ to organize and advertise events. 2
This example reflects a common method of policy-making.
143 Street-level desires \\\/// Considerations En·core enjoy
state Hajer and Reijndorp 3 .On one hand we have social

segregation because people are looking for space which suits
their particular lifestyles, and therefore avoiding the ‘other’.
On the other hand are we are curious about what is different
and therefore looking for ‘other’ people. We actually search
for the encounter. The encounter becomes an experience.
The second argument is the logic of the experience economy.
In this economy, trends and hypes have a brief character and
In most cases the ‘formula’ is very similar, emphasizing the the impulse of the experience must therefore be new to make
physical environment and entertainment. But is this the right an impact.1 However, the physical urban environment functions
way? A similar approach used in different city centres naturally very differently. It is difficult to renew and therefore in a way,
results in very similar city centres. They look the same and static. How long does the impulse of a newly refurnished
attract similar kind of people. However, similarity is not the public space last? For the ideal conditions of stay, both
only argument that can be used to question the approach. these issues should be integrated in revitalisation strategies.
Social science points out that the social environment and the The question is how.
encounter with other people play an important role in the
experience of the urban context. We often hear that the goal Hypertopia
is ‘to see and to be seen’, but in post-modern society, the The hypothesis offers an alternative approach to compose
encounter with our fellow man has an ambivalent character, the conditions of stay. As other approaches, it embraces
144
Basketbal bar.
‘ambiance’ or experience as its main component. However, that it is especially culture that makes people visit cities.
instead of a preset evolvement of the ambience, it suggests The more people visit the centre, the more the exchange is ‘fed’.
that it can be more dynamic. Essential in this approach is The circle is complete. Within the conditions of stay, the public
the focus on the public domain and the way ambiances are domain is a means with a self-generating characteristic.
directed. Both are key elements in generating a changing,
renewing and even partly self-directable experience. Directing significance: Snooze, open specific
As mentioned above, within the experience economy, the urban
Configuration of the public domain environment becomes a consumer good. Generally, spaces or
The public domain becomes a means for conditions of stay objects are given a significance to direct an experience. Some
when it allows encounters and exchanges; a space should even compare the directed experience of city centres with
allow several lifestyles to converge and there should be a Disneyland, where everything is designed, directed and thought
‘in between’ space. This ‘in between space’ is a conceptual through. Such an experience allows virtually no space for
space which divides and connects lifestyles niches. If one is one’s own interpretation. The durability of such a system is
only interested in one’s own lifestyle, this ‘in between space’ questionable -see before. A possible way of dealing with this
is a safe barrier. If one is interested in the lifestyle of the other, issue is to let go of total directing. Van ‘t Spijker refers to the
this is then the space within which the encounter can be sought. concept of ‘snooze’ 5 . Snooze is a state between wake and
In this way, an exchange between lifestyle groups is defined sleep, between hyperactivity and deadly calm. It refers to a
by the members of the groups themselves. The exchange situation in which no dominant significance is given, leaving
becomes ‘autobiographical’, and is therefore always optimal. space to shape one’s own significance. For example, if you visit
This exchange is important as it is said to stimulate the a market in the middle of the day, you will probably experience
development of culture. 3 By creating a spatial layout in which a busy place where people are buying and merchants are
such an exchange is optimal, the development of culture is also selling goods. This (generic) identity is produced by a set of
optimized and reaches a state of acceleration. Gadet 4 states unwritten rules. But if you visit the same market at the end of
The Norwich Market.
the day, its identity will be totally different. A few salespeople

will still be selling their goods, while others will be moving their
stalls and cleaning wagons will be driving around… In short,
the market ‘will be changing into an indeterminate space, and
becoming free again. ‘There are no rules, only a genial chaos 8th in the Experian Retail Centre Ranking! In their research,
of delivery vans and pick-up trucks’. 5 Pellenbarg and Kooij 7 describe Norwich as a regional capital
The latter situation is the type of impulse generated by the and distinguish an important characteristic of these types of
context, which stimulates but does not determine the cities; ‘the face value’. ‘An urban centre becomes an avertable
experience. This is called ‘open specific’. 5 The impulse is given regional capital when it is esteemed and accepted as such.
but is not intense enough to direct the whole experience. One It is not only the actual number of shops that is important, but
is automatically much more seduced to anticipate or respond also the feeling that the town can fulfil everyone’s needs. This
to the impulse. Significance becomes ‘autobiographical’ too, indicates the significance of the mental picture of urbanity in
and this is precisely the key to a unique, renewing and above a city’s identity.
all spontaneous experience. Norwich’s town planning has been remarkable, as for decades,
the city has focused on an ‘Urban Renaissance’ B . In 1962,
Norwich for example, Londonstreet was the first shopping-pedestrian
The city Norwich, East Anglia’s capital, is situated two hours street in the U.K. and recently, huge down-town development
drive north from London. With approximately 250,000 has taken place. Instead of having large shopping facilities
inhabitants in greater Norwich, it would seem to be a modest developed out of town, Norwich chose in the late eighties to
town but due to its regional setting, it functions very differently. build an underground shopping mall and parking garage in
With no other cities close by, Norwich is the region’s main the hill of Norman Castle, one of the city’s unique monuments!
destination for work, shopping and (governmental) services. Recently, the development of the Chapelfield Mall and the
It serves over 1,000,000 people 6 and in 2004 was even rated Forum (library, BBC offices, information centre and a restaurant)
146
Free use of area. Wedding. Jazz concer t .
Examples of
how to use
the ‘Deck’.
Upper and
lower floor
area.
in the city centre have followed suit. Although these people. People pass by or visit the market but there is very little
developments have meant an important step in the process space to sit and watch the public. This means that very few
of vitalising the city centre, the public space is lagging spend any length of time there. Moreover, the market itself
behind. It is not just the physical quality of the public space has a very autonomous character. Its rational grid layout has
and the embedment of these new programmes that need to a limited interaction with the context and fails to produce
be reconsidered, but also the development of relatively large places to stay. Both issues point out that the dynamic public
interior semi-public spaces. Should public space, like these domain has failed to evolve to its full potential.
interior spaces, be conditioned too? Or could it offer an As said before, the distribution of flows is no longer adequate.
alternative, taking on a complementary role? The developments of the Chapelfield Shopping Mall and the
Forum have changed the use of the network, both spatially and
Norwich Market Square in time. Both developments are important for their programmes
Located in the heart of the old city, Norwich Market Square is (see above) as well as for their car parks. Forum provides 204
still a centre of commerce. Where hundreds of years ago and Chapelfield 1,004 spaces. The latter is open at night and
merchandise was brought in by the river, today, fashion, food feeds the evening economy, which is located just north of the
and other consumer goods are sold. The dynamic history of Market. This elementary change brings in new flows on the
the place can be recognised in the surrounding architecture. west side of the Market. Unfortunately, a number of aspects
Representing the design philosophies of different times, frustrate these new flows: the natural difference in height of
the buildings give the place a strong and unique identity. approximately four meters between the eastern and western
Although at first sight the space seems to function well, side of the market, the day and night presence of the market
there is however a number of aspects that gives a different and the current design of the public space.
perspective… Lastly, like most others, the city wishes to organise events in
Thanks to its central position in the city’s shopping and public space. Due to the high density of the build-up area,
pedestrian area, the market square is fed by large flows of there are however few large spaces available. The municipality’s
plans mention a few, but these are all located on the outskirts By following the flow
pattern, the deck will
of the historical centre, away from restaurants, pubs and shops.
cover part of the
market and provide
shelter from rain.
The design
The difference in height and the lack of space have prompted
the need to introduce a second ground level. This is a
connecting element which will provide the missing links in the
network and will redistribute space and programme. It will free
space for new niches to develop and negotiate the use of the The market itself will also be reorganised. The current market
space between the niches. layout is a grid pattern that does not connect to its surroundings
This ‘deck’ will follow the logical pattern of flows and at the at all. The new configuration adapts to the flows at ground level
sides it will be recessed to reserve open spaces. When events and creates diverse spaces within the network of the market.
are scheduled, these spaces can be used for large objects such Instead of being an autonomous unit, the market will thus
as fair trucks or stages. By following the flow pattern, the deck become much more of a part of its surroundings and will
will cover part of the market and provide shelter from rain. moreover offer a place to stay.
Although its outdoor character will be preserved, the market In the current situation, the market is constantly present. It
will thus be less dependent on the weather. occupies the whole square, even when it is not open. In the
In the middle, at the crossing of the flows, the deck will be new configuration, under the influence of the new European
widened to provide a place to stay. People can therefore law, one part is made architectural and the other part flexible.
leave the flow, sit down and take time to sit down. It is at this After opening hours, this part can be removed and the open
spot that the deck folds down and connects with the market. space used for other activities such as festivals and events.
Both worlds meet; a mix of staying, passing by and shopping The space can also be used by the programmes in surrounding
converge at this point. buildings, for example as outdoor terrace areas. In this way,
148
the range of programmes and related lifestyle groups will be themselves between the market and the deck. The ‘in between
increased and the public domain further diversified. space’ is ‘autobiographic’.
In this (re)distribution of programmes, the deck will generally
be free of programmes to minimalise the preset and commercial Reflection
significance. Embedded in a context full of preset significances, At the start of this article, I questioned the role of urban
the deck will be a place which one can give one’s own designers in the planning process of creating conditions
significance. Visitors, passers-by and neighbouring programmes, of stay in historical city centres. The Hypertopia suggests
will all be able to use the deck according to their own needs. a different course to that witnessed in many regeneration
This diverse, unplanned use is a slumbering impulse for a strategies. The physical environment is less important in this
changing, multi-coloured, undefined significance. theory. Rather, the experience of one’s fellow man and one’s
The three-dimensional shape of the deck will naturally produce undetermined, autobiographical experience is leading. As a
a wide range of relations between the lifestyle niches. The ‘in result, the ambiance or the experience is not predetermined
between space’ is diverse and a choice can be made as to but merely initiated. It comes to its full expression with the
how to relate to the other niches. At the edges, the encounter participation of the visitors, who shape their own experience
can be close without losing the spatial barrier. The groups will and give significance to the place. By this participation,
be able to get quite near to each other, with the difference in the ambiance becomes dynamic, spontaneous and above all,
height preventing an actual physical encounter. A very intense specific. After all, different people at different places will
but safe interaction is thus created. At the top of the deck, the participate differently.
visual relationship with the greater context is important. From The Hypertopia is not an ‘invention’. It does not reject existing
a seated position on the deck, there will be a clear view all means, but simply uses combines and slightly redefines them.
the way to the Forum. The square in front and the restaurant on The change is not major, but is simply a matter of redefining
the first floor can both be seen. In the middle, the deck folds the synthesis of our ‘tools’… we can remain urban designers,
down to the market. People can sit on the stairs and position we just have to be creative with that what we already know.
Notes
1 H. Mommaas, De vrijetijdsindustrie in stad en land (2000),
SDU Publishers, Den Haag.
2 Binnenstadsvisie Hart in de Stad (2002), Gemeente Groningen.
3 M. Hajer, A. Reijndorp, Op zoek naar nieuw publiek domein (2001),
NAI Publishers, Rotterdam.
4 J. Gadet, Publieke ruimte, parochiale plekken (1999), PhD thesis.
5 J. Van ’t Spijker, Snooze, immersing architecture in mass culture (2003),
6 http://www.historicalnorwich.co.uk/chapelfield.html
7 P.H. Pellenbarg, P. Kooij, Regional Capitals; Past, present and prospects (1994),
Van Gorcum, Assena.
A Experience economy
The Experience Economy, according to B. Joseph Pine II and James H. Gilmore
in their 1999 book of the same name, is an advanced service economy which
has began to sell ‘mass customization’ services that are similar to theatre,
using underlying goods and services as props.
B Urban renaissance
‘…urban renaissance is the process of improving the quality of life in towns
and cities and ensuring they are places that people choose to live, work
and play…’ (Government’s Urban White Paper (2000), UK).
Photography
p.143 (upper and bottom left)
J. Gehl, L. Gemzoe, Public Spaces Public Life (1996),
The Danish Architectural Press & The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts,
School of Architecture Publishers.
p.143 (upper right)
M. Hajer, A. Reijndorp, Op zoek naar nieuw publiek domein (2001),
p.144 (left and right)
Basketbalbar, NL architects.
150
Spatial
Metro map
Norwich
Walking Metro,
a network for
discovering the
city on foot.
Interreg is a generous programme that provides European underground railway systems and to support
partners with additional funding for the kind of projects they
such a model with a broad range of media,
aspire to undertake in order to strengthen the social and
economic cohesion of their city or region. From the perspective
human and small-scale physical infrastructural
of the programme, it is essential to assure that expenditure and systems…
investments are sound and comply with the goals set by the
European Union with a view to realising its regional policies. The idea was to learn from the London ‘tube map’. This is
The Interreg programme therefore requires that partnerships recognized worlwide for its clarity and has been and still is
are clear about the activities to be undertaken in connection frequently reproduced. The Spatial Metro project set out with
with a specific project and the products to be thereby delivered. a similar goal. It aimed to produce a diagram that could aid
One of the products to be delivered by the Spatial Metro walking through a complex system of public spaces in the
partnership is a specific kind of plan or map. The original same way that the London tube map aids orientation through
proposal for the Spatial Metro project promised to: a complex system of metro routes. Given the context of the
project, this is a sound goal. It also explains the title of the
… provide a structured transnational response to endeavour; a metro map for public spaces or in short: spatial
metro. As a good lead partner, Norwich has already produced
the challenge of making Northwestern European
such a map. However, there is an interesting twist. In March
cities and their component elements intelligible, 2006 the Central London Partnership delivered a land-mark
legible and navigable for visitors and local residents study on wayfinding titled Legible London. The study was
conducted by AIG. The report explains among other things the
by adopting a conceptual model for pedestrian
problems faced by London in attempting to persuade people
movement based on a diagrammatic plan used to to do more walking. One of these problems is posed by the
orientate users around metros, U-bahn or use of a London tube map. The most commonly used tool by
151 Street-level desires \\\/// Presentation of the cases Spatial Metro map
pedestrians in London to find their way around is the tube map. information specialists in the field of visualisation, it is a well
Over 40% of pedestrians rely on this diagram. The problem with know fact that people can only distinguish between a limited
the tube map is that it distorts actual distances between places. number of colours. With this in mind we reduced the complexity of
Especially in the city centre, tube stations seem to be relatively the original Norwich street pattern to 13 coherent lines or paths.
far apart while in reality, they may be extremely nearby. As
stations look far apart, people tend to take the tube when Remarkably, most of these paths mainly follow a north-south
walking would be a more efficient way of getting to the desired or east-west direction with some intersecting curved paths.
destination. For their wayfinding, pedestrians rely on actual Although the historic street pattern was not precisely planned,
distances, and on whether a street is curved or straight for there seems to be more regularity than one would guess from
instance. When they see two elements on a map or diagram that a first visit. As a result we were able to produce a clear map.
are far apart, they assume that there is in actual fact a great However the map has its own limitations. If a pedestrian wants
distance between them. If elements are straight, they expect to use such a system of spatial metro lines, the intersections
them to be straight in real life too. Diagrams are abstracted for between the lines are essential. It is at the intersections that
the sake of clarity, but at the same time, this abstraction causes the pedestrian needs to make a decision, for example, as to
something essential to be lost. This explains why pedestrians whether to continue along the same path or to turn left or right,
sometimes make the wrong decisions. following a different path (symbolised by a different colour).
Most of these intersections lack a proper name or other
TU Delft attempted to develop a spatial metro map based on identifier. There is no good way of identifying these essential
actual topography. We firstly carefully examined complex ‘transfer stations’ in this spatial metro. At the same time,
metro maps such as those of London, New York, Tokyo and many of the commonly used points of reference (buildings
Moscow. We observed that 10 to 13 different colours is about such as the city hall, the cathedral or the castle) are often
the maximum that a diagram can handle. If such a system is located between streets and intersections. The role they plan
more complex, other techniques than colours are used. Among in such a ‘metro scheme’ is consequently less important. This
152
Spatial Metro
map based on
a maximum of
13 paths.
is in contradiction to they way that pedestrians walk through

a city. For pedestrians, the final destination is more important
than where to turn right or left.
The main problem with applying a metro-map approach to

pedestrians is that there is nothing comparable to an
interchange station when you are on foot. Pedestrians do not
need to switch vehicles, but continue along their unique path.
Considering this, one may ask whether identifying specific
continuous paths crossing the city makes sense. No one would
actually take such a path on foot from start to finish. The
concept used in GPS systems could be of some assistance here.
GPS handhelds define lines or paths by means of ‘way points’.
60 to 70 of such way points are used to describe a city’s main
paths. Based on these points, any individual path is possible.
With navigation systems rapidly becoming accessible to mobile
phones, such an approach is a real option in the near future.
However, we still need to ask ourselves in all honesty whether
pedestrians really need the same kind of accurate descriptions
as motorists, for example, especially when they are merely
visiting a city for leisure purposes. One part of such a visit
might be aimed at a specific goal or reason, but another part
will be about discovering things that were not expected. How
can these two needs be balanced?
154
In our GPS research, we noticed that each entry point in the Photography
city is linked to a specific realm it serves. People starting out p.151 Individual path
Norwich City Council. based on waypoints.
at the Chapelfield Mall cover a different part of the city centre
p.152 and p.154
than people starting at St. Andrews. People need to know what Frank van der Hoeven.
p.155
they can find within the reach of such an entry point. Depicting
Ekim Tan.
areas or districts in the city which can each provide something
(thematically) specific, visually identifying those areas (such as
the Lanes in Norwich) and providing information on how to get
to other areas of interest on foot could provide the strategy we
need. Such a strategy would converge with the functioning of
our mental maps. This approach would make it possible for
visitors to wander around and discover a city without providing
detailed information that would spoil any potential surprises.
At the same time however, it could guarantee that areas are
also visited that are not generally easily found. In this way, cities
could become more successful in presenting what they have
to offer their visitors.
Districts linked
by paths (in this
case Rotterdam).
Part 5
Reflection
How can we summarise what has
been carried out up to the
present? In the light of current
knowledge, what would we do
differently if given the chance?
158
A learning
exper ience
Frank van der Hoeven The Spatial Metro Interreg IIIB project
allowed its partners take part in a valuable
transnational exchange of experiences,
y
ideas and practices. It also allowed them
to invest in the quality and the legibility of
their public spaces, essential ingredients
in strengthening the vitality of the historic
centres of the cities involved. With the
knowledge, partners were able to sharpen
t their tools, instruments and skills to
d
address ‘real world’ issues, with regard
d to orientation, navigation, visualisation
al
and information. What did we learn?
e
g What would we do if we had to do things
all over again?
In a perfect world, we would first make a

thorough diagnosis of the way in which a
network of public space works or fails to
work using technology that can track the
159 Street-level desires \\\/// Presentation of the cases A learning experience
movements of pedestrians and using partnership be clear about its activities or

interviews with people. Based on the investments. A proposal can’t just describe
assessment thus obtained, we would a well-defined first step and then tell: we will
determine where to invest and what to see what comes next. It can’t say it will
invest in. Is identity an issue? Is legibility a make an thorough analysis and base its
problem? Is light an issue? Is there a lack investments on that with out becoming
of information? Is it necessary to improve specific on what it will spend the money
urban design? In this same perfect world, on. Such a proposal will obviously be less
we would thereafter make a second successful than more clearly-defined
diagnosis similar to the first. We would then proposals.
assess if and in how far the investments
made had been effective. We should nevertheless be aware that most
of the necessary ingredients for a ‘perfect
We feel that the current structure of the project’ were explored and further developed
Interreg programmes makes such an overall in this project. Building on the experience
approach difficult or even impossible. The thus obtained, a follow-up project would
general timeframe reserved for a project’s be well-advised to aim for a tight-knit
implementation is limited to approximately integration of all the elements involved.
three years, which is a relatively short
period. The programme requires that a
Publisher
Booksurge Publishing.
Editors
Frank D. van der Hoeven, Michiel G.J. Smit and Stefan C. van der Spek.
Authors
Thierry Burkhard, David Drinkwater, Ulrich Furbach, Sam Gullam,
Frank van der Hoeven, Reinhard Kallenbach, Micheal Loveday, Pascal Mages,
Bob Mantel, Markus Maron, Kevin Read, Pascal Regli, Jonas Schmid,
Stefan van der Spek, Ekim Tan and Christian Thomas.
English editing
Sharon Fenn and Derek Middleton.
Design
Studio Bau Winkel (Jacques Le Bailly), The Hague, The Netherlands.
The content of this publication reflects the views of the authors. The Managing
Authority is not liable for any use that may be made of the information contained
therein.
Delft University of Technology, Department of Urbanism, © 2008.

ISBN 978-90-9023167-9
Project part-financed by the European Union.

Pedestrian mobility and the regeneration About the authors
Frank van der Hoeven works as an associate professor the
Cities can be chaotic and confusing places at the best of Delft University of Technology, Department of Urbanism.
times – even for local people!
Michael Loveday is chief executive of the Norwich Heritage
Spatial Metro, a project largely funded by the EU, aims to Economic & Regeneration Trust (HEART).
make city visits more enjoyable for pedestrians by making
cities easier to navigate, easier to walk around and easier Stefan van der Spek works as an assistant professor for
to understand and appreciate. the Delft University of Technology, Department of Urbanism.
This is achieved in various ways, including illuminating Reinhard Kallenbach is a journalist and historian from
characteristic buildings, providing ‘metro style’ maps as well Koblenz.
as appropriate information and signposting for pedestrians
and the application of GPS technology. Sam Gullam is principal of Lacock Gullam and lead
consultant to the Bristol City Council for the design
Together with municipalities and universities, five cities of signage for the Spatial Metro Project.
(Norwich, Bristol, Rouen, Koblenz and Biel/Bienne) in North
West Europe have carried out pilot studies and exchanged Thierry Burkhard, Jonas Schmid and Pascal Mages work
experiences. In this publication, their findings are shared for the municipality of Biel/Bienne, Department of Urban
with the reader. Planning.
Ulrich Furbach, Markus Maron and Kevin Read work for

the University of Koblenz Landau, Department of
Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence Research Group.
David Drinkwater works as a research associate for

the University of East Anglia (UEA), School of Computing
Science.
Christian Thomas and Pascal Regli work for the Swiss

Pedestrian Association.
Ekim Tan works as a PhD student for the Delft University

of Technology, Department of Urbanism.
Bob Mantel graduated at Delft University of Technology,

Department of Urbanism. The Norwich questionnaires
were part of his graduation.
9 789090 231679

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Pedestrian mobility and the regeneration

of the European city centre

Stre et-level de s ire s

F.D. van der Hoeven

S.C. van der Spek

Stre et-level des ires

Delft University of Technology, Department of Urbanism, © 2008.

The Spatial Metro partners

From this perspective, it is a sound approach to optimise conditions allowing people to

Frank van der Hoeven

The Norwich approach 12

Lighting as a way to guide people through city centres 20

Driven by the federal garden show 28

Welcoming its visitors 36

Information and signposting for pedestrians 46

Part 2 Investments and context 52

Information systems for Spatial Metro 74

The process and the problems 80

Tracking pedestrians in historic city centres using GPS 86

Part 4 Considerations 112

Analogue and digital information for pedestrians 122

Vermeers wanted 130

What the pedestrian wants 136

En·core enjoy 142

Spatial Metro map 150

Part 5 Reflection 156

A learning experience 158

Major out-of-town shopping centres

competitiveness of a city or region.

At first glance, the city seems relatively modest is size. The

with a wider population (including suburbs) of about 250,000. Historic context

Pedestr ial areas.

The Royal Mall.

The Forum and the St Peter

The Castle Mall.

Out-of-town shopping Transportation

Chapelfield Success Criteria

Enchanting light projections

Every night in the holiday season – for the

the Archive Tower, which functions as a beacon on the other

The Archive Tower illuminated: leds enable it to change

Epilogue: outside Rouen

There is an acute need for action in

To strengthen Koblenz in its competition

Chistmas market in Koblenz.

the opportunity of strengthening the city centre with the help

information technology. The electronic orientation and

to the sceptical Koblenz business people. The main topic of

Studies proving that it is possible to

Plans for the

project is a great central idea which will strengthen Koblenz Photography

also opened up new dimensions in cooperation. The city

Bristol City Council has been developing

South West map at

destinations and activities and supporting itinerary planning

Brunel Mile Super

—— Provide appropriate information relative to the location

Spatial Metro Influence on Bristol

Highlighting pedestrian routes,