chapter 11

Investment appraisal techniques

Contents
Introduction Examination context Topic List 1 2 3 4 5 Making investment appraisal decisions The payback method The accounting rate of return method The net present value method The internal rate of return method

Summary and Self-test Answers to Self-test Answers to Interactive questions

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Introduction

Learning objectives
Calculate the net present value, internal rate of return, payback period or accounting rate of return for a given project Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the investment appraisal techniques specified above The specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 4c, d.

Tick off

Practical significance
Capital expenditure differs from day-to-day revenue expenditure for two reasons. Capital expenditure often involves a larger outlay of cash The benefits from capital expenditure are likely to accrue over a long period of time, usually well over a year and often over very long time periods. In such circumstances the benefits cannot all be set against costs in the current year's income statement For these reasons any proposed capital expenditure should be properly appraised, and found to be worthwhile, before the decision is taken to go ahead with the expenditure. Formal procedures should therefore be in place for the appraisal and monitoring of investment projects before they are undertaken, while they are in progress, and after they have been completed. In this syllabus you will focus on the appraisal process that takes place before investment projects are undertaken. You will be learning about the key measures that are used in practice to assess the acceptability of a proposed capital project.

Stop and think

The most important investment appraisal techniques are concerned not only with what cash flows will arise in the future as a result of the project, but also with the timing of those cash flows. For what reasons might earlier, perhaps smaller, forecast cash inflows be preferred than later, perhaps larger, cash inflows?

Working context
You might become involved in the investment appraisal process, for example in the context of the purchase of new office equipment or the development of software for internal use. An understanding of the significance of the timing of forecast cash flows will be important if you are asked to contribute information for the investment appraisal process.

Syllabus links
You will be using the techniques you learn in this chapter when you study the Financial Management syllabus. In that syllabus you will explore further the investment decision-making process and associated issues.

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Examination context

Exam requirements
Since most of this part of your syllabus is concerned with calculation techniques you can expect to encounter predominately numerical questions about these topics. In the examination, candidates may be required to: Calculate the net present value, internal rate of return, payback period or accounting rate of return from data supplied Interpret information about the net present value, internal rate of return, payback or accounting rate of return for a project or projects Demonstrate an understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of the investment appraisal techniques specified above Manipulate simple data involving annuities, perpetuities and non-conventional cash flows Demonstrate an understanding of the derivation and meaning of the net terminal value of a project While most of the questions in this area of the syllabus will be numerical (where such issues as the timing of cash flows will be critical) it is vital to understand what each of the techniques involves (and their weaknesses) in order to be able to tackle narrative questions.

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1 Making investment appraisal decisions

Section overview
A typical model for investment decision making has a number of distinct stages. These stages are typically: the origination of proposals, project screening, analysis and acceptance, and monitoring and review.

1.1

The investment decision-making process

You will study the investment decision-making process in more detail in your Financial Management syllabus so we will review the process in outline only here, to set the financial investment appraisal techniques in context. A typical model for investment decision making has a number of distinct stages. Origination of proposals. It has been suggested that good ideas for investment are likely to occur in environments in which staff feel free to present and develop ideas. Some alternatives will be rejected early on. Others will be more thoroughly evaluated. Project screening. Before a detailed financial analysis is undertaken a qualitative evaluation of the project will be made. For example, questions will be asked such as whether the project 'fits' with the organisation's long-term objectives and whether all possible alternatives have been considered. Only if the project passes this initial screening will more detailed financial analysis begin. Analysis and acceptance. This will include a financial analysis, using the organisation's preferred investment appraisal techniques. You will be studying the most common techniques in the remainder of this chapter. Qualitative issues will also be considered before a decision is made whether to proceed and the project is implemented. Monitoring and review. During the project's progress it will be necessary to ensure that capital spending does not exceed the amount authorised, that the implementation of the project is not delayed and that the anticipated benefits are eventually obtained.

2 The payback method

Section overview
The payback period is the time it takes for a project's net cash inflows to equal the initial cash investment. The payback period is often used as an initial screening process. If a project's payback period is shorter than a defined maximum period then the project should be evaluated further using a more sophisticated project appraisal technique. A major disadvantage is that the timing of cash flows within the payback period are ignored and therefore no account is taken of the time value of money.

2.1

The payback period

Definition
Payback is defined by CIMA as 'The time required for the cash inflows from a capital investment project to equal the initial cash outflow(s)'.

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Payback is often used as a 'first screening method'. By this, we mean that when a capital investment project is being subjected to financial appraisal, the first question to ask is: 'How long will it take to pay back its cost?' The organisation might have a target payback, and so it would reject a capital project unless its payback period were less than that target payback period. However, a project should not be evaluated on the basis of payback alone. Payback should be a first screening process, and if a project gets through the payback test, it ought then to be evaluated with a more sophisticated project appraisal technique, such as those presented later in this chapter. You should note that when payback is calculated, we use profits before depreciation in the calculation, because we are trying to estimate the cash returns from a project and profit before depreciation is likely to be a rough approximation of cash flows.

2.2

Why is payback alone an inadequate project appraisal technique?

Look at the figures below for two mutually exclusive projects (this means that only one of them can be undertaken). Project P 60,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 Project Q 60,000 50,000 20,000 5,000 5,000 5,000

Capital cost of asset Profits before depreciation Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5

Project P pays back in year 3 (one quarter of the way through year 3). Project Q pays back half way through year 2. Using payback alone to judge projects, project Q would be preferred. But the returns from project P total 200,000 over its life and are much higher than the returns from project Q which totals just 85,000.

Worked example: Payback period

An asset costing 120,000 is to be depreciated over ten years to a nil residual value. Profits after depreciation for the first five years are as follows. Year 1 2 3 4 5 Requirement Calculate the payback period to the nearest month. 12,000 17,000 28,000 37,000 8,000

Solution
Cash flows, ie profits before depreciation should be used. Year 1 2 3 4 5 Profit after depreciation '000 12 17 28 37 8 Depreciation '000 12 12 12 12 12 Cash flow '000 24 29 40 49 20 Cumulative cash flow '000 24 53 93 142 162

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Management information Payback period

(120 93) = 3 years + 12 months 49 = 3 years 7 months

2.3

Disadvantages of the payback method

There are a number of serious drawbacks to the payback method. It ignores the timing of cash flows within the payback period. It also ignores the cash flows after the end of the payback period and therefore the total project return. It ignores the time value of money (a concept incorporated into more sophisticated appraisal methods). This means that it does not take account of the fact that 1 today is worth more than 1 in one year's time. This is because an investor who has 1 today can either consume it immediately or alternatively can invest it at the prevailing interest rate, say 10%, to get a return of 1.10 in a year's time. There are also other disadvantages. The method is unable to distinguish between projects with the same payback period. The choice of any cut-off payback period by an organisation is arbitrary. It may lead to excessive investment in short-term projects. It takes account of the risk of the timing of cash flows but does not take account of the variability of those cash flows.

2.4

Advantages of the payback method

The use of the payback method does have advantages, especially as an initial screening device. A long payback means capital is tied up Focus on early payback can enhance liquidity Investment risk is increased if payback is longer Shorter-term forecasts are likely to be more reliable The calculation is quick and simple Payback is an easily understood concept

3 The accounting rate of return method

Section overview
The Accounting Rate of Return (ARR) expresses the average accounting profit as a percentage of the capital outlay. The capital outlay (the denominator in the ARR calculation) may be expressed as the initial investment or as the average investment in the project. The decision rule is that projects with an ARR above a defined minimum are acceptable; the greater the ARR, the more desirable the project. The main advantage of the ARR is that it is simple to calculate and understand. However it does have a number of major disadvantages. The main disadvantage of the ARR is that it does not take account of the timing of the profits from a project.

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3.1

Calculating the accounting rate of return

The accounting rate of return (ARR) method of appraising a project involves estimating the accounting rate of return that a project should yield. If it exceeds a target rate of return then the project is acceptable. There are two different ways of calculating the ARR. ARR = ARR = Average annual accounting profit 100% Initial investment

Average annual accounting profit 100% Average investment

The average investment is calculated as 1 (initial investment + final or scrap value). 2

An examination question will always make it clear whether you are to calculate the ARR based on the average investment or based on the initial investment. Note that this is the only appraisal method that we will be studying that uses accounting profits instead of cash flow.

Worked example: The accounting rate of return

A project involves the immediate purchase of plant at a cost of 110,000. It would generate annual profits before depreciation of 24,000 for five years. Scrap value will be 10,000 at the end of the fifth year.
Requirement

Calculate the ARR using the initial and average investment.

Solution
(a)
Using initial investment

Average profit =

Profits before depreciation depreciation 5 = 4,000 p.a.

(24,000 5) (110,000 10,000) 5

ARR

4,000 100% 110,000

= 3.6%

(b) Using average investment 4,000 100% (110,000 +10,000)/2 = 6.7%

3.2

The ARR and the comparison of mutually exclusive projects

The ARR method of capital investment appraisal can also be used to compare two or more projects which are mutually exclusive. The project with the highest ARR would be selected (provided that the expected ARR is higher than the company's target ARR).

Interactive question 1: The ARR and mutually exclusive projects

[Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Arrow wants to buy a new item of equipment. Two models of equipment are available, one with a slightly higher capacity and greater reliability than the other. The expected costs and profits of each item are as follows.

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Equipment item X 100,000 5 years 50,000 50,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 20,000 Equipment item Y 175,000 5 years 50,000 50,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 25,000

Capital cost Life Profits before depreciation Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Disposal value for equipment ARR is measured as the average annual profits divided by the average investment.

Fill in the boxes below to determine which equipment item should be purchased, if the company's target ARR is 25%.
Item X Item Y

Total profit over life of equipment: before depreciation after depreciation Average annual accounting profit Average investment ARR, based on average investment The equipment that should be purchased is item See Answer at the end of this chapter. .

3.3

The advantages and disadvantages of the ARR method of project appraisal

The ARR method has the serious disadvantage that it does not take account of the timing of the profits from a project. Whenever capital is invested in a project, money is tied up until the project begins to earn profits which pay back the investment. Money tied up in one project cannot be invested anywhere else until the profits come in. Management should be aware of the benefits of early repayments from an investment, which will provide the money for other investments. There are a number of other disadvantages. It is based on accounting profits rather than cash flows, which are subject to a number of different accounting policies It is a relative measure rather than an absolute measure and hence takes no account of the size of the investment
It takes no account of the length of the project

Like the payback method, it ignores the time value of money There are, however, advantages to the ARR method. It is quick and simple to calculate It involves a familiar concept of a percentage return Accounting profits can be easily calculated from financial statements It looks at the entire project life

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Managers and investors are accustomed to thinking in terms of profit, and so an appraisal method which employs profit may be more easily understood It allows more than one project to be compared

4 The net present value method

Section overview
The terminal value of an investment is its value at some point in the future, including an allowance for interest. Discounting converts a sum of money receivable or payable in the future to its present value, which is the cash equivalent now of the future value. Discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques discount all the forecast cash flows of an investment proposal to determine their present value. The net present value (NPV) of a project is the difference between its projected discounted cash inflows and discounted cash outflows. The decision rule is to accept a project with a positive NPV. An annuity is a constant cash flow for a number of years. The net terminal value (NTV) is the cash surplus remaining at the end of a project after taking account of interest and capital payments. One of the principal advantages of the DCF appraisal method is that it takes account of the time value of money. The payback method can be combined with DCF to calculate a discounted payback period. A perpetuity is a constant cash flow forever. The present value of a perpetuity is constant annual amount and r is the discount rate.

a , where a is the r

4.1

Compounding: calculating the terminal value

Suppose that a company has 10,000 to invest, and wants to earn a return of 10% (compound interest*) on its investments. This means that if the 10,000 could be invested at 10%, the value of the investment with interest would build up as follows. (a) After 1 year (b) After 2 years (c) After 3 years and so on. * This means that interest is earned each year on the previous years' interest. This is compounding. The formula for the future value or terminal value of an investment plus n accumulated interest after n time periods is V = X(1 + r) where V is the future value or terminal value of the investment with interest X is the initial or 'present' value of the investment r is the compound rate of return per time period, expressed as a decimal (so 10% = 0.10, 5% = 0.05 and so on) n is the number of time periods. Usually r is an annual rate of return and n is the number of years. 10,000 (1.10) 2 10,000 (1.10) 3 10,000 (1.10) = 11,000 = 12,100 = 13,310

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Worked example: Terminal value

What is the terminal value of 200 invested today at an interest rate of 7% per annum in ten years' time?

Solution
Terminal value = 200 (1.07)10 = 393

Terminal values can cause difficulties when trying to compare or choose between projects because: the projects may not end on the same future date (or may not end at all) decision makers are more likely to be interested in the effect of the project on shareholder wealth now, rather than in the future. It is therefore more common to look at present values. The present value of a future sum shows what that future sum is worth today. This is in effect the reverse of compounding.

4.2

Discounting
Discounting starts with the future value (a sum of money receivable or payable at a future date), and converts the future value to a present value, which is the cash equivalent now of the future value.

For example, if a company expects to earn a (compound) rate of return of 10% on its investments, how much would it need to invest now to have the following investments? (a) 11,000 after 1 year (b) 12,100 after 2 years (c) 13,310 after 3 years The answer is 10,000 in each case, and we can calculate it by discounting. The discounting formula to calculate the present value (X) of a future sum of money (V) at the end of n time periods is X = V/(1+r)n (a) After 1 year, 11,000/1.10 = 10,000 (b) After 2 years, 12,100/1.102 = 10,000 (c) After 3 years, 13,310/1.103 = 10,000 The timing of cash flows is taken into account by discounting them. The effect of discounting is to give a bigger value per 1 for cash flows that occur earlier: 1 earned after one year will be worth more than 1 earned after two years, which in turn will be worth more than 1 earned after five years, and so on. The discount rate (r) used when calculating the present value is the relevant interest rate (or cost of capital) to the entity in question. In the exam this will always be made clear.

4.2.1

Discount factors
In the calculations above we were converting each cash flow into its present value by effectively multiplying by a discount factor. This discount factor is calculated as 1/(1 + r)n. The calculations could be presented as follows.
Multiply by 10% discount factor Present value

After 1 year 11,000 After 2 years 12,100 After 3 years 13,310

1/1.10 1/(1.10)2 1/(1.10)3

10,000 10,000 10,000

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Interactive question 2: Present value calculation

[Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Spender expects the cash inflow from an investment to be 40,000 after two years and another 30,000 after three years. Its target rate of return is 12%. Use the table below to calculate the present value of these future returns.
Year 2 Cash flow Multiplied by 12% discount factor Present value

3 Total present value

See Answer at the end of this chapter.

4.3

Net present value (NPV)

Discounted cash flow (DCF) techniques are used in calculating the net present value of a series of cash flows. This measures the change in shareholder wealth now as a result of accepting a project. NPV = present value of cash inflows less present value of cash outflows If the NPV is positive, it means that the cash inflows from a project will yield a return in excess of the cost of capital, and so the project should be undertaken if the cost of capital is the organisation's target rate of return. If the NPV is negative, it means that the cash inflows from a project will yield a return below the cost of capital, and so the project should not be undertaken if the cost of capital is the organisation's target rate of return. If the NPV is exactly zero, the cash inflows from a project will yield a return which is exactly the same as the cost of capital, and so if the cost of capital is the organisation's target rate of return, the project will have a neutral impact on shareholder wealth and therefore would not be worth undertaking because of the inherent risks in any project.

Worked example: NPV

Slogger has a cost of capital of 15% and is considering a capital investment project, where the estimated cash flows are as follows.
Year Cash flow (100,000) 60,000 80,000 40,000 30,000

0 (ie now) 1 2 3 4
Requirement

Calculate the NPV of the project, and assess whether it should be undertaken.

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Solution
Year

0 1 2 3 4
Point to note

Cash flow (100,000) 60,000 80,000 40,000 30,000

Discount factor 15% 1.000 1/1.15 = 0.870 1/1.152 = 0.756 1/1.153 = 0.658 1/1.154 = 0.572 NPV =

Present value (100,000) 52,200 60,480 26,320 17,160 56,160

The discount factor for any cash flow 'now' (time 0) is always 1, whatever the cost of capital.

The present value (PV) of cash inflows exceeds the PV of cash outflows by 56,160, which means that the project will earn a discounted cash flow (DCF) yield in excess of 15%. It should therefore be undertaken.

4.4

Timing of cash flows: conventions used in DCF

Discounting reduces the value of future cash flows to a present value equivalent and so is clearly concerned with the timing of the cash flows. As a general rule, the following guidelines may be applied. A cash outlay to be incurred at the beginning of an investment project ('now') occurs in time 0. The present value of 1 now, in time 0, is 1 regardless of the value of the discount rate r. A cash flow which occurs during the course of a time period is assumed to occur all at once at the end of the time period (at the end of the year). Receipts of 10,000 during time period 1 are therefore taken to occur at the end of time period 1. A cash flow which occurs at the beginning of a time period is taken to occur at the end of the previous time period. Therefore a cash outlay of 5,000 at the beginning of time period 2 is taken to occur at the end of time period 1.

4.5

Cash flows, not accounting profits

It is important to remember that DCF techniques are based on the cash flows of a project, not the accounting profits. Like the payback technique of investment appraisal, DCF is concerned with liquidity, not profitability. Cash flows are considered because they show the costs and benefits of a project when they actually occur. For example, the capital cost of a project will be the original cash outlay, and not the notional cost of depreciation which is used to spread the capital cost over the asset's life in the financial accounts.

4.6

Discount tables for the PV of 1

Instead of having to calculate the discount factor every time we can use tables. Discount tables for the present value of 1, for a range of integer values of r and n, are shown in the third column of the discount table in the Appendix at the back of this Study Manual. These tables will be provided in the exam.

4.7

Annuities
An annuity is a series of constant cash flows for a number of years. For example, a college might enter into a contract to provide training courses for a firm for a fixed annual fee of 30,000 payable at the end of each of the next three years. This would be a three year annuity.

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Worked example: Calculating the present value of an annuity

In the example of the college training course, the present value of the fees, assuming a 20% cost of capital, could be calculated as follows. Present value Year Cash flow Present value factor of cash values 20% 1 30,000 0.833 24,990 2 30,000 0.694 20,820 17,370 3 30,000 0.579 63,180 2.106 Where there is a constant cash flow from year to year (in this case 30,000 per annum for years 13) it is quicker to calculate the present value by adding together the discount factors for the individual years. These total factors could be described as 'same cash flow per annum' factors, 'cumulative present value' factors or 'annuity' factors. They are shown in the final column of the discount tables in the Appendix at the back of this Study Manual (2.106, for example, is in the final column for 20% per annum and the row for year 3). The calculation could then be performed in one step: 30,000 2.106 = 63,180

4.8

Net terminal value

Net terminal value (NTV) is the cash surplus remaining at the end of a project after taking account of interest and capital repayments.

The NTV discounted at the cost of capital will give the NPV of the project.

Worked example: The net terminal value

A project has the following cash flows. Year 0 1 2 3
Requirement

(5,000) 3,000 2,600 6,200

The project has an NPV of 4,531 at the company's cost of capital of 10% (workings not shown). Calculate the net terminal value of the project.

Solution
The net terminal value can be determined directly from the NPV, or by calculating the cash surplus at the end of the project. Assume that the 5,000 for the project is borrowed at an annual interest rate of 10% and that cash flows from the project are used to repay the loan. Loan balance outstanding at beginning of project 5,000 Interest in year 1 at 10% 500 Repaid at end of year 1 (3,000) Balance outstanding at end of year 1 2,500 Interest year 2 250 Repaid year 2 (2,600) Balance outstanding year 2 150 Interest year 3 15 Repaid year 3 (6,200) Cash surplus at end of project 6,035

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Management information The net terminal value is 6,035. Check NPV = 6,035 0.751 (10% discount factor for year 3) = 4,532

Allowing for the rounding errors caused by three-figure discount tables, this is the correct figure for the NPV.

4.9

Advantages of NPV
The advantages of NPV are as follows. It is directly linked to the assumed objective of maximising shareholder wealth as it measures, in absolute () terms, the effect of taking on the project now, ie year 0 It considers the time value of money, ie the further away the cash flow the less it is worth in present terms It considers all relevant cash flows, so that it is unaffected by the accounting policies which cloud profit-based investment appraisal techniques such as ARR Risk can be incorporated into decision making by adjusting the companys discount rate It provides clear, unambiguous decisions, ie if the NPV is positive, accept; if it is negative, reject.

Interactive question 3: Non-standard discount factors

[Difficulty level: Intermediate]

A project has the following forecast cash flows. Year 0 1 2 3 4 (280,000) 149,000 128,000 84,000 70,000

Using two decimal places in all discount factors, complete the following table to calculate the net present value of the project at a cost of capital of 16.5%.
Year Cash flow 16.5% discount factor Present value

0 1 2 3 4 Net present value See Answer at the end of this chapter.

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4.10

The time value of money

DCF is a project appraisal technique that is based on the concept of the time value of money, that 1 earned or spent sooner is worth more than 1 earned or spent later. Various reasons could be suggested as to why a present 1 is worth more than a future 1.
Uncertainty. The business world is full of risk and uncertainty, and although there might be the promise of money to come in the future, it can never be certain that the money will be received until it has actually been paid. This is an important argument, and risk and uncertainty must always be considered in investment appraisal. But this argument does not explain why the discounted cash flow technique should be used to reflect the time value of money. Inflation. Because of inflation it is common sense that 1 now is worth more than 1 in the future. It is important, however, that the problem of inflation should not confuse the meaning of DCF, and the following points should be noted.

If there were no inflation at all, discounted cash flow techniques would still be used for investment appraisal. Inflation, for the moment, has been completely ignored. It is obviously necessary to allow for inflation.

An individual attaches more weight to current pleasures than to future ones, and would rather have 1 to spend now than 1 in a year's time. Individuals have the choice of consuming or investing their wealth and so the return from projects must be sufficient to persuade individuals to prefer to invest now. Discounting is a measure of this time preference.

Money is invested now to make profits (more money or wealth) in the future. Discounted cash flow techniques can therefore be used to measure either of two things.
What alternative uses of the money would earn (NPV method) (assuming that money can be invested elsewhere at the cost of capital) What the money is expected to earn (IRR method to be covered in the next section of this chapter)

4.11

Advantages of DCF methods of appraisal

Taking account of the time value of money (by discounting) is one of the principal advantages of the DCF appraisal method. Other advantages include the following. The method uses all cash flows relating to the project It allows for the timing of the cash flows There are universally accepted methods of calculating the NPV and IRR

4.12

A comparison of the ROI and NPV methods

In Chapter 8 we saw that managers are often judged on the return on investment (ROI) of their division or responsibility centre which is very similar in principle to the ARR. Managers will only want to invest in projects that increase divisional ROI but on occasion such a strategy may not correspond with the decision that would be arrived at if NPV were used to appraise the investment. For example, suppose that Division M is considering an investment of 200,000 which will provide a net cash inflow (before depreciation) of 78,000 each year for the four years of its life. It is group policy that investments must show a minimum return of 15%. As the working below shows, using net book value (NBV) at the start of each year and depreciating on a straight line basis to a nil residual value, in year 1 the ROI would be below the target rate of return of 15%. If management were to take a short-term view of the situation, the investment would be rejected if the ROI measure were to be used, despite the fact that the investment's NPV is positive and that in years 2 to 4 the ROI is greater than the target rate of return.

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Years

NBV of investment at start of year Cash flow (before depreciation) Less depreciation Net profit ROI

1 200,000

2 150,000

3 100,000

4 50,000

78,000 (50,000) 28,000 14.00%

78,000 (50,000) 28,000 18.67%

78,000 (50,000) 28,000 28.00%

78,000 (50,000) 28,000 56.00%

Net present value = 200,000 + (78,000 2.855) = 22,690.

4.13

Discounted payback
The payback method can be combined with DCF to calculate a discounted payback period. The discounted payback period (DPP) is the time it will take before a project's cumulative NPV turns from being negative to being positive.

Worked example: Discounted payback

If we have a cost of capital of 10% and a project with the cash flows shown below, we can calculate a discounted payback period.
Year Cash flow (100,000) 30,000 50,000 40,000 30,000 20,000 Discount factor 10% 1.000 0.909 0.826 0.751 0.683 0.621 NPV = Present value (100,000) 27,270 41,300 30,040 20,490 12,420 31,520 Cumulative NPV (100,000) (72,730) (31,430) (1,390) 19,100 31,520

0 1 2 3 4 5 The DPP is early in year 4.

A company can set a target DPP, and choose not to undertake any projects with a DPP in excess of a certain number of years, say five years.

4.13.1

Advantages and disadvantages of discounted payback period

The approach has all the perceived advantages of the payback period method of investment appraisal: it is easy to understand and calculate, and it provides a focus on liquidity where this is relevant. In addition, however, it also takes into account the time value of money. It therefore bridges the gap between the theoretically superior NPV method and the regular payback period method. Because the DPP approach takes the time value of money into consideration, it produces a longer payback period than the non-discounted payback approach, and takes into account more of the project's cash flows. Another advantage it has over traditional payback is that it has a clear accept-or-reject criterion. Using payback, acceptance of a project depends on an arbitrarily determined cut-off time. Using DPP, a project is acceptable if it pays back within its lifetime (because it has a positive NPV). DPP still shares one disadvantage with the payback period method: cash flows which occur after the payback period are ignored (although as the DPP is longer than the payback period, fewer of these are ignored).

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4.14

The discount rate

Throughout our study of DCF techniques we have been using the same discount rate across all years of the project under consideration, on the assumption that the cost of capital will remain the same over the life of the project. There are a range of factors that influence the cost of capital, however, including inflation and interest rates, and these can fluctuate widely over fairly short periods of time. An organisation may therefore wish to use different discount rates at different points over the life of a project to reflect this. This is possible if NPV and discounted payback methods of appraisal are being used, but IRR (see section 5) and ARR methods are based on a single rate. Another problem is deciding on the correct rate in the first place. This is difficult enough in year one of a projects life, but even more problematic five years later, say, because of economic changes and so on.

4.15

Other aspects of discounting

Now that we have learned about the basics of the discounted cash flow technique we can move on to consider some of the complications that might arise.

4.15.1

Delayed annuities
A company may take out a loan, agreeing to repay it in equal annual instalments (ie an annuity) but starting at the end of year 2, so that the first cash flow does not occur until after year 1. As annuity factor tables work on the assumption that the first cash flow occurs at the end of year 1, care will be needed when using the tables. Remember that if an annuity factor from the table is used, the present value of the annuity stream is being found one period before the first annuity flow, so further discounting will be needed to find the present value at year 0.

4.15.2

Annuities in advance
When, for example, a firm leases vans for its business, the lease payments are usually paid in advance, i.e. the first cash flow occurs in year 0. This is a combination of a normal annuity starting at year 1 plus an extra sum now which does not need to be discounted.

Worked example: Annuities in advance and delayed annuities

What is the present value of 1,000 received annually for five years if the first receipt is: (a) In one years time? (b) Now? (c) In three years time? Use a discount rate of 15%.

Solution
(a) Present value = 1,000 annuity factor for five years at 15% = 1,000 3.352 = 3,352 (b) Only the cash flows at the end of years 1 to 4 need discounting. Present value = 1,000 received now + (1,000 annuity factor for four years at 15%) = 1,000 + (1,000 2.855) = 3,855 (c) This can be solved in two possible ways. (i) Present value = 1,000 (annuity factor for seven years annuity factor for two years) = 1,000 (4.160 1.626) = 2,534 This leaves the cash flows for years 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 being discounted.

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Management information (ii) Present value of annuity at end of year two = 1,000 3.352 = 3,352 Now this must be discounted again to bring it back to the present value at year 0 (now). Present value = 3,352 PV factor for year 2 at 15% = 3,352 0.756 = 2,534

4.15.3

Annual cash flows in perpetuity

A perpetuity is an equal annual cash flow forever, ie an annuity that lasts forever. The present value of a perpetuity of a per annum forever is calculated as a , where r is the annual discount r rate. This formula finds the present value of the perpetuity stream one year before the first cash flow.

Worked example: Perpetuities

(a) What is the present value of 3,000 received in one year's time and forever if the annual interest rate is 10%?

(b) What would be the present value if the first receipt is in four years time?

Solution
(a) Present value = 3,000/0.10 = 30,000 (b) Present value one year before the first cash flow = at end of year 3 = 3,000/0.10 = 30,000 Present value at year 0 = 3,000 year 3 10% discount factor = 30,000 0.751 = 22,530

4.15.4

Changing discount rates

If the discount rate changes over time the net present value is calculated as follows
Year 0 Year 1 Year 2

NPV = Where

outflow

inflow/(1+r1)

inflow/(1+r1)(1+r2)

etc

r1 = interest rate for year 1 r2 = interest rate for year 2

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Worked example: Changing discount rates

A project's estimated cash flows are as follows.
Year 0 m (10) Year 1 m 6 Year 2 m 8

Cash flow

Calculate the NPV if the cost of capital is 10% for the first year and 20% for the second year.

Solution
NPV = (10m) + 8m 6m + = 1.52m 1.10 1.10 1.20

5 The internal rate of return method

Section overview
The internal rate of return (IRR) is the DCF rate of return that a project is expected to achieve. It is the discount rate at which the NPV is zero. If the IRR exceeds a target rate of return, the project would be worth undertaking. The IRR can be estimated from a graph of the project's NPV profile. The IRR can be read from the graph at the point on the horizontal axis where the NPV is zero.
P (B A) % . The IRR interpolation formula is IRR = A + P +N

The IRR method has a number of disadvantages compared with the NPV method. It ignores the relative size of the investments There are problems with its use when a project has non-conventional cash flows or when deciding between mutually exclusive projects Discount rates which differ over the life of a project cannot be incorporated into IRR calculations.

5.1

The internal rate of return

Another discounted cash flow (DCF) technique for appraising capital projects involves calculating the internal rate of return (IRR). The IRR is a relative measure (%) in contrast to the absolute () measure resulting from NPV calculations. The IRR is the DCF rate of return (DCF yield) that a project is expected to achieve, in other words the discount rate at which the NPV is zero. If the IRR exceeds a target rate of return, the project would be worth undertaking.

5.2

Graphical approach
The easiest way to estimate the IRR of a project is to find the project's NPV at a number of costs of capital and sketch a graph of NPV against discount rate. The graph can be used to estimate the discount rate at which the NPV is equal to zero (the point where the curve cuts the axis).

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Management information

Worked example: Graphical approach

A project might have the following NPVs at the following discount rates.
Discount rate % 5 10 15 20 NPV 5,300 700 (1,500) (3,200)

This could be sketched on a graph as follows.

NPV 000 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 20 Discount rate %

-2 -3 -4

The IRR can be estimated as 13%. The NPV should then be recalculated using this interest rate. The resulting NPV should be equal to, or very near, zero. If it is not, additional NPVs at different discount rates should be calculated, the graph resketched and a more accurate IRR determined.

5.3

Interpolation method
If we are appraising a 'typical' capital project, with a negative cash flow at the start of the project, and positive net cash flows afterwards up to the end of the project, we could draw a graph of the project's NPV at different costs of capital. It would look like this.

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If we determine a cost of capital where the NPV is (slightly) positive, and another cost of capital where it is (slightly) negative, we can estimate the IRR where the NPV is zero by drawing a straight line between the two points on the graph that we have calculated.

If we establish the NPVs at the two points P, we would estimate the IRR to be at point A. If we establish the NPVs at the two points Q, we would estimate the IRR to be at point B. The closer our NPVs are to zero, the closer our estimate will be to the true IRR. The interpolation method assumes that the NPV rises in linear fashion between the two NPVs close to zero. The real rate of return is therefore assumed to be on a straight line between the two points at which the NPV is calculated. The IRR interpolation formula to apply is:
P (B A) % IRR = A + P + N

where

A is the (lower) rate of return with a positive NPV B is the (higher) rate of return with a negative NPV P is the value of the positive NPV N is the absolute value of the negative NPV

Worked example: The IRR method and interpolation

A company is trying to decide whether to buy a machine for 80,000 which will save costs of 20,000 per annum for five years and which will have a resale value of 10,000 at the end of year 5.
Requirement

If it is the company's policy to undertake projects only if they are expected to yield a DCF return of 10% or more, ascertain using the IRR method whether this project should be undertaken.

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Management information

Solution
The first step is to calculate two net present values, both as close as possible to zero, using rates for the cost of capital which are whole numbers. One NPV should be positive and the other negative.
Choosing rates for the cost of capital which will give an NPV close to zero (that is, rates which are close to the actual rate of return) is a hit-and-miss exercise, and several attempts may be needed to find satisfactory rates. As a rough guide, try starting at a return figure which is about two thirds or three quarters of the ARR. Annual depreciation would be (80,000 10,000)/5 = 14,000.

The ARR would be (20,000 depreciation of 14,000)/( of (80,000 + 10,000)) = 6,000/45,000 = 13.3%.
Two thirds of this is 8.9% and so we can start by trying 9%. The discounted tables do not provide discount factors for an interest rate of 9% therefore we need to calculate our own factors.

Using the formula provided at the top of the final column in the tables PV of an annuity =
1 1 1 r (1+ r) n 1 1 1 0.09 (1.09)5

PV factor for 5 years at 9%

= 3.89 PV factor at 9% for year 5 = 1 (1.09) 5

= 0.65 We can use these factors to discount the cash flows.

Try 9%
Year Cash flow (80,000) 20,000 10,000 PV factor 9% 1.00 3.89 0.65 NPV PV of cash flow (80,000) 77,800 6,500 4,300

0 15 5

This is fairly close to zero. It is also positive, which means that the internal rate of return is more than 9%. We can use 9% as one of our two NPVs close to zero, although for greater accuracy, we should try 10% or even 11% to find an NPV even closer to zero if we can. As a guess, it might be worth trying 12% next, to see what the NPV is. Again we will need to calculate our own discount factors. PV factor for 5 years at 12% = 1 1 1 0.12 (1.12) 5

= 3.605 PV factor at 12% for year 5 = 1 (1.12) 5

= 0.567
Try 12%
Year Cash flow (80,000) 20,000 10,000 PV factor 12% 1.000 3.605 0.567 NPV PV of cash flow (80,000) 72,100 5,670 (2,230)

0 15 5

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This is fairly close to zero and negative. The internal rate of return is therefore greater than 9% (positive NPV of 4,300) but less than 12% (negative NPV of 2,230).
Note. If the first NPV is positive, choose a higher rate for the next calculation to get a negative NPV. If the first NPV is negative, choose a lower rate for the next calculation.

So

4,300 (12 9)% = 10.98%, say 11% IRR = 9 + 4,300 + 2,230

If it is company policy to undertake investments which are expected to yield 10% or more, this project would be undertaken. An alternative approach would be to calculate the NPV at 10%. As it would be positive it would tell us that the IRR is greater than 10% and therefore the project should be accepted.

Interactive question 4: IRR

Time 0 1 2 3 4

[Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Calculate the IRR of the project below and complete the box at the end of the question. Investment Receipts Receipts Receipts Receipts % (4,000) 1,200 1,410 1,875 1,150

The project IRR is

See Answer at the end of this chapter.

5.4
5.4.1

NPV and IRR compared

The IRR method has a number of advantages and disadvantages when compared with the NPV method.

Advantages of IRR method

The main advantage is that the information it provides is more easily understood by managers, especially non-financial managers. 'The project will be expected to have an initial capital outlay of 100,000, and to earn a yield of 25%. This is in excess of the target yield of 15% for investments' is easier to understand than 'The project will cost 100,000 and have an NPV of 30,000 when discounted at the minimum required rate of 15%'. A discount rate does not have to be specified before the IRR can be calculated. A hurdle discount rate is simply required which is then compared with the IRR.

5.4.2

Disadvantages of IRR method

If managers were given information about both ARR and IRR, it might be easy to get their relative meaning and significance mixed up. It ignores the relative size of investments. Both projects below have an IRR of 18%.
Project A 350,000 100,000 Project B 35,000 10,000

Cost, year 0 Annual savings, years 16

Clearly, project A is bigger (ten times as big) and so more 'profitable' but if the only information on which the projects were judged were to be their IRR of 18%, project B would be made to seem just as beneficial as project A, which is not the case.

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Management information
When discount rates are expected to differ over the life of the project, such variations can be incorporated easily into NPV calculations, but not into IRR calculations.

There are problems with using the IRR when the project has non-conventional cash flows (see Section 5.5) or when deciding between mutually exclusive projects (see section 5.6).

5.5

Non-conventional cash flows

The projects we have considered so far have had conventional or normal cash flows (an initial cash outflow followed by a series of inflows) and in such circumstances the NPV and IRR methods give the same accept or reject decision. When flows vary from this they are termed non-conventional. The following project has non-conventional cash flows.
Year Project X '000 (1,900) 4,590 (2,735)

0 1 2 Project X has two IRRs as shown by the diagram which follows. NPV 000 40
30 20 Positive 10 0 5 -10 Negative -20 -30 -40 10 20 30 40 Cost of capital %

Suppose that the required rate of return on project X is 10% but that the IRR of 7% is used to decide whether to accept or reject the project. The project would be rejected since it appears that it can only yield 7%. The diagram shows, however, that between rates of 7% and 35% the project should be accepted. Using the IRR of 35% would produce the correct decision to accept the project. Lack of knowledge of multiple IRRs could therefore lead to serious errors in the decision of whether to accept or reject a project. In general, if the sign of the net cash flow changes in successive periods (inflow to outflow or vice versa), it is possible for the calculations to produce up to as many IRRs as there are sign changes. The use of the IRR is therefore not recommended in circumstances in which there are nonconventional cash flow patterns (unless the decision maker is aware of the existence of multiple IRRs). The NPV method, on the other hand, gives clear, unambiguous results whatever the cash flow pattern. Before moving on to the worked example you might like to check that the IRRs of project X are indeed 7% and 35%. Apply the relevant discount factors to the project cash flows and on both occasions you should arrive at an NPV of approximately zero.

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Worked example: Sketching an NPV graph with non-conventional cash flows

Two projects have estimated cash flows as follows.
Year 0 (4,000) 1,000 Year 1 25,000 (1,600) Year 2 (25,000) 1,200 IRR

Project C Project D

25% & 400%

To clear up the confusion about whether the projects are acceptable when using IRR draw a graph. To find the starting point on the vertical axis find the NPV at 0% (ie add up the cash flows).

NPV +

600 0% 25% 400%

Discount rate

NPV C

4,000

Project C is acceptable for discount rates between 25% and 400%. The graph for project D starts at +600 on the vertical axis (the NPV at 0% = the sum of the cash flows). The graph does not cut the horizontal axis at all because there is no IRR. Therefore, the IRR decision rule cannot be used for project D.

5.6

Mutually exclusive projects

The IRR and NPV methods can give conflicting rankings when assessing which project should be given priority. Let us suppose that a company with a cost of capital of 16% is considering two mutually exclusive options, option A and option B. The cash flows for each are as follows.
Year Option A (10,200) 6,000 5,000 3,000 Option B (35,250) 18,000 15,000 15,000

0 1 2 3

Capital outlay Net cash inflow Net cash inflow Net cash inflow 1 (1+ r) n

The NPV of each project is calculated below. Use the formula

to calculate the discount factors.

Option B Cash flow Present value (35,250) (35,250) 18,000 15,516 15,000 11,145 15,000 9,615 NPV = + 1,026

Year

0 1 2 3

Discount factor 16% 1.000 0.862 0.743 0.641

Option A Cash flow Present value (10,200) (10,200) 6,000 5,172 5,000 3,715 3,000 1,923 NPV = + 610

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Management information The IRR of option A is 20%, while the IRR of option B is only 18% (workings not shown). On a comparison of NPVs, option B would be preferred, but on a comparison of IRRs, option A would be preferred.
The preference should go to option B because with the higher NPV it creates more wealth than option A.

Interactive question 5: Sketching NPV profiles

[Difficulty level: Intermediate]

Use the working table below to deduce the data required to sketch the NPV profiles of projects A and B on the scales provided. At what discount rate do the two projects earn the same NPV?
Project Cash flows Year 0 Year 1 IRR NPV at 0% NPV at 10% NPV at 30%

A B

(1,000) (100)

1,250 140

25% 40%

Sketch of the NPV profiles

NPV 250 200

100

0 -50

10

20

30

40

50

Discount rate %

See Answer at the ends of this chapter.

5.7

Reinvestment assumption
An assumption underlying the NPV method is that any net cash inflows generated during the life of the project will be reinvested elsewhere at the cost of capital (that is, the discount rate). The IRR method, on the other hand, assumes these cash flows can be reinvested elsewhere to earn a return equal to the IRR of the original project. In the example in section 5.6, the NPV method assumes that the cash inflows of 6,000, 5,000 and 3,000 for option A will be reinvested at the cost of capital of 16% whereas the IRR method assumes they will be reinvested at 20%. If the IRR is considerably higher than the cost of capital this is an unlikely assumption. In theory, a firm will have accepted all projects which provide a return in excess of the cost of capital and any other funds which become available can only be reinvested at the cost of capital. (This is the assumption implied in the NPV rule.) If the assumption is not valid the IRR method overestimates the real return.

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Summary and Self-test

Summary

Investment appraisal

Discounted cash flow techniques

Non-discounting techniques

Allowing for the time value of money

Discounted payback period

Payback method

Accounting rate of return (ARR) Uses accounting profits

Net present value (NPV)

Internal rate of return (IRR)

Uses cash flows

Inconsistency between NPV and IRR as decision tools

Superiority of NPV

Self-test
Answer the following questions. 1 The payback period takes some account of the time value of money by A B C D Placing greatest value on 1 receivable in the first year and progressively less on 1 received in each subsequent year Placing least value on 1 receivable in the first year and progressively more on 1 received in each subsequent year Placing the same value on 1 receivable up to the payback period and no value on subsequent receipts Placing the same value on each 1 receivable over the life of a project

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Management information 2 A project has the following cash flows.

Year 0 1 2 3 4

(40,000) 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000

If the company were to discover that the cash inflow in year 4 had been overestimated, what would be the effect on the projects internal rate of return (IRR) and payback period if the error were corrected?
IRR Payback period

A B C D 3

Decrease Decrease Increase Increase

No change Increase No change Increase

A project requires an initial investment in equipment of 100,000 and will produce eight equal annual cash flows of 40,000. The investment has no scrap value and straight line depreciation is used. What are the payback period and accounting rate of return (ARR), based on the initial investment?
Payback ARR

A B C D 4

2 years 6 months 2 years 6 months 3 years 6 months 3 years 6 months

27.5% 40% 27.5% 40%

50,000 is to be spent on a machine having a life of five years and a residual value of 5,000. Operating cash inflows will be the same each year, except for year 1 when the figure will be 6,000. The accounting rate of return on the initial investment has been calculated at 30% pa. What is the payback period? A B C D 2.75 years 2.55 years 2.54 years 2.33 years

A firm has two projects available. Project 1 has two internal rates of return of 15% and 30%, and project 2 has two internal rates of return of 10% and 20%. At a zero discount rate project 1 has a positive NPV and project 2 has a negative NPV. The appropriate discount rate for both projects is 25%. Which of the following decisions about projects 1 and 2 should be taken?
Project 1 Project 2

A B C D

Accept Accept Reject Reject

Accept Reject Accept Reject

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A project has a normal pattern of cash flows (ie an initial outflow followed by several years of inflows). What would be the effects of an increase in the companys cost of capital on the internal rate of return (IRR) of the project and its payback period?
IRR Payback period

A B C D 7

Increase Increase No change No change

Increase No change Increase No change

Which two of the following statements in relation to the use of IRR as an investment appraisal method are incorrect? A It always establishes if a single project is worthwhile B It always establishes which of several projects to accept C It ignores the relative size of the investment

Consider the following graph.

Which of the following statements is true? A B C D 9 Project Y has a higher internal rate of return than project X At a discount rate of less than 15%, project Y is preferred to project X Project X is preferred to project Y irrespective of the discount rate Project Y is preferred to project X irrespective of the discount rate

A firm is evaluating the following four mutually-exclusive projects. All four projects involve the same initial outlay and have positive net present values. The projects generate the following cash inflows during their lives:
Year 1 500 300 500 300 Year 2 400 600 300 500 Year 3 600 500 600 600 Year 4 300 400 400 400

Project A Project B Project C Project D Which project should be chosen? A B C D Project A Project B Project C Project D

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Management information 10 An investment of 100,000 now is expected to generate equal annual cash flows to perpetuity of 15,000 pa, commencing in five years time. If the discount rate is 10% pa, what is the net present value of the investment (to the nearest 10)? A B C D 15,330 6,860 + 2,450 + 50,000

Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these objectives, please tick them off.

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Answers to Self-test
1 C Statement A describes how DCF methods account for the time of money. Statement B is the reverse of statement A and is incorrect because it is not taking account of the time value of money at all. Statement D is incorrect because the payback method ignores cash flows after the payback period. 2 A The payback period is not affected because the year 4 cash flow occurs after the payback period, however the IRR would be reduced because of the lower cash inflow in year 4. Payback period = = Annual depreciation = = Annual profit = = ARR = = 4 C ARR 0.3 Average profit = = = = Total profit for five years = = Total cash inflows equals total profit plus total depreciation = = Cash inflow for year 1 Cash flow, years 2 to 5 Annual inflow, years 2 to 5 Payback period = = = = = 100,000 40,000 2.5 years 100,000 8 12,500 40,000 12,500 27,500 27,500 100% 100,000 27.5% Average profit 100 Initial investment Average profit 50,000 0.3 50,000 15,000 5 15,000 75,000 (75,000 + 45,000) 120,000 6,000 114,000 28,500 1+ (50,000 - 6,000) 28,500

2.54 years

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Management information 5 D The NPV profiles can be sketched as follows.

At a discount rate of 25%, both projects have a negative NPV therefore they should be rejected. 6 7 D A, B A is not true because IRR cannot be used to assess projects that do not have an IRR B is not true because NPV is used for mutually exclusive projects 8 A Statement A is correct because the NPV profile of project Y crosses the horizontal axis at a higher discount rate than that for project X. Statement B is incorrect because at discount rates less than 15% project X has a higher NPV and is therefore preferred. Statements C and D are incorrect because at discount rates less than 15% project X is preferred, whereas at rates greater than 15% project Y is preferred. 9 A By a comparison of the cash flows A is better than C (it gives the same inflows in year 1 and year 3, but returns 100 higher in year 2 and 100 lower in year 4). B is also better than D (same flows in years 1 and 4, but returns 100 more in year 2, and 100 less in year 3). By a similar argument A is better than B; therefore A is the preferred project. 10 C 15,000 100,000 + 0.683 (year 4 factor at 10%) = 2,450 0.1 Both the internal rate of return and the payback period are independent of the cost of capital.

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Answers to Interactive questions

Answer to Interactive question 1
The equipment that should be purchased is item X .
Item X Item Y

Total profit over life of equipment: before depreciation after depreciation Average annual accounting profit Average investment = (capital cost + disposal value)/2 ARR, based on average investment

160,000 80,000 16,000 60,000 26.7%

280,000 130,000 26,000 100,000 26%

Both projects would earn a return in excess of 25%, but since item X would earn a bigger ARR, it would be preferred to item Y, even though the profits from Y would be higher by an average of 10,000 a year.

Answer to Interactive question 2

Year Cash flow Multiplied by 12% discount factor
1 (1.12)2 1 (1.12)3
= 0.797

Present value

40,000

31,880

3 Total present value

30,000

= 0.712

21,360 53,240

Answer to Interactive question 3

Year
0 1

Cash flow
(280,000) 149,000

16.5% discount factor

1.00 1 (1.165)
1 (1.165) 2 1 (1.165)3 1 (1.165) 4

Present value
(280,000)

= 0.86

128,140

128,000

= 0.74

94,720

84,000

= 0.63

52,920

70,000

= 0.54

37,800 33,580

Net present value

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Management information

Answer to Interactive question 4

The project IRR is 15% .

The total receipts are 5,635 giving a total profit of 1,635 and average profits of 409. The average investment is 2,000. The ARR is 409 2,000 = 20%. Two thirds of the ARR is approximately 14%. The initial estimate of the IRR that we shall try is therefore 14%.
Try 14% Discount factor PV 14% 1.000 (4,000) 0.877 1,052 0.769 1,084 0.675 1,266 0.592 681 NPV 83 Try 16% Discount factor PV 16% 1.000 (4,000) 0.862 1,034 0.743 1,048 0.641 1,202 0.552 635 NPV (81)

Time

0 1 2 3 4

Cash flow (4,000) 1,200 1,410 1,875 1,150

The IRR must be less than 16%, but higher than 14%. The NPVs at these two costs of capital will be used to estimate the IRR. Using the interpolation formula IRR = 14% +

83 (16% 14%) = 15.01% 83 + 81

The IRR is, in fact, exactly 15%.

Answer to Interactive question 5

Project
A B

Cash flows Year 0 Year 1

(1,000) (100) 1,250 140

IRR
25% 40%

NPV at 0%
250 40

NPV at 10%
136 27

NPV at 30%
(38) 8

NPV 250 200

100 40 0 -50 10 20 30 A 40 B 50 Discount rate %

The two projects earn the same NPV at the point where the lines intersect, which is at a discount rate of approximately 23%.

308