#14) APA Guidelines with 2009 Updates

If you are asked to use America Psychological Association (APA) format, consult the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th ed. Copies of this book are on the reference shelves in the Writing Center. The manual is also widely available in bookstores, libraries, and at the APA website: <http://www.apastyle.org>. This handout seeks to explain some of the basic APA issues you may encounter, including citing references in text, formatting entries on the references list, preparing the manuscript, writing clearly and concisely, and addressing stylistic concerns. For further explanation of any of the topics in this handout, or for other concerns not listed here, see the new 6th edition manual. All page references in this handout refer to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th ed. The APA published new guidelines in a manual released in July 2009 (the new manual has a 2010 copyright date). The following is a brief overview of the changes: Simplified guidelines for formatting section headings Modified discussions of abstract, methods, results, and discussion sections Expanded information on how to report data in various forms, including graphs, charts, etc. New instructions for citing materials with no page numbers Updated and expanded citation guidelines for electronic sources to reflect changes in technology New expanded section on Journal Article Reporting Standards

Table of Contents 1. Citing References in Text 2 1.01 Placement and Frequency of Citation in a Paragraph 3 1.02 Quoting and Citing Sources Without Pagination 3 1.03 A Work by One Author 4 1.04 One Work by Multiple Authors 4 1.05 Works With No Identified Author or an Anonymous Author 1.06 Two or More Authors Within the Same Parentheses 4 1.07 Secondary Sources 5 1.08 Personal Communications 5 2. References List 5 2.01 Basic Rules Revised 07/2009

Format for Print Sources 6 2.02 An Entire Book 6 2.03 Chapter in a Book or Work in an Anthology 2.04 Journal Article 7 2.05 Magazine Article 7 2.06 Newspaper Article 7

Format for Electronic Sources 7 2.07 An Entire Book, Electronic Version of Print Book 7 2.08 Electronic-only Book 7 2.09 Journal Article With DOI 7 2.10 Journal Article With No DOI 7 2.11 Online Magazine Article 8 2.12 Online Newspaper Article 8 2.13 Website Article With No Author 8 2.14 Website Article With No Author, Date, or Page Numbers 2.15 Corporate Author, Government Report 8 2.16 Image Retrieved Online 8 3. Preparing Your Manuscript 8

4. Writing Clearly and Concisely 9 4.01 Headings 9 4.02 Seriation 10 4.03 Precision and Clarity 11 4.04 Verbs 11 5. Mechanics of Style 12 5.01 Punctuation 12 5.02 Block Quotations 12 5.03 Italics 12 5.04 Numbers 13 5.05 Commas in Numbers

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1. Citing References in Text APA format uses the author-date method of citation. This means that the authors last name and year of publication must appear in text. Page numbers (or section headings or paragraph numbers, see below) should be included when using direct quotations in text. The authors name and year of publication may appear in the sentence itself or in the parentheses following the quotation. For a full explanation of how to cite sources in text, see pp. 174-179. Revised 07/2009

1.01 Placement and Frequency of Citations in a Paragraph In APA style, you must always give credit to your source; therefore, if an entire paragraph of your text draws ideas from one source, it is not acceptable to simply place a reference at the end of your paragraph to cover citation concerns for the entire paragraph. Note this example: Among the 1,000 sampled students, Roberts (2004) found that students participating in FYE programs had higher four-year GPAs than non-FYE participants. Roberts also found. . . The study also showed that there was a high correlation between second-year retention rates and student participation in FYE programs (Roberts, 2004). In the first reference in this paragraph, the authors name is incorporated into the text, followed by the year of publication in parentheses. In subsequent nonparenthetical citations in this same paragraph, it is acceptable to simply use the authors last name without the publication date, as long as the author cannot be confused with another (see the second sentence in the paragraph). Note how the third sentence includes the authors last name and date of publication, as it is not clear from the sentence which study the writer is discussing. See pp. 174-175 for a lengthier discussion of these citation concerns and other examples. 1.02 Quoting and Citing Sources Without Pagination When page numbers are visible, you should include them when quoting material, along with the authors name and year of publication. However, if there are no apparent page numbers on your source, the APA suggests citing information by paragraph number or section and paragraph number. If paragraph numbers are visible, cite quoted material by paragraph number, using the abbreviation para. This example is quoted from p. 172 of the 6th ed. manual. Basu and Jones (2007) went so far as to suggest the need for a new intellectual framework in which to consider the nature and form of regulation in cyberspace (para. 4). If neither paragraph numbers nor page numbers are visible in your source, but the document uses headings, it is acceptable to cite the quotation by heading and paragraph number under that heading. This example is quoted from p. 172 of the 6th ed. manual. In their study, Verbunt, Pernot, and Smeets (2008) found that the level of perceived disability in patients with fibromyalgia seemed best explained by their mental health condition and less by their physical condition (Discussion section, para. 1). If the heading seems too long to include in your citation, using an abbreviated form of it is fine. For more guidance on these issues, see pp. 171-172.

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1.03 A Work by One Author Johnson (2003) found that among students participating in FYE programs. . . The overall four-year GPAs of students who participated in FYE programs were higher than non-FYE students (Johnson, 2003). 1.04 One Work by Multiple Authors You must cite both names every time you include a reference either in the sentence or in the parentheses following the sentence if you are dealing with a source that has two authors. When you are dealing with a source that has three through five authors, you must cite all of the authors in your first reference; however, in all subsequent references, you may include the name of the first author and follow it by et al. You should also include the year of publication. Murphy, Lynn, Campbell, and Joseph (2007) found. . . [As first citation in text.] Murphy et al. (2007) found. . . [Format for subsequent references.] To cite a work that has more than six authors, cite the surname of the first author followed by et al. and the year of publication. For more detailed information and for important exceptions to these rules, see pp. 174-176. 1.05 Works With No Identified Author or an Anonymous Author If the work you are citing has no author, use the first few words of the reference list entry and the year of publication to identify the source in text. This will likely be the first few words of the title of the source. A study on universal health care (Study Finds, 2008) found that the majority of Americans think that We examined SAT statistics presented in the book College Bound Seniors (2008). The only time you should cite the author as Anonymous is if the works author is identified as Anonymous. As always, include the year of publication after it. (Anonymous, 1998) 1.06 Two or More Works Within the Same Parentheses When citing two or more works within parentheses, you should place them in alphabetical order within the parentheses and separate the sources by a semicolon. Several studies (Abrams, 2000; Sullivan & Hellman, 1999) indicated that. . . Revised 07/2009

For more rules and other examples of how to deal with citing more than one source in text, see pp. 177-178. 1.07 Secondary Sources When using a secondary source in your paper (for example, using a quotation or a study from an author that is published in another authors research), you should name the original source in the sentence. In the parentheses, include the words as cited in and include the authors name and year of publication of the secondary source. If you are citing a direct quotation, include the page number as well. You should only include the secondary source on the references page (e.g., Simons text in the example below, and not Jacksons). Example quotation from a secondary source: Jackson (as cited in Simon, 2003) explained that *his+ childhood was less than desirable. . . (p. 35). Example reference to a secondary source: Jacksons diary (as cited in Simon, 2003) was written. . . 1.08 Personal Communications Personal communications include sources such as emails, lectures, interviews, or any other source material that is not recoverable by your readers. You should cite the name of the person from whom you obtained the information, indicate that you are citing a personal communication, and cite the month, day, and year, as illustrated below. Personal communications are cited in text only and are excluded from your references page. R. L. Roberts (personal communication, April 22, 2006) (S. S. Dye, personal communication, September 8, 2008) 2. References List This section contains some of the basic rules for formatting your references list as well as examples of some of the most common types of sources that may appear on your references list. See Chapter 7, pp. 193-224 for a full discussion and further examples. The examples included in Format for Print Sources and Format for Electronic Sources below have been taken from the above noted pages. 2.01 Basic Rules The first line of each entry should be flush left. Subsequent lines should be indented with a hanging indent. (The 6th ed. manual does not specify a measurement for the hanging indent; however, the sample paper on p. 49 appears to be indented a half inch from the left margin.) Your references list should be double-spaced within and between entries.

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Alphabetize your references list by authors surname. After the surname, include the initials of the authors given name. When you are including a source that does not have an identifiable author, alphabetize the entry according to the sources title. If you have cited more than one work by the same author, arrange the entries by year of publication, placing the earlier work first. When a source does not have a date, use (n.d.) after the authors name. When including an article or chapter title in your entry, only capitalize the first letter of the first word of the title the first letter of the first word in the subtitle, and any proper nouns or proper adjectives. Do not italicize or include the title within quotation marks. For books and reports, capitalize only the first letter of the first word, the first letter of the first word in the subtitle, and any proper nouns or proper adjectives; italicize the title. When citing journals, newsletters, and magazines, give the volume number, issue number (if available), and the page numbers on which the material appears. Titles of articles should not be italicized or underlined, but the titles of the journals, newsletters, or magazines the articles come from should be italicized. Additionally, the first letter of the first word in the title and first letter of the first word in the subtitle should be capitalized, as well as any proper nouns and proper adjectives. For electronic sources, much of the same source information is included as fixed-media, but the electronic location of the source is added to the entry (e.g., DOI number or URL). Retrieval dates are not necessary for electronic sources unless you are citing a source that may change over time, such as a Wiki. Format for Print Sources 2.02 An entire book: Shotton, M. A. (1998). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency. London, England: Taylor & Francis. 2.03 Chapter in a book or work in an anthology: Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the science of subjective well-being. In M. Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The science of subjective well-being (pp. 17-43). New York, NY: Guilford Press.

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2.04 Journal article: Light, M. A., & Light, I. H. (2008). The geographic expansion of Mexican immigration in the United States and its implication for local law enforcement. Law Enforcement Executive Forum Journal, 8(1), 73-82. 2.05 Magazine article: Chamberlain, J., Novotney, A., Packard, E., & Price, M. (2008, May). Enhancing worker wellbeing: Occupational health psychologists convene to share their research on work, stress, and health. Monitor on Psychology, 39(5), 26-29. 2.06 Newspaper article: Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30). Obesity affects economic, social status. The Washington Post, pp. A1, A4. Format for Electronic Sources 2.07 An entire book, electronic version of print book: Shotton, M. A. (1989). Computer addiction? A study of computer dependency. [DX Reader version]. Retrieved from http://www.ebookstore.tandf.co.uk/html/index.asp 2.08 Electronic-only book: OKeefe, E. (n.d.). Egoism & the crisis in Western values. Retrieved from http://www.onlineoriginals.com/showitem.asp?itemID=135 2.09 Journal article with DOI: If you are citing a journal article that has a DOI number, include it in the entry. When DOI numbers are included in your entry, no other retrieval information is necessary. Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kulik, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support, marital status, and the survival times of terminally ill patients. Health Psychology, 24, 225-229. doi: 10.1037/02786133.24.2.225 2.10 Journal article with no DOI: If no DOI number is included, include the homepage URL for the source. Sillick, T. J., & Schutte, N. S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and self-esteem mediate between perceived early parental love and adult happiness. E-Journal of Applied Psychology, 2(2), 38-48. Retrieved from http://ojs.lib.swin.edu.au/index.php/ejap Revised 07/2009

2.11 Online magazine article: Clay, R. (2008, June). Science vs. ideology: Psychologists fight back about the misuse of research. Monitor of Psychology, 39(6). Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/monitor 2.12 Online newspaper article: Brody, J. E. (2007, December 11). Mental reserves keep brain agile. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com 2.13 Website article with no author: New child vaccine gets funding boost. (2001). Retrieved March 21, 2001, from http://news.ninemsn.com.au/health/story_13178.asp 2.14 Website article with no author, date, or page numbers: Heuristic. (n.d.). In Merriam-Websters online dictionary (11th ed.). Retrieved from http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/heuristic 2.15 Corporate author, government report: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. (2003). Managing asthma: A guide for schools (NIH Publication No. 02-2650). Retrieved from http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/lung/asthma/ asth_scho.pdf 2.16 Image retrieved online: Carson, J. L. (Photographer). (2003). B.pertussis. [Online image]. Retrieved from http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/09_03/ whooping_cough.php 3. Preparing Your Manuscript As per the new 6th ed., your document should be typed on standard-sized paper, with 1 in. margins on all sides. The manual states that the preferred typeface for APA publications is Times New Roman, with 12-point font size (p. 228). Additionally, do not justify your lines of text; instead, use the flush-left feature. The order of manuscript pages is also important in your document. The following is a list of the order of pages in your manuscript. Title page Abstract

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Text o Introduction o Method (this section will usually contain subheadings) o Results o Discussion References Tables Figures Appendices When you number your pages, you should start with the title page and number your pages consecutively (your title page should have the number 1 on it). Each manuscript page should include a running head and page number. The running head should start flush left at the top margin, and the page number should be flush right. For further information about how to prepare your manuscript, see pp. 23-40 and 228-231. 4. Writing Clearly and Concisely 4.01 Headings The new 6th edition has simplified guidelines for formatting headings in manuscripts. Note that the new guidelines call for a top-down progression, as illustrated in the following image:

Level 1 Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading Level 2 Flush Left, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading Level 3 Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. Level 4 Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period. Level 5 Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.

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This top-down progression means that if you have a paper that calls for three levels of headings, you would use Levels 1, 2, and 3. Another important APA feature to note is that the introductory section to a manuscript does not have a heading since it is assumed that the first section in your document is an introduction. Refer to pp. 62-63 for a more detailed discussion of heading arrangement and format. 4.02 Seriation When you arrange elements into lists in your manuscript, you help your reader recognize key points. As the 6th ed. notes, In any series, all items should be syntactically and conceptually parallel (p. 63). APA guidelines call for items in numbered lists to be identified by Arabic numerals. You should include a period after the numeral and not enclose the numeral in or follow it with parentheses. Additionally, you should capitalize the first letter of the first word in the sentence following the numeral. The following example highlights a seriated list that includes information situated in paragraphs and notes the above features (the ellipses indicate that the paragraph continues). This passage is quoted from pp. 63-64 of the new 6th ed. manual. Using the learned helplessness theory, we predicted that the depressed and nondepressed participants would make the following judgments of control: 1. 2. 3. 4. Individuals who. Nondepressed persons exposed to Depressed persons exposed to Depressed and nondepressed participants in the no-noise groups

In the above example, the writer uses a numbered list, but be aware that doing so may indicate to your readers that certain elements may be more important than others due to the number each element is assigned. Therefore, if you would like to avoid this potential confusion, you may use bullet points or other symbols to form your list. Hence, substituting bullet points for the numerals in the above list would be acceptable. To include seriated elements within a paragraph or sentence, you can identify elements by using lowercase letters in parentheses. The students three options were (a) collaborating with another student, (b) working with a group, and (c) working alone. If you use seriation in a sentence that has three or more elements that contain internal commas, you must use a semicolon to separate those elements. Researchers tested three groups of students: (a) low scorers, who scored lower than a C; (b) moderate scorers, who scored a B or C; and (c) high scorers, who scored an A.

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It is also acceptable to use bulleted lists within a sentence to separate elements. This example comes from p. 64 of the 6th ed. manual. In accordance with this theory, these relations should be marked by equity, social justice, and equal opportunity; sensitivity to individual differences and promotion of a goodness-of-fit between individually different people and contexts; affirmative actions to correct ontogenetic or historical inequities in person-context fit; efforts to recognize and celebrate diversity; and promotion of universal participation in civil life, and hence democracy (Lerner, Balsano, Banik, & Nadeau, 2005, p. 45). 4.03 Precision and Clarity Avoid using misleading word choices when you attribute action in your paper. For example, avoid using the third person or the editorial we, as both may cause confusion for your readers. Use of the third person can cause ambiguity, so you should substitute a personal pronoun instead, as the APA suggests. Incorrect use of the third person: The teachers reviewed the policies. Correct usage, substituting a personal pronoun: We reviewed the policies. Likewise, the use of we should be reserved for instances illustrating your collaboration with others on a project. Avoid using it in a broader sense. Try substituting an appropriate noun for we to clarify your meaning. Incorrect use of the editorial we: One method we usually use to classify cats is by body type. Correct usage, substituting an appropriate noun for clarity: One method researchers usually use to classify cats is by body type. 4.04 Verbs The APA endorses use of the active voice, noting that passive voice is acceptable in expository writing and when you want to focus on the object or recipient of the action rather than on the actor (p. 77). Note the preferred and nonpreferred examples below. Preferred active voice: We conducted the experiment in Dr. Smiths lab. Revised 07/2009

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Nonpreferred passive voice: The experiment was conducted in Dr. Smiths lab. The APA also recommends using the past tense when you are referring to actions that took place at a specific time in the past. Therefore, you should use the past tense when referring to the research of other scholars or your own research and results. Correct: Jones (2000) presented similar data. Incorrect: Jones (2000) presents similar data. 5. Mechanics of Style 5.01 Punctuation The APA calls for using one space after the following punctuation marks: commas, colons, and semicolons; periods that separate parts of a references citation; and periods of the initials in personal names (e.g., J. K. Rowling). However, the manual notes an exception to the last bulleted point: Do not insert a space after internal periods in abbreviations (e.g., a.m., i.e., U.S.), including identity-concealing labels for participants (F.I.M.), or around colons in ratios (p. 88). In addition, the APA notes that you should include two spaces after the concluding punctuation of a sentence. 5.02 Block Quotations If you use a quotation that is 40 words or more in length, you must set it off in block style. Your quotation should start on a new line. Furthermore, you should indent the block quotation a half inch from the left margin. The entire quotation should be double spaced. If you are quoting two or more paragraphs from a source, indent the first line of the subsequent paragraphs an additional half inch (as illustrated below). Additionally, when using the block quotation style, you should not use quotation marks, and the ending punctuation of the quotation comes before the parentheses and not after. This example is quoted from p. 171 of the new 6th ed. manual. Others have contradicted this view: Co-presence does not ensure intimate interaction among all group members. Consider large-scale social gatherings in which hundreds or thousands of people gather in a location to perform a ritual or celebrate an event. Revised 07/2009

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In these instances, participants are able to see the visible manifestation of the group, the physical gathering, yet their ability to make direct, intimate connections with those around them is limited by the sheer magnitude of the assembly. (Purcell, 1997, pp. 111-112) For more information on how to format block quotations, see pp. 92 and 171. 5.03 Italics Italicize titles of books, periodicals, films, videos, TV shows, and microfilm publications. Concise Rules of APA Style the introduction of a new, technical, or key term or label. (After you use the term the first time, you do not need to italicize it again.) the term forward looking a letter, word, or phrase cited as a linguistic example. the letter b the meaning of over the hill This is only a brief list of the APAs guidelines on using italics. See pp. 104-106 for more detailed guidelines. 5.04 Numbers You should use numerals to express numbers 10 and above. (There are some exceptions, as noted by the APA.) 13 cm high 11 people 27 years old 105 pieces of paper

numbers that represent statistical or mathematical functions, fractional or decimal quantities, percentages, ratios, and percentiles and quartiles. divided by 5 4 times as many

numbers that represent time, dates, ages, scores and points on a scale, exact sums of money, and numerals as numerals.

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1 hr 54 min at 12:33 a.m. You should use words to express

6-year-olds scored 6 on a 9-point scale

a number that begins a sentence, title, or text heading. However, the APA suggests rewording the sentence to avoid beginning with a number. Example sentence beginning with a number: Thirty-two percent of the students showed a grade increase by the end of the semester; 3% showed no change. Revised example, avoiding use of number at the beginning: By the end of the semester, 32% of students showed a grade increase; 3% showed no change. common fractions. one fourth of the class universally accepted usage. the Twelve Apostles Five Pillars of Islam two-thirds majority

See pp. 111-114 for further questions about dealing with numbers in your manuscript. 5.05 Commas in Numbers The APA suggests using commas between groups of three digits in figures 1,000 or more. There are some exceptions, such as page numbers and degrees of temperature. For other exceptions, see p. 114.

This worksheet addresses some of the most common APA style and citation concerns you may have. For more detailed information about APA style, and for a further explanation of the concepts included on this worksheet or those not detailed here, see the new 6th ed. of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association: American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

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