PUNJAB COLLEGE OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION COURSE NAME: TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT (MB-662) COURSE INSTRUCTOR: Sukhjinder Baring EXTERNAL

ASSESSMENT:60 INTERNAL ASSESSMENT:40 THEORY LECTURES: 32 ASSIGNMENTS: 4 CASE STUDIES:3 TEST: 3 COURSE OBJECTIVE Competitive advantage makes the difference between success and failure of organization. To attain this, organizations today require continuous Training and development of their human resources so as to achieve a level of cost effectiveness and delivery necessary for success. T&D helps to improve the quality of employees and is part of core organizational strategies, core HR intervention to enhance potential and performance of organization. GRADING FOR COURSE MSE Assignments Tests Presentation Participation in Case Studies and Activities RULES THAT WE NEED TO FOLLOW 1. Attendance Criteria 75% (NO COMPROMISES!!) 2. You are expected to be class on/before scheduled time. You will be allowed to enter in class in first 10 minutes of lecture. After that you are welcome to class but would not be awarded attendance. No excuses please for been late. 3. Make sure you are not absent on Presentation day or Activity day or case study discussion day or tests. Zero marks would be awarded to absentees. Youll be informed well in advance about the important deadlines. 4. DO NOT COPY ASSIGNMENTS. All the copied assignments and master assignment would be straight away cancelled. Lecture Taken No. on Date 1. Topics Training and Development: Process and significance The goal of training is for employees to master the knowledge, skill, and behaviors emphasized in training programs, and apply them to their day-to-day Case Study/Assignment /Test/Activity 15 marks 5-7 marks 5-8 marks 5 - 10marks 5 -8 marks

activities 2. 3. Assignment 1 Principles of Learning. Discuss the five types of learner outcomes. Explain the implications of learning theory for instructional design. Incorporate adult learning theory into the design of a training program. Describe how learners receive, process, store, retrieve, and act upon information. Principles of Learning. (continued) Case 1 Identification of Training Needs, Evolving Training Policy. Discuss the role of organization analysis, person analysis, and task analysis in needs assessment. Identify different methods used in needs assessment and identify the advantages and disadvantages of each. Discuss the concerns of upper-level and midlevel managers and trainers in needs assessment. Explain how person characteristics, input, output, consequences, and feedback influence performance and learning.

4. 5. 6.

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Identification of Training Needs, Evolving Training Policy. (continued) Training and Development Systems Training Methods, Training Centers 1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentational, hands-on, and group building training methods. 2. Provide recommendations for effective onthe-job training. 3. Develop a self-directed learning module. 4. Compare and contrast the strengths and weaknesses of traditional training methods with those of methods based on new

technology. 5. Identify and explain the benefits of new technologies that can be used to improve the efficiency of training administration. 10. 11. 12. Training Methods, Training Centers Training Methods, Training Centers Students bringing various examples for different training method used in various companies and Assignment 2 TEST 1 From lecture 1 to 10. Training for Change Become a more effective Change Agent in introducing and proactively gaining support for change Implement and manage change more quickly, completely and successfully Smooth change transition and overcome resistance Manage people during periods of change more effectively and overcome negativity in the workplace Structure communications to more positively facilitate change

13. 14. 15.

Role of External Development

Agency

in

Training

16.

Resistance in Training

Case 3

Understand the true reasons why people resist and fear change Anticipate employee reactions and plan your responses with the "Change Cycle" Be a more influential role model and catalyst for change in your company Resistance from Employees/Individuals Resistance from Teams/ Groups

17.

Resistance from Top Management Developing Effective Trainers, Designing training Programme.

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Designing training Programme. Designing training Programme. Assignment 3 and case 2 Approaches to Management Development, Methods of Development, Designing Development Programme 1. Discuss current trends in using formal education for development. 2. Relate how assessment of personality type, work behaviors, and job performance can be used for employee development. 3. Describe the benefits that protgs and mentors receive from a mentoring relationship. 4. Explain the characteristics of successful mentoring programs. 5. Tell how job experiences can be used for skill development. 6. Explain how to train managers to coach employees. 7. Identify the reasons why companies should help employees manage their careers. 8. Discuss why and how the concept of a career has changed. 9. Explain the development tasks and activities in the career development process. Management Development (Continued) Team Building Exercises Explain why these are important Explain Objectives Management Games Explain why these are important Explain Objectives Students Conducting different games and exercises learned Evaluation of Training and Development, Criteria, Problems, Explain why evaluation is important. Identify and choose outcomes to evaluate a training program. Discuss the process used to plan and implement a good training evaluation.

22. 23.

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Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of different evaluation designs..

28. 29.

Steps involved in Evaluation Assignment 4 Choose the appropriate evaluation design based on the characteristics of the company and the importance and purpose of the training. Conduct a cost-benefit analysis for a training program TEST 2 open Book test Emerging Issues in Training and Development in India. 1. Discuss the potential legal issues that relate to training. 2. Develop a program for effectively managing diversity. 3. Design a program for preparing employees for cross-cultural assignments. 4. Identify the future trends that are likely to influence training departments and trainers. 5. Discuss how these future trends may impact training delivery and administration as well as the strategic role of the training department. 6. Discuss the implications of a skill-based pay plan for training. Discussing Live case developed in class Discussing Live case developed in class Test - Full syllabus

30. 31. 32.

Suggested Readings: Armstrong M.A., Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice Kogan Page, London Dayal, I Manpoer Training in Organisations, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi Craig, Robert Training and Development Handbook, McGraw Hill, New York Tapomony Deb, Training and Development, ASE, India

Assignments 1. Find training programs conducted in different sectors (at least 3 sectors per student) like in banking sector following training is given - sales training, team building, customer relationship management, self directed training etc. 2. List few Training and development centers operating in India and Abroad. Mention what kind of training they provide, including all details of fee structure and duration of training. 3. Develop a Live case study on any of Training and development topics/issues. (20 marks) 4. Design a 1 day training program in paper for BBA students in order to train them for Group discussions and Personal Interviews. Elaborate each and every step and try and include details like forms, Audio video aids used, Activities to be conducted and purpose of each activity. Also evaluate the training program on basis of costs and benefits. (20 marks) Activities All the team building games, management development games, various training activities would be taken from time to time as and when topic is taken up in class Presentations Assignment 4 is to be presented.

QUIZ 1- Chapter 1: Introduction to Employee Training and Development 1. Human Resource Management refers to the policies, practices, and systems that influence employees' behavior, attitudes, and performance. A. True B. False 2. In the US economy, the demand for specific skills is being replaced by a need for cognitive skills mathematical, verbal reasoning, and interpersonal skills. A. True B. False 3. A changing environment means that only top-level managers must embrace a philosophy of learning. A. True B. False 4. Most job openings between 1998-2008 will occur in executive and administrative positions. A. True B. False 5. By 2005 the median age of the workforce will be: A. 20 B. 34 C. 40 D. 45 6. A global collection of computer networks that allows users to exchange information and data is called: e-commerce The Internet Six Sigma The Web 7. US employers spend ___________% of their payroll budget on training. A. 15 B. 9-10 C. 5 D. 1-2 8. Training employees in a variety of skills is known as: A. virtual teams B. contingent work force

C. distributed work D. cross training 9. The amount of work being done outside the traditional office or factory is known as: A. contingent work force B. distributed work C. work teams D. flextime

Case 1 -Safe and Sound "The big work behind business judgment is in finding and acknowledging the facts and circumstances concerning technology, the market, and the like in their continuously changing forms. The rapidity of modern technological change makes the search for facts a permanently necessary feature." Intellectual capital is fast becoming the asset base of companies and their strategies for growth. In the current global economy when companies are faced with rapid changes, the ability to continuously seek, adapt and apply new skills would be the order of the day. In such a dynamic situation, where the skills and knowledge of people and organisations are becoming redundant and useless, success in business and its growth would require special emphasis on learning, education and training that is both flexible and relevant in the current scenario. The demand for an effective training system for insurance intermediaries emerges not only from the insurer, or the regulator or the intermediaries but also from the consumer. These demands will go a long way to making insurance training and education establishments more accountable and strategic. Intermediaries are seen as the key differentiator of an insurance business, and hence their selection, training, development and support mechanism must be continuously monitored and updated. They are expected to identify customer needs for insurance, help them make the appropriate choice of product/s, enable the customer to meet the deadlines for renewal of payments, and resolve queries and facilitate settlement of benefits in the minimum time frame possible. The insurance business is dynamic and changes are rapid, hence intermediaries, being knowledge workers, require a special learning discipline in order to continue with upgraded knowledge and skills. Observations of the functioning of intermediaries in the present day insurance industry show that there is a major gap between what is expected of them and what they actually deliver. These may be attributed to several factors such as: Insurance products (life) are viewed more as investment and tax-saving products Insurance solutions are bought and sold on the basis of relationship and referrals Low productivity expectations from the intermediary Non-availability of any prescribed/recognised pre-recruitment or post-recruitment training for intermediaries Low awareness level of insurance requiring customer education Therefore, for an effective training approach, knowledge of these together with global factors like changes in communication technologies, peoples expectations and apprehensions and the current scenario of the privatised insurance sector become a necessity. The present education system for intermediaries should become more accountable to deliver competencies in a more personalised manner and within a short span of time. It shouldnt only demand traditional intellect and applications, but also stress

creative and inventive thinking, knowledge of information & communication technologies and self-motivation competencies that traditional classroom training fails to achieve. There is, however, a dearth of professional institutions in India offering practical training for the insurance industry. The Insurance Regulatory & Development Authority has undertaken some training initiative by prescribing 100 hours of pre-recruitment practical training for every intermediary, to be followed up by a mandatory qualification test conducted by the Indian Institute of Insurance or by the National Stock Exchange. For an example of effective vocational training, we can look at the UKs use of National Vocational Qualifications. The central feature of NVQs is the National Occupational Standards on which they are based. NOS are statements of performance standards that describe what competent people in a particular occupation are expected to be able to perform. They cover all the main aspects of an occupation, including current best practice, ability to adapt to future requirements and the knowledge and understanding that underpin competent performance. Standard-setting bodies, mainly employer-led National Training Organisations, develop the standards. Since the insurance business is dynamic and changes are rapid, it is essential for insurance intermediaries as knowledge workers to be familiar with the special learning skills required to be successful. Hence there is an absolute necessity for co-operation and collaboration between private and government agencies in India to supply the special learning preferred by the insurer and the government regulator. In such a scenario, competencies, training and assessment methods are standardised. Lists of programmes with accredited institutes are published for public information. Institutes are identified through a selection and accreditation process, and then certified to provide different qualifications and certificates. The main purpose of the vocational training system is to supply the insurance industry with the necessary manpower. It provides motivation to students to learn and also equips them with a practical and applied understanding of the industry. It also pays more attention to the skills and knowledge students need for an effective transition from school to the working environment. The workplace of the future will require new and different skills from all workers not just job-specific skills, but also transferable, generic skills that will help them to acquire further education and training throughout their careers. In a world of rapidly changing business situation, the ability to respond positively to the challenges and opportunities are combined responsibilities of the stakeholders of that industry. In this context of accelerated change and dynamic business in the insurance industry, training effectiveness for the intermediaries can be provided with excellence through the combined effort of the training outfits, which include both the insurers training department and the institutes, the insurer and the regulator. It is to this end that educators are working to develop cost-effective and reliable methods to provide learning, motivate students and achieve results. In this way there would be further improvement in training effectiveness for intermediaries, thus adding value to their profession and achievements.

Case Study 2 1. Is Rajat in needs of Remedial Training? Rajat Sharma has been employed for six months in the accounts section of a large manufacturing company in Faridabad. You have been his supervisor for the past three months. Recently you have been asked by the management to find out the contributions of each employee in the Accounts Section and monitor carefully whether they are meeting the standards set by you. A few days back you have completed your formal investigation and with the exception of Rajat, all seem to be meeting the targets set by you. Along with numerous errors, Rajats work is characterized by low performance often he does 20 percent less than the other clerks in the department. As you look into Rajats performance review sheets again, you begin to wonder whether some sort of remedial training is needed for people like him. Questions o As Rajats supervisor can you find out whether the poor performance is due to poor training or to some other cause? o If you find Rajat has been inadequately trained, how do you go about introducing a remedial training programme? o If he has been with the company six months, what kind of remedial programme would be best? o Should you supervise him more closely? Can you do this without making it obvious to him and his co-workers? o Should you discuss the situation with Rajat?

4. SALES TRAINING AT ABC COMPANY Few years ago, ABC Company developed a training strategy for training its global sales force. An important feature of the strategy was to create a master training plan for each year. The organizations strategic plans, objectives, and functional tactics would drive this plan. Once an initial procedure was designed it was then evaluated and critiqued by the top management, different units, and training council. The input from these stakeholders would be summarized and transferred into a master training plan. The major question that was asked by the designers of training program was, what results do we want from salespeople after the training program is over? The answer to this question becomes the objective of the training program. Then training content was designed, videos were made. The videos took 3 to 6 months to produce. Video contains live production plants, clients offices, partner offices, suppliers,

manufacturers locations, and other Videos were used to train sales people in various areas, such as:

locations.

Market information i.e. about customer profile, market updates, and computer integrated manufacturing applications, etc Sales Process i.e. how to deal in the situation of conflicts with customer, coaching on undesirable behavior, supplement skills developed during live courses Product information, such as, product usage, applications, system description, product description, comparison with competitors products, etc Policies and procedures, i.e. about sales contests, incentive plans on achieving targets, annual bonuses, winners receiving the best salesperson award to motivate the sales force

Around thousands of sales persons were getting a specific video training. The sales people were getting training material along with the video. Sales representatives then watch video, follow the directions, and refer to the material if faces any problem. When salespeople feel they have mastered the material, they would take an exam and call a toll-free number to transmit responses to exam. Salespeople who successfully passed an exam were factored into performance and merit reviews as well as promotional opportunities. Those who couldnt pass the exam were asked to go through the material and video again before retaking the exam. If the salesperson failed an exam again, the reporting manager was notified. This case gives rise to few important questions. These questions are

In todays technological world, is video still the best way to deliver the training? Is video the most effective way to achieve training objectives What role did cost of development, cost of delivery, and other constraints play in selection of video delivery system?

Case study 3 Why Employees Resist Change and 6 Things a Manager can do About It Its Monday morning -- time to diet again. The weekend eating-fest was better than ever. But its time to buckle down and give up everything you love to eat because the doctor said you should lose weight and watch your cholesterol. So Why cheat? Why make excuses about not exercising or deviating from the plan, when you know youre only hurting yourself? What would make someone who is so achievement-oriented in other arenas, set a

goal and continually disappoint themselves in this process, losing hope about ever being able to change? The short answer? Simply, it is really difficult to change. Changing ingrained habits and behaviors can be like giving up your identity or your best friend. Sometimes, the more you want it, the more resistant you become, succumbing to an internal battle that feels like good vs. evil, right vs. wrong, one part of me vs. the other part of me. The diet mentality is a perfect example of how you know what you need to or should do (in this case, whats healthy for you), and yet you resist. Even if you go along with the change for a while, you end up spending more and more of your time thinking about creative ways to break out. Then you justify your resistant behaviors. Fritz Perls, co-author of Gestalt Therapy; Excitement and Growth in the Human Personality, referred to the dichotomy between the two parts of ones personality as the topdog/underdog conflict. The topdog, a demander of perfection, claims to always know whats right and good for you, often echoed in the words, You shouldor, You better Coming across as a self-righteous and judgmental bully, the topdogs main objective is to get you to change, even if its out of fear. The underdog, whose job is to protect feelings from getting trampled on, reacts to this bullying and holier-thanthou manner by sabotaging the change effort. Anxious over not measuring up to such high standards, the underdog assumes a victim mentality and creates reasons and excuses for failure and inaction. The underdog perceives every demand to change as a personal attack of one form or another: - Slap in the face (Youre not good enough!) - Power play (You must listen to me because Im the boss!) - Threat (If you dont change, youre going to be in big trouble) - Potential loss of identity (I want you to conform and do it just like everyone else!) Intimidated by the aggressiveness of its counterpart, the underdog finds other means to fight back. It learns how to use every weapon in its arsenal to wiggle out of doing what it doesnt want to do or doesnt feel competent at doing. Some of the underdogs strategies include: denying theres a problem, generating brilliant excuses, sidetracking conversations and well laid-out plans, setting up smokescreens and mirrors, detecting loopholes, and gathering allies to defend its cause. What happens when there is a live topdog -- someone who has position power or authority over you, like a parent or a boss? Consider the following conversation between a manager, Diane, and her employee, Rick, about a tardiness problem that is affecting Ricks job performance. Ricks underdog knows that he should be on time but cant quite make the commitment to do it. In parentheses are some of the defense mechanisms Rick uses to keep himself from having to take responsibility. Diane: Rick, I need you to get to work by 9:00am sharp. The business requires it and its critical for your career. Rick: I know but its really hard. I have so much going on at home in the mornings that its impossible for me to get here on time. (excuses/exaggeration). Diane: I know how hard mornings are for you. However, we need you here. Customers start calling at 9:00am and I need you to staff the phones. Rick: I was here on time, even early a few days last week. I just cant do it every day. (rationalization)

Diane: Youre never going to succeed if you keep on making excuses and coming in late. JUST DO IT! Rick: Dont think I dont want to; I try but I just cant! My job is very important to me but I cant seem to get my act together. I cant believe how dumb I feel not being able to manage my life. I am so sorry that Im doing this to you! (self-pity/guilt) Diane: Rick, people are complaining that they have to cover your workload as well as their own. Morale is starting to suffer. Rick: How come you never talk about what I do well? You always dwell on the negative. My work is always accurate without errors. Why are we focusing on me being a few minutes late? What about everything else? And everyone else? Im not the only one late to work, you know (denial/sidetracking) Ultimately, if Rick wants to keep his job, he will comply with the expected behavior. Yet, you get the sense that he never really buys in to the notion of coming on time. Pushed up against a wall, he can and probably will show up at 9:00am. However, two weeks later, when Diane is away on a business trip, you wonder if Rick will revert to his old behaviors. Another typical scenario would be for Rick to say, I promise Ill be on time from now on and then not follow through, dodging Diane in the mornings. This passive-aggressive behavior has the underdog smiling and saying, yes, yes, yes on top of the table when under the table they are kicking and screaming, no, no, no. The persons words sound compliant but their actions, body language, and tone of voice, are defiant. It takes a lot of skill, even for experienced managers, to confront passive-aggressive behavior because the behaviors are subtle and occur as an undercurrent; you dont always realize whats happening or that the damage has started to spread. Managers need to remember that if they play topdog too heavily, they will automatically arouse in their employees an equally strong and rebellious underdog, especially those with passive-aggressive tendencies. The more criticized and vulnerable the underdog feels, the more rigidly it will put its stake in the ground. As with any resistance, the rule of thumb is to get the person to air their concerns openly so they can be addressed and talked through. If an employee recognizes their ambivalence about change, and their personal topdog/underdog challenge, they are closer to acknowledging fear and moving forward with courage. Six Things a Manager Can Do About Employee Resistance Here are 6 things a manager can do to encourage an employee to change, while averting a stalemate with his or her underdog: 1) Lay out the desired behavior change in a calm, objective way. Avoid sounding like a punishing parent or a preachy sermonizer. Simply discuss the business need and the impact that the change will have on the persons development and leave out the judgmental voice. If you get too critical or dogmatic, you set yourself up for a negative reaction. 2) Acknowledge the employees ambivalence about making the change. Let them know you recognize how hard it can be to make this change and you appreciate the difficulty of this challenge. Volunteer any strategies you might have used in the past to overcome your own barriers or offer to brainstorm together how to defeat the obstacles. After that, give them space to figure out how they will solve their problem and make the necessary adjustments and set a timetable for following up. 3) Continue to hold the person accountable for their job performance.

Despite any manipulations or sidetracks the person may throw your way, continue to hold your ground that this is a vital aspect of their job performance and their work will need to be up to standard. If you accept mediocre or inconsistent results, you will be lowering the bar for that employee, the department, and yourself. 4) Confront the person on their resistance when you see it or hear it. If you observe the person acting out, dont sweep it under the rug. Privately call them over, let them know what you observed and give them an opportunity to share whats going on. When people feel they can talk through their discomforts in a safe environment, they are more likely to give up some of their armor and bring themselves to a less emotional, more rational way of viewing their situation. 5) Put the ball in their court. Let the person know you care about them and their development, but that you cannot do this for them. Clearly lay out the goal, offer support, coach them through the transition, but ultimately, it will be up to them to do it or not. If they believe that this is all your agenda, the focus will become about you. If they like you, they might do it; if not, they might resist more. Take yourself and your personal agenda out of the middle and leave the decision and the responsibility in the persons own hands. 6) Celebrate success. Ken Blanchard, of One Minute Manager fame, says to catch people doing things right. In the beginning, even when people approximate the correct behavior, they should be positively reinforced. If you see acceptable progress, dont give up on the employee and youll teach them not to give up on themselves, either. The long-term answer lies in maintaining the delicate balance between respecting your employees resistance while still expecting them to make the change. The respect/expect juggling act allows you to support the human face of change without compromising the rigorous business demands of the organization.

Overview of Training and Development 1. Training begins at an elementary level, often teaching basic literacy and mathematics skills before offering instruction in specific job skills. The nature of work is changing. We can no longer count on learning one job and keeping it until retirement. We must learn to think not only of a single chosen career over a lifetime, but of several careers from which we master a cluster of skills that must be continually upgraded. Careers of the future will require lifelong learning, which means that training will become even more vital in your working lives than it was for previous generations. Although training programs are offered for employees at all levels, they are more prevalent for non-college and non-managerial personnel. Also, formal training programs are typically found only in larger companies, those with more than 10,000 employees. Training centers are maintained by IBM, Xerox, General Electric and Avis Rent A Car. Typical Reasons for Employee Training and Development Training and development can be initiated for a variety of reasons for an employee or group of employees, e.g.:

When a performance appraisal indicates performance improvement is needed To "benchmark" the status of improvement so far in a performance improvement effort As part of an overall professional development program As part of succession planning to help an employee be eligible for a planned change in role in the organization To "pilot", or test, the operation of a new performance management system To train about a specific topic

Benefits from Employee Training and Development There are numerous sources of online information about training and development. Several of these sites (they're listed later on in this library) suggest reasons for supervisors to conduct training among employees. These reasons include:

Increased job satisfaction and morale among employees Increased employee motivation Increased efficiencies in processes, resulting in financial gain Increased capacity to adopt new technologies and methods Increased innovation in strategies and products Reduced employee turnover Enhanced company image, e.g., conducting ethics training (not a good reason for ethics training!) Risk management, e.g., training about sexual harassment, diversity training

Cooperative Education Programs Cooperative education programs: business-sponsored training programs in which college students alternate periods of full-time college instruction with full-time employment. Also called as work-study programs. Cooperating companies in these earn-while-you-learn programs hire students to work a portion of each year in their field of study, thus giving students money for college expenses as well as valuable job experience. After graduation, many students are offered permanent jobs with the company they worked for during college. Training for Disabled Employees In an attempt to dispel stereotypes and to make all employees sensitive to the problems of being disabled, training is provided not only for the disabled employees but for the other employees who will be working with them. Training and Fair Employment Practices Training programs must meet equal employment opportunity guidelines and must be clearly related to job performance before their results can be applied to career decisions. Objectives of Training Programs The first step in establishing a formal training program is the precise formulation of objectives. These objectives must be stated in terms of specific behavioral criteria, the acts or operations employees must perform on the job and the way they should perform them to maximize job efficiency. What knowledge, skills and abilities are critical to learning to perform the job successfully? Needs Assessment Needs assessment: an analysis of corporate and individual goals undertaken before designing a training program to achieve them. The goals of the training programs should be derived from the needs of the organization and the employees. There are situations in which the need for a training program is obvious. For example, a company that automates a manufacturing process, eliminating a number of jobs, may choose to retrain its employees for other work. A high accident rate in one department may call for additional safety training. Frequent complaints from dissatisfied customers may lead to employee training in human relations skills. In the absence of a clear indication that training is needed, it is the managements responsibility to analyze its operations periodically to determine if any aspect could benefit from additional training.

Organizational Analysis A general organizational analysis can suggest broad training needs that can then be translated into specific needs of employees or groups of employees. The next step is a task analysis to identify the specific tasks performed on a job and the knowledge, skills and abilities needed for those tasks. An employee analysis is undertaken to determine which workers need retraining and what kind of training is necessary. These evaluations can be accomplished by job analysis methods, critical incidents, performance appraisal techniques, or self-assessments. Job analysis is the most frequently used technique for determining training needs and objectives. It yields a detailed list of the characteristics needed to perform a job successfully and the sequence of operations required. From a job analysis, the company can determine how new training procedures can improve job performance. The critical-incidents technique which focuses on specific desirable or undesirable job behaviors, provides information on how employees are equiped to cope with significant workday events. An analysis of critical incidents can alert the training director to areas in which additional training or instruction is needed. Performance appraisals are an obvious source of information on training needs. They can document employee weaknesses and lead to recommendations for retraining to correct specific deficiencies. Self-assessment is based on the assumption that the person who is performing a job well is a good source of information about the skills needed to do that job and the areas in which training may be desirable. The Training Staff The most important factor in teaching anything at any level seems to be competence or expertise in the subject matter. Although competence is necessary, the instructor must also have the ability to teach, to impart information in a clear and compelling manner. The same principle holds for organizational training. Too often, corporate training is conducted by people who have vast experience in the task or skills to be taught but no instruction in how to communicate that skill effectively to others. The solution is to use professional instructors, persons trained in teaching methods and in job skills. Some large organizations maintain full-time teaching staff equipped to teach a number of subjects or job skills. The Pre-training Environment The pre-training environment established by an organization includes those decisions and cues, communicated directly or indirectly to employees by supervisors and peers, that indicate the value management places on training programs.

These factors may include organizational policies, supervisor attitudes toward training, resources available for training, and employee participation in needs assessments. These cues influence the effectiveness of training programs because they tell employees how supportive the company is of training efforts. The more training opportunities a company offers, the more likely its employees are to believe that training as an important and relevant activity for their careers. Trainees are also more likely to regard training as worthwhile and to be more motivated to achieve in training programs when they know their supervisors support training, know their post-training skills will be assessed, and are given a realistic picture of what the training involves. When these conditions are not met, a training program is likely to be rendered ineffective before it even begins. Pre-taining Attributes of Trainees - A number of psychological characteristics or attributes of trainees can influence both their desire to learn from a training program and the amount and kind of material they are capable of learning from a training program. These attributes include: individual differences in ability, pre-training expectations, motivation, job involvement, locus of control, and self-efficacy. Individual differences in ability - Individual differences in training ability can be predicted through cognitive ability tests, biographical data, and performance in an initial training experience, such as a work sample. Trainability tests, such as work samples or mini-courses, are also valid predictors of performance in a full course of training. Work samples, when used as measures of trainability; offer a short period of formal job skill instruction followed by a test of job performance in a training facility. A meta-analysis of studies of the work sample approach found that they predict performance in full-scale training programs and subsequent performance on the job in most situations (Robertson & Downs, 1989). 2. Pre-training Expectations Employees expectations about the outcome of training can influence the programs effectiveness. Psychologists have also found that when a training program fails to live up to trainees expectations, they are less likely to complete the program. Trainees whose expectations are not met but who do complete the program are likely to be dissatisfied on the job, to have a low sense of commitment to the organization, and to have a high rate of job turnover. Trainees whose pre-training expectations were met by the training program developed greater organizational commitment, a higher sense of selfefficacy, and enhanced motivation to succeed than those whose expectations were not met. 3. Motivation The motivation or desire to learn is vital to employees success in an training program. Learning will not occur unless trainees truly want to learn, regardless of their ability.

In every occupation we can find examples of people who have achieved success with less than an optimal level of ability but with a great drive or motivation to succeed. Research has shown that trainees with higher motivation learn more in training programs than do trainees with lower motivation. Trainees who are highly motivated are more likely to complete the program and to apply their training on the job. Management can increase trainees motivation by involving them in decisions about the training program, allowing them to participate in the needs assessment process, and giving them a choice of training courses. Other research has shown that previous negative events or experiences can increase motivation to learn. 4. Job Involvement Trainees who show greater job involvement whose self-identity is closely linked with their work show higher motivation to learn than do trainees who are less involved. Longterm career plans are also a factor. Employees with low job involvement have low potential for showing improvement in job performance as a result of their training. Pre-training programs to increase job and career involvement may be desirable for some employees. 5. Locus of Control People identified as having an internal locus of control believe that job performance and such work-related rewards as pay and promotion are under their personal control dependent on their own behaviors, abilities and efforts. People with an external locus of control believe that life events in and out of the workplace are beyond their control dependent on such outside forces as luck, chance or whether their boss likes them. Employees who have an internal locus of control are likely to be highly motivated to succeed in a training program because they believe that mastering the job skills is under their control and within their capabilities. They are more likely to accept feedback during training and to take action to correct deficiencies. They show higher levels of job and career involvement than do employees with an external locus of control. 6. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is the belief in ones capacity to perform a task; that is, a sense of adequacy, efficiency, and competence in coping with lifes demands. The relationship between selfefficacy and motivation to learn, and between self-efficacy and actual success in training programs, has been amply demonstrated. People high in self-efficacy have strong beliefs about their ability to succeed in training programs and they outperform people who are low in self-efficacy. Self-efficacy has been shown to increase a persons perception of the value of a training program. A review of the literature on self-efficacy and organizational behavior concluded that an employees level of self-efficacy is positively related to job performance (Gist & Mitchell, 1992). In turn, self-efficacy can be affected by training. Training-enhanced selfefficacy can have long-term effects beyond the duration of the training program that influence more than just the skills acquired during the program.

It might have beneficial effects on socialization and adjustment to a new job during the first year of employment and on such measures as ability to cope, job satisfaction and job commitment. Psychological Factors in Learning Active Practice - For learning to be most effective, trainees must be actively involved in the learning process, not merely be passive recipients of information. Hands-on practice of the skills required to perfrom the job is important. Mental practice, the cognitive rehearsing of a task prior to performing it, can have a positive and significant effect on the actual performance of the task. But not as effective as active performance of the task. Massed and Distributed Practice - Some tasks are learned more rapidly when the training program schedules one or a few relatively long practice sessions (massed practice). Other tasks require a large number of relatively short practice sessions (distributed practice). In general, distributed practice results in better learning, particularly for motor skills. The research evidence is less clear for the learning of verbal skills. Massed practice may be more useful, but much depends on the nature and complexity of the task to be mastered or the material to be learned. Short, simple material can be learned well by massed practice because the sessions do not have to be too long for the trainees to absorb the content. More difficult material must be divided into shorter units and learned by distributed practice. Whole and Part Learning The concept of whole and part learning refers to the relative size of the unit of material to be learned. The training course content can be divided into small parts, each of which is studied individually, or the material can be learned as a whole. The decision depends on the nature and complexity of the material and the ability of the trainees. More intelligent trainees are more capable of rapidly learning larger units of material than are less intelligent trainees. However, when slower learners are offered the chance to learn the same material in smaller units, they may be able to master it better than when forced to apprehend it as a whole. Some skills are obviously better suited to the whole learning method. For example, when learning to drive a car, it serves no useful purpose to divide driving behavior into component skills and to practice separately the necessary movements. When a task requires the initial learning of several sub-skills, the part method is more efficient. Trainees can practice these various sub-skills until a particular level of efficiency has been achieved before integrating the sub-skills into the total behavior or operation. Transfer of Training Organizational training often takes place in an artificial setting, a training facility that may differ in several important ways from the actual job environment.

This discrepancy between training and job situations must be bridged. The training program must ensure that there will be a transfer of training a carryover of the skills mastered during the training program to the job itself. The issue is one of relevance: is the information provided during the training program relevant and meaningful to actual job performance? Is there a correspondence between the behaviors and attitudes taught in the training sessions and the behaviors and attitudes needed to perform the job successfully? In many instances, the answer to these questions is no. If there is close correspondence between training requirements and job requirements, positive transfer will develop. The material learned during training will aid or improve job performance. The greater the similarity between the training and work situations, the greater will be the transfer. If there is little similarity between training situations and work situations, negative transfer will result. In that case, the skills learned in the training program will hamper or interfere with job performance. In negative transfer, these skills or behaviors must then be unlearned or modified before employees can perform the job in questions. Several conditions in the post-training environment can facilitate positive transfer. The most important is supervisor support for and reinforcement of the behaviors and skills taught in the training program. Also influential are the opportunity to apply on the job the skills learned in the training program and a follow-up discussion or assessment shortly after completing the training program. Another important factor is the overall organizational culture or climate. The more supportive it is of training, the greater the opportunities for transfer of training to the work situation. Feedback People learn more readily when they are given a clear idea of how well they are doing. Feedback (sometimes called knowledge of results) indicates to the trainees their level of progress. It is also important in maintaining motivation. If trainees were not provided with feedback during a training program, they might persist in learning and practicing inappropriate behaviors and incorrect techniques of job performance. To be maximally effective, feedback must be offered as soon as possible after the inappropriate behavior occurs. If a sequence of operations is being practiced incorrectly, the desired change is more likely to be brought about if the trainees are told immediately. Overall training progress is greater when the program allows for frequent feedback. The more specific and detailed the feedback, the more useful it will be. Feedback also influences self-efficacy, which is positively related to learning. Reinforcement The greater the reward that follows a behavior, the more easily and rapidly that behavior will be learned. The reward, or reinforcement, can take many forms. By establishing a program of reinforcement, management can maintain employee motivation and effectively shape behavior by rewarding only those actions that the trainees are supposed to learn and display. Reinforcement should be provided immediately after the desired behavior has occurred. The longer the delay between behavior and reinforcement,

the less effective the reinforcement will be because the trainee may fail to perceive the connection between the correct behavior and the reward for having behaved in that way. In the early stages of a training program, reinforcement should be given every time the desired behavior is displayed. Once some learning has taken place, continuous reinforcement is no longer necessary. Then, a partial reinforcement schedule will be effective for example, one that rewards the trainees every third or every tenth time they display the desired behavior. 7. Training Methods in the Workplace Each technique offers advantages and disadvantages, depending on the goals of the training program, the abilities of the trainees, and the nature of the material to be learned. On-the-Job Training On-the-job training: training that takes place directly on the job for which the person has been hired. One of the most widely used training methods.Under guidance of an experienced operator, supervisor or trained instructor, trainees learn while working. They operate the machine or assembly process in the production facility and have the opportunity to develop proficiency while they work. Advantages: Management asserts that the primary one is economy because the organization does not have to establish, equip, and maintain a separate training facility. If workers and supervisors can serve as trainers, even the cost of a professional instructor is saved. A more obvious advantage is positive transfer of training. In terms, of other psychological factors, active practice is provided from the outset. Motivation to learn should be high because the training situation is clearly relevant to the job situation. Feedback is immediate and visible; good performance will elicit praise, and poor performance will show in a faulty part or product. Disadvantages: It can be expensive in the long run. Workers and supervisors must take time from their regular jobs to train new employees. This can lead to an overall reduction in productivity. Additional costs come with the slower productivity of the trainees and any damage they cause to equipment or product because of their inexperience.

On certain jobs, permitting untrained workers to operate machinery may be hazardous not only to trainees but also to other employees. Accident rates for trainees on the job are typically higher than for experienced workers. Using current workers or supervisors as trainers does not ensure adequate training for new employees. Just because a person performs a job competently or has been on the job for a considerable time does not mean that person has the ability to teach the job to someone else.

Managerial training: On-the-job training is also important at the management level. Much managerial and executive training and development occurs through informal and unstructured on-the-job experiences, which contribute more significantly to the development of managerial ability than any formal classroom instruction. Vestibule Training Vestibule training: training that takes place in a simulated workspace. Using the same kind of equipment and operating procedures as the actual work situation, a vestibule training program relies on skilled instructors, rather than experienced workers and supervisors, to teach new workers how to perform their jobs. Advantages: Because its sole purpose is training, there is no pressure to maintain a given level of productivity. Trainees do not have to be concerned about making costly or embarrassing errors or about damaging production equipment. They can concentrate on learning the skills necessary to be successful on the job. Disadvantages: the greatest one is the cost. The organization must equip the facility and maintain a teaching staff. This expense is particularly burdensome when there are not enough new workers to make full use of the training facility.

If the training situation does not correspond closely to the work situation, negative transfer of training will occur, and the trainees may need informal, on-the-job instruction once they start to work. This problem can be aggragated by the common business practice of using obsolete equipment, retired from the production floor in the training facility. Apprenticeship Apprenticeship: a training method for skilled crafts involving classroom instruction and on-the-job experience. Perhaps the earliest recorded training method still in use today for skilled crafts and trades in private-sector industries such as construction and manufacturing. It involves extensive background preparation in the craft as well as actual work experience under the guidance of experts. Apprenticeships average 4-6 years. The standard procedure is for the trainees to agree to work for a company for a fixed period in return for a specified program of training and a salary, usually half that earned by skilled and licensed craftspersons. Trainees must complete the apprenticeship before they are allowed to join a union. Membership in a labor union is necessary to securing employment. Thus, apprenticeship programs constitute a joint effort by industry and organized labor to maintain an adequate supply of trained workers. In recent years, apprenticeships in the public sector have grown in popularity. A number of federal, state and local government agencies have adopted them for skilled,

blue-collar jobs in civilian and military programs, such as building maintenance workers, highway maintenance workers, prison correctional officers and firefighters. Programmed Instruction Programmed instruction: a teaching method in which the material to be learned is presented in small, sequential steps. Involves several techniques, ranging from printed paper-and-pencil booklets to interactive videotapes, to complex computer software. All techniques depend on self-instruction the trainees proceed at their own pace. Detailed programmed information is presented in sequence to the trainees who are required to make frequent and precise responses. The material begins at a low level and gradually becomes more complex. The increments of increasing difficulty are designed to be small so that slower learners can progress with relative ease. Faster learners are allowed to proceed more rapidly. The rate of learning is determined by the trainees motivation and cognitive ability. 2 approaches to presenting programmed material are: linear and branching. In the linear program, all trainees follow the same program in the same sequence. The learning steps are so small and simple that errors are rare, thus permitting trainees to receive frequent positive feedback. The branching program takes account of individual differences in ability. Trainees may skip intervening questions and advance to a more difficult section of material if they show that they are learning the material well. If they make mistakes and show that they are not learning well, they are directed for remedial assistance to a new set of questions on the same or earlier material. Advantages: programmed instruction provides active participation, immediate and continuous feedback, and positive reinforcement, and takes account of individual differences. It also eliminates the need for an instructor. In booklet form, the method can be used by trainees wherever they choose; a training facility and expensive equipment are not required. The course content is standardized for all trainees, and a complete record of the traineesprogress is maintained. Disadvantages: the kind of material that can be taught by programmed instruction is limited. The method is appropriate for teaching only certain items of knowledge, particularly those that require rote memorization, but it is less effective for teaching complex job skills. Because instructional material can be costly to develop, it is usually restricted to training programs that involve very large numbers of trainees who are required to learn a job within a short time. Initial acceptance of programmed instruction is usually high, but enthusiasm often fades as trainees precede robot like through the lengthy series of small steps. Research on learning effectiveness suggests that programmed instruction provides for faster learning of certain types of material, but it does not appear to improve the quality of learning.

Computer-Assisted Instruction

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI): a computer-based method in which trainees learn material at their own pace and receive immediate feedback on their progress. Widely used in private and public-sector organizations. In CAI, the program of instruction which is stored on computer disks, serves as the teacher. Trainees interact with the material on personal computer terminals. Trainees responses are recorded and analyzed automatically, and the difficulty of each item presented is based on the correctness of the response to the previous item. One of the most widespread uses of computer-based training is to teach computer literacy skills. Another use of CAI is the software used by airlines for training flight crews. Advantages: Trainees are actively involved in the learning process and work through the material at their own pace. They receive immediate feedback on their progress and reinforcement for displaying mastery of a skill.

Another advantage of CAI is that it offers considerably more individualized instruction then does programmed instruction. It is not unlike being tutored privately by an excellent teacher who has a comprehensive knowledge of the subject and never becomes impatient with the student. The computer responds instantly to the progress of each trainee without showing annoyance, prejudice or error. CAI also has record-keeping functions and maintains a current performance analysis on each trainee. CAI can be used with a small number of trainees so that the company does not have to make them wait until there is a sufficient number to fill a classroom and schedule a course. It can aslo be provided to a large number of trainees simultaneously in different locations. Studies have shown that CAI can decrease training time by as much as 50% while providing levels of retention and transfer of training equivalent to traditional classroom instruction. Behavior Modification Behavior modification: a training program of positive reinforcement to reward employees for displaying desirable job behaviors. Behavior modification techniques are also effective in dealing with stress. Performance audit: an analysis undertaken prior to implementing a behavior modification training program to determine the problems or employee behaviors that can be modified for more efficient job performance. Punishments of reprimands are not used. Often, praise and recognition are found to be sufficient reinforces for improving job performance and for bringing about the desired behaviors. It is important to reinforce desired behaviors as soon as they occur and gradually shift from constant to intermittent reinforcement. Sometimes, employees are required to keep a detailed record of their accomplishments so that they can compare their performance with the company standards and have daily feedback on their progress.

 Job Rotation Job rotation: a management training technique that assigns trainees to various jobs and departments over a period of a few years. It is a popular management training technique. It exposes trainees to different jobs and departments to acquaint them with all facets of their organization. It is frequently used with new college graduates who are just beginning their working careers. Trainees gain perspective on various aspects of organizational life. They have the opportunity to see and be seen by higher management in different departments, and to learn through direct experience where they might best apply their knowledge, abilities and interests. The rotation phase of a management career may last several years, taking employees from one department to another, one plant or office to others in the country and perhaps to offices in other countries as well. Such changes can promote the development of flexibility, adaptability and self-efficacy as employees learn to deal successfully with new challenges. Job rotation programs are also used for skilled and semiskilled jobs. They allow workers to increase their skill levels in diverse occupations, and they serve to alleviate the boredom that can result from years of performing the same tasks. Overall, the majority of employees and executives are highly pleased with this technique. Especially younger ones and better qualified ones. Disadvantages: frequent moves can disrupt family life and interrupt a spouses career. If the rotation period is too brief, there may not be sufficient time to become fully acquainted with a particular job. If top management is more interested in management trainees as temporary office help, instead of the rising group of managers in need of mentors, the trainees will not have the opportunity to acquire the necessary skills to transfer to upper-management postitions.

Case Studies Case studies: a method of executive training in which trainees analyze a business problem and offer solutions. The method was developed by the Harvard University School of Business and is popular in executive training programs. A complex problem is presented to the trainees prior to the meeting and they are expected to familiarize themselves with the information and to find additional relevant material. When they meet as a group, each member must be prepared to interpret the problem and offer a solution. Through the presentation of diverse viewpoints, the trainees come to appreciate different perspectives on a problem and, consequently, different approaches to solving it. Usually, the cases have no one correct solution. The group leader does not suggest an answer. The group as a whole must reach a consensus and resolve the problem. Disadvantages: it is not related to job requirements. There may be a discrepancy between the theoretical solution to the case problem and the solution that is practical for the organization.

Therefore, actions taken on the basis of the case study solution proposed in the training program may not transfer positively to actions than can be taken on the job. Business Games Business games: a training method that simulates a complex organizational situation to encourage the development of problem-solving and decision-making skills. More than half of the largest US corporations use business games for management training. Trainees compete in teams, each team representing a separate, hypothetical business organization. The team companies are given detailed information about the operation of their organization, including data on finances, sales, advertising, production, personnel and inventories. Each group must organize itself and assign various tasks and responsibilities to each member. As the teams deal with corporate problems, their decisions are evaluated by an instructor. They may be required to consider additional problems based on the outcomes of their initial decisions. Because business problems presented to the trainees are so realistic, many trainees form an emotional commitment to their company. They gain experience in making decisions on real-life problems under the twin pressures of time and the actions taken by rival organizations. For new employees, business games may provide their first exposure to the actual job tasks and stresses managers face.This type of realistic job preview persuades some trainees they would be happier in another line of work. In-Basket Training Each trainee is given a stack of letters, memos, customer complaints, and requests from subordinates and other items that present various problems faced by managers on the job. The trainees must take action on each item within a specified period. After completing the tasks, the trainees meet with a trainer to discuss their decisions and receive feedback on the outcomes. Role Playing Management trainees pretend to act out a particular role, displaying whatever behaviors they believe are appropriate in a given situation. E.g. they may be asked to imagine themselves to be a supervisor who must discuss a poor performance appraisal with a subordinate. They act out these situations in front of a group of trainees and instructors, who offer comments on their performance. Sessions can be videotaped for later analysis. Many people feel foolish or awkward at first about pretending or acting in front of a group, but once they begin, most people develop sensitivity for the role and try to project their feelings and beliefs onto it. Role playing can be a valuable learning device. It enables trainees to become sensitive to their subordinates views and to the roles the trainees will

be expected to play as managers. It provides practical experience as well as feedback from other trainees and instructors. Trainees have the opportunity to practice job-related behaviors in a situation in which mistakes or inappropriate behaviors will not jeopardize interpersonal relations on the job. Behavior Modeling Behavior modeling: It involves having trainees attempt to imitate or model their behavior on examples of exceptional job performance. It is one of the most popular techniques for teaching interpersonal and leadership skills. It is usually conducted with groups of 6-12 supervisors or lower-level managers. Sessions may last 2-4 hours a week for up to 4 weeks. In the intervals between training sessions, the trainees are on the job, applying what they have learned, which provides them with feedback form their subordinates. The usual procedure is for a trainer, using a prepared script, to provide a general introduction to the nature of the training. Then the trainees watch a videotape of a manager who is acting out appropriate procedures and behaviors for handling a particular job situation with a subordinate. The trainees engage in behavior rehearsal, practicing the behaviors they saw the model perform. Trainees are not asked to play a role; instead, they are imitating the actual behaviors they will use on the job, the behaviors the model has displayed. The trainer and the other trainees provide feedback by telling each trainee how closely s/he imitated the models behavior and where the behavior diverged. This social reinforcement helps trainees gain confidence in their ability to display the appropriate behavior. Advantages: The interpersonal and leadership behaviors learned by behavior modelling will transfer to the job. Because the modeled situation between manager and subordinate are actual job situations, the behaviors should carry over to job performance.

Thus, there is a high degree of relevance between behavior modeling as a training technique and job requirements, a condition that increases trainees motivation to accept and apply the training. A meta-analysis of more than 70 management training studies shows that behavior modeling has been effective in raising employee morale, improving communication with customers, increasing sales, decreasing absenteeism, enhancing supervisory skills, improving production quantity and quality, and reducing employee resistance to change (Burke & Day, 1986). Diversity Training The nature of the work force is changing to include more women and ethnic minority workers. Economic forecasters expect white males to become a minority of the work force

in the new century. To aid workers in coping with an increasingly diverse work force, organizations are instituting diversity training programs to teach employees to confront personal prejudices that could lead to discriminatory behaviors. Through lectures, videos, role playing and confrontational exercises, employees are learning, in a way, how it feels to be a female worker being sexually harassed by a male boss, or a Hispanic worker receiving an unsatisfactory performance appraisal from a Black supervisor. Trainees are forced to deal with their own sexist and racial attitudes and to learn to be more sensitive to the concerns and viewpoints of others. A survey of 785 human resources personnel found that the development of diversity training programs and their perceived success depended on several factors: support from management, mandatory attendance, and the size of the organization and the hiring of socalled diversity managers. Larger organizations with strong support from top executives, a staff of diversity specialists, and required attendance for all employees were the most likely to have successful diversity training programs. Some evidence suggests that many programs foster negative reactions as well as charges that the programs are offered only because it appears to be the politically correct thing to do. 8. Guidelines to Design Your Training Plan Don't Worry About Whether Your Plan is Perfect or Not -- The Plan is Guide, Not Law Don't worry about whether you completely understand key terms in training or whether your plan is "perfect" or not. The key is to get started. Start simple, but start. Do the best that you can for now. There is no perfect plan. You're doing the plan according to your own nature and needs. Also, it's not important to stick to the plan for the sake of the plan. The plan will likely change as you go along. That's fine, as long as you've notice that it's been changed and why. Remember that Training and Development is a Process So often when we design a plan, the plan becomes the end rather than the means. The plan is a general guide -- the real treasure found from implementing your plan is the learning you achieve. Learning is an ongoing process. Look at learning as a process and you enjoy the long time during the journey rather than the short time at the destination. Get Some Sense of These Basic Terms You don't have to be expert at the following terms -- just get a general sense about them. training goal Learning objectives documentation / learning methods / evidence of evaluation activities learning

overall results what you will be what you will do in evidence produced assessment

or capabilities you hope to attain by implementing your training plan, e.g., 1. pass supervisor qualification test

able to do as a result of the learning activities in this plan, e.g., 1. exhibit required skills in problem solving and decision making 2. exhibit required skills in delegation

order to achieve the learning objectives, e.g., 1. complete a course in basic supervision 2. address a major problem that includes making major decisions 3. delegate to a certain employee for one month 4. etc.

during your learning activities -- these are results that someone can see, hear, feel, read, smell, e.g., 1. course grade 2. your written evaluation of your problem solving and decision making approaches 3. etc.

and judgment on quality of evidence in order to conclude whether you achieved the learning objectives or not

Determining Your Overall Goals in Training This section helps you identify what you want to be able to do as a result of implementing your training plan, for example, qualify for a certain job, overcome a performance problem, meet a goal in your career development plan, etc. Learners are often better off to work towards at most two to four goals at a time. a. Are there any time lines that you should consider in your plan? Do you have to accomplish any certain areas of knowledge or skills by a certain time? If so, this may influence your choice of learning objectives and learning activities to achieve the objectives. b. Are you pursuing training and development in order to address a performance gap? A performance gap is usually indicated from the performance appraisal process. The performance appraisal document should already include careful description of the areas of knowledge and skills that you must learn in order to improve your performance. c. Or, is your plan to address a growth gap? If so, carefully identify what areas of knowledge and skills are needed to reach your goals in your career. Consider referencing job descriptions, lists of competencies or even networking with others already in the positions that you want to reach in the near future. d. Or, is your plan to address an opportunity gap? If so, carefully identify what areas of knowledge and skills are needed to perform the job or role that soon might be available to you. Again, consider job descriptions, lists of competencies or even interviewing someone already in the job or role that may soon be available to you. Get feedback from others Ask for advice from friends, peers, your supervisors and others. They can be a real treasure for real-world feedback about you! For example, you (and your supervisor,

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is applicable) could work together to conduct a SWOT (an acronym) analysis, including identifying the your strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and any threats to reaching the your desired goals. Should you conduct a self-assessment? For example, you (and your supervisor, is applicable) could work together to conduct a SWOT (an acronym) analysis, including identifying the your strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and any threats to reaching the your desired goals. Is a list of competencies, job descriptions or job analysis available to help you identify your training and development goals? A competencies list is a list of the abilities needed to carry out a certain role. The list can be very useful to you when identifying your learning objectives in your training and development plan Begin thinking about how much money you will need to fund your plan. You might need money, e.g., to pay trainers, obtain facilities and materials for training methods, pay wages or salaries for employees during attendance to training events, etc. Begin recording your expected expenses in the "Budget" Identify your training goals. By now, you should have a strong sense of what your training goals are, after having considered each of the above steps. It's important that goals be designed and worded to be "SMARTER" (an acronym), that is, specific, measurable, acceptable to you, realistic to achieve, time-bound with a deadline, extending your capabilities and rewarding to you.

Determining Your Learning Objectives and Activities The purpose of this part of your planning is to design learning objectives that ultimately accomplish your reaching your overall training and development goals. You will also identify the learning activities (or methods) you'll need to conduct to achieve your learning objectives and overall training goals. a. Identify some preliminary learning objectives for each new area of knowledge or skills that you need to learn. Carefully consider each of your training goals. What specifically must be accomplished (that is, what objectives must be reached) in order for you to reach those goals? Which of these objectives require learning new areas of knowledge or skills? These objectives are likely to become learning objectives in your training plan. Similar to the nature of training goals, learning objectives should be designed and worded to be "SMARTER" b. In what sequence should the learning objectives be attained? Usually, learning builds on learning. It may be useful to learn certain areas of knowledge and skills before learning new areas. c. Carefully consider -- When you have achieved all of your learning objectives, will you indeed have achieved all of your overall training goals? d. What are the best learning activities (methods) for you to achieve your learning objectives? Do the methods match your particular learning style, e.g., reading, doing or listening? Do the methods stretch your styles, too? Are the methods readily

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f. g. h. i.

accessible to you? Do the methods take advantage of real-life learning opportunities, e.g., use on-the-job training opportunities, real-life problems that occur at work, use of projects and programs at work? Note that learning activities do always match learning objectives on a one-for-one basis. Do your learning activities include your ongoing reflections about your learning? You (and your supervisor, if applicable) will benefit from regularly taking time to stand back and inquire about what is going on in your training, what are you learning and how, if anything should be changed, etc. Skills in reflection are critical for ongoing learning in your life and work. What observable results, or evidence of learning, will you produce from your learning activities that can be reviewed for verification of learning? Who will verify that each of your learning objectives were reached? Ideally, your learning is evaluated by someone who has strong expertise in the areas of knowledge and skills required to achieve your training goals. Now that you know what activities that will be conducted, think again about any costs that will be needed, e.g., for materials, facilities, etc. How will you handle any ongoing time and stress management issues while implementing your plan? Professional development inherently includes the need for self-development, as well

Developing Any Materials You May Need The goal of this phase of your planning is to obtain or develop any resources you need to conduct the activities you selected in the previous phase of the plan. 1. Consider if you need to obtain, or start: Enrolling in courses, buying books, scheduling time with experts, getting a mentor, scheduling time with your supervisor, etc. 2. Now that you've thought more closely about learning methods and associated materials, think again about any costs that will be needed, e.g., for materials, facilities, etc. 3. Should any of your planned learning methods be pretested? Should you have anyone else use the methods and share their impressions about the methods with you? Have you briefly reviewed the methods, e.g., documentation, overheads, etc? Did you experience any difficulties understanding the methods? Planning Implementation of Your Training Plan The goal of this phase of your planning is to ensure there are no surprises during the implementation phase of your training. 1. During your training, how will you be sure that you understand the new information and materials? Periodically conduct a short test, e.g., everyone once in a while, try recall the main points of what you have just learned, test yourself, etc. If you are confused, tell your trainer now.

2. Will your learning be engaging and enjoyable? 3. Where will you get necessary administrative support and materials? 4. During implementation, if any changes should be made to your plan, how will they be tracked? How will the plan be redesigned? How will it be communicated and to the right people? 5. Are you sure that you'll receive the necessary ongoing feedback, coaching, mentoring, etc., during your training and development activities?

Planning Quality Control and Evaluation of Your Training Plan and Experiences The goal of this phase of your planning is to ensure your plan will indeed meet your training goals in a realistic and efficient fashion. 1. Who's in charge of implementing and tracking your overall plan? How will you know if the plan is on track or needs to be changed? 2. Consider having a local training expert review the plan. The expert can review, in particular, whether - your training goals will provide the results desired by you (and your organization, if applicable), - learning objectives are specific and aligned with your overall training goals, - the best methods are selected for reaching your learning objectives, and - your approach to evaluation is valid and practical. 3. Are approaches to evaluation included in all phases of your plan? For example, are your methods being pretested before being applied? Do you understand the methods as they're being applied? Are regularly providing feedback about how well you understand the materials? How will the you (and your supervisor, if applicable) know if implementation of the plan achieves the training goals identified in the plan? Are there any plans for follow-up evaluation, including assessing your results several months after you completed your plan? Follow-Up After Completion of Your Plan This is often the part of the plan that gets neglected. In our society, we're often so focused on identifying the next problem to solve, that few of us have the ability to acknowledge successful accomplishments and then celebrate. The design and of this plan has probably been a very enlightening experience for you -- an experience that brought a perspective on learning you can apply in a great many other arenas of your life. Congratulations! 1. Are follow-up evaluation methods being carried out? 2. Did you (and your supervisor, if applicable) complete a successful experience to develop and implement a training and development plan? Is this accomplishment being fully recognized? 9. Evaluating Training and Development Programs It is necessary that the outcomes or results of training programs be evaluated in systematic and quantitative terms. One proposed model for assessing the success of a training program measures actual changes in cognitive outcomes, such as the amount of information learned,

skill-based outcomes, such as changes in quantity or quality of production, and affective outcomes, such as changes in attitudes or motivation (Kraiger, Ford & Salas, 1993). Unless such evaluative research is conducted, the organization will not know how worthwhile of effective the investment of time and money is. Comparisons must be made of trained and untrained workers in the same job. Or the same workers before and after training must be compared with a control group of workers that were not exposed to the training. Only through such research can the organization determine whether its training program should be modified, extended or eliminated. Even with such substantial investment at stake, most organizations do not make systematic efforts to evaluate their training programs. If evaluation is undertaken at all, it is usually subjective or intuitive. A survey conducted by the American Society of Training and Development showed that, although most large organizations recorded trainees reactions to training programs, only 10% of the companies investigated whether training led to changes in job behavior (Tannenbaum & Yukl, 1992). Thus, most organizations do not have a clear idea whether the millions of dollars they spend on training is worthwhile. Evaluative research is itself costly, but other factors contribute to the lack of assessment of the effectiveness of training programs. Many training directors do not have the skills to conduct such research, and they also may tend to overestimate the usefulness of programs thay have initiated and designed. Some organizations establish training programs not because management believes in them or expects them to meet specific corporate goals but because their competitors have them. Some training programs are established because a so-called new technique has become newsworthy and produced a flood of anecdotal reports in the media attesting to its value. One example from the 1980s is time-management, supposedly a method for learning to use ones time in the most efficient manner. Supporters claimed time management increased job performance and satisfaction and reduced stress. With the growing number of magazine articles and television reports about the success of time management, more and more companies hired time-management consultants to train employees in this latest miracle cure for the ills of the workplace. The only problem was, time management did not work. This was not demonstrated convincingly, however, until 1994, when an I/O psychologist conducted research with 353 state civil service employees and 341 college students. The documented conclusion was that time management training was ineffective (Macan, 1994). Assessing behavioral changes following training can be difficult. If a worker operates a simple machine or assembles a part, the goal of the training program and the measurement of the outcome are relatively straightforward. The number of items produced per unit time by trained and untrained workers or by workers trained by different techniques can be determined objectively and compared. At this work level, training programs have been shown to be effective. When dealing with human-relations, problem-solving, or other management behaviors, it is far more difficult to assess the effects of training programs.

Team Building Games Team "bonding" is a very important process that will help to ensure a close-knit team. A strong cheer squad becomes one in purpose and desire, Encouragement is very important in team bonding. If team members try to motivate one another, everyone will try harder to accomplish team objectives. Teambuilding games are a fun way to develop cohesiveness. They tear down walls in communications, provide avenues that encourage discussion, and increase productivity. Team building takes time but the end results are well worth the extra time. It is an ongoing process that boosts commitment. Here are some games and exercises to do with your squad to build a unified group. 1. Relay Lock Race- Each person selects a partner. They stand back to back and lock arms by the elbows while holding their own stomach with their hands. The coach gives the instruction to get from one side of the gym to the other. Don't give them specific instructions on how to get to the finish line other than they can't let go of their stomachs. This causes creativity and laughter. 2. Shoe Game Have everyone take off their shoes and put them in a pile in the middle of the room. Mix the shoes up. Divide the cheerleaders into 2 groups. See which group can find their shoes and put them on first. When they have their shoes on the team done first must sit on the floor. 3. Truths and a Lie - Each team member writes 2 true facts and one lie on a card. The coach collects the cards and reads them aloud. The rest of the squad tries to guess who it is and which fact is the lie. 4. Sculpting - Give your squad different supplies such as newspaper, scissors, construction paper, glitter, straws, tape, string, etc. and tell them to create a sculpture that represents their school's spirit. Have them explain the significance. If the school's spirit is low, use this opportunity to discuss how they can improve their school's spirit. 5. Trust Fall- Cheerleaders sit in a close circle with their legs straight and arms out. One cheerleader stands in the center of the circle. She should have everyone's feet around her ankles. The girl in the center squeezes all her muscles and is very tight. She falls to the side and the other cheerleaders catch her and push her back and forth in the circle. Let all members be the one in the center. 6. To Be Or Knot To Be You need an even number of students, ideally no larger than twelve. Form a circle facing each other (the difficulty of the activity increases, the greater the number of students in the group). Students close their eyes and reach across the circle with their right hand to grasp the right hand of another student. They should pretend that they are shaking hands - but hold on! With eyes open, have each student reach across the circle with their left hand and grasp the left hand of a different student. No student should be holding both hands of the same person. Now, without letting go, have the students untangle themselves. The result should be a circle of intertwined circles, or one large circle. 7. Cheerleader Tic-Tac-Toe- You need nine chairs set up in three rows. Divide the squad into X's and O's. Just like in regular tic-tac-toe, the X's and O's alternate, except they sit in the chairs instead of drawing it out on paper. Ask questions about the rules of football, basketball or any sport. The cheerleaders must raise her hand

to answer. If she is right, then she sits in one of the chairs. The first team to get three in a row, diagonally, vertically or horizontally, wins. 8. Ball of String - While standing in a circle; pass a ball of string from one member to another. The rules are only the person with the string can talk. After everyone has had their turn to speak and share their feelings, there will be a web of string. This web illustrates the interconnected nature of group process. Everything they do and say affects the team. Now toss a balloon in the middle and have them try to keep it. They are not allowed to touch it. This symbolizes teamwork. 9. Back to Back- Divide into partners with one person left over in the middle. You need one person to be the caller. The call will yell directions telling the partners to line up back to back, foot to foot, elbow to elbow, shoulder to shoulder and so on. When the caller yells people to people, everyone must find a new partner. The one left over is now in the middle. This is a form of people musical chairs. 10. Line Up - Divide the group into 2. Each team will compete against each other to see who can get the challenge done faster. Challenges could be line up according to birthdays, alphabetically by first name or last name, age, etc. Try the same challenges without talking. 11. Machinery - Divide the group into teams (3 or more teams). Assign each group to build a certain machine with their own bodies such as a toaster, washing machine, vacuum cleaner, lawn mower, television, etc. Give them time to work it out. Then they build the machine and the other teams guess what it is. 12. Self-Disclosure Introductions (this is great for new teams) - Ask each team member to state her name and attach an adjective that not only describes a dominant characteristic but also starts with the persons first name. Examples: Serious Susie, Nice Natalie, and Loving Lauren. 13. Amnesia Game - A participant is identified as suffering from amnesia. That person needs to pretend not to know anything about the past. The rest of the group tells some things that help the amnesia victim to remember and to become the same person as before. The amnesia person can ask questions to gain more insight. Some questions could be What would I do in a certain case, What is my favorite saying 14. P E E R O - Make up bingo cards with nothing in the squares. Hand out one to each cheerleader. Every person has a cheerleader sign in a square. Each person can only sign a cheerleaders card once unless you do not have enough cheerleaders to fill all the squares of one bingo card. You want to have a different name in each block. Put all the names in a container. The coach draws out a name and that cheerleader must stand up and tell something about himself or herself. The rest of the cheerleaders block out the name. The first cheerleader to get bingo or peero wins. 15. Name Crossties - Give a piece of paper to every cheerleader and ask them to write their name in the middle of the paper about a half an inch high. When given the signal, the cheerleaders should move around the room, attaching their names to their name if the letters fit (like a crossword puzzle). The person who is able to attach the most names is the winner.

16. Human Scavenger Hunt Divide your cheerleaders into teams. Give each team a list of questions to answer. The first team to finish, wins. Examples of questions are Name 2 people on the cheer squad who has the same first and last initial. Name a group of people on the squad whose ages add up to 46. Who is the person on the squad that lives closest to the high school? Name group of three people who all have different colored eyes. Name 2 people who have a birthday in the same month. When is the coachs birthday? When is the ADs birthday? 17. All Aboard -Take a large sheet and spread it on the floor. Have all the students stand on the sheet together. Once they have done this fold the sheet to make it smaller. Again, have all the students get on the sheet. Continue this process. Eventually, the sheet will be so small that the students will need to use a great deal of cooperation, teamwork, and ingenuity to get the whole class on the sheet without anyone falling out/off the sheet. 18. Team Talk - Communication is another key to team unity. Part of communicating is getting to know your teammates, their opinions, concerns and aspirations for the team. Here is a great list of topics to use for learning about each other. Sit in a circle and have a leader ask a question. Allow each team member to answer the question until everyone has participated. Then continue with the next question. When did you first know that you wanted to try out for this team? What do your parents say about you being on the team? Veteran members: What past team member did you most respect and why? New team members: What do you think your most important job is as a first year member? What is one or two words that students in your school use to describe your team? What words do you want them to use? What do you think youll remember about your team 10 years from now? Veteran members: What one piece of advice would you give to the new members if they want to have the most positive team experience? New members: What help or encouragement do you need from the veterans to be a successful team member? What one thing can you do consistently to show your dedication to the team? 19. Minefield - Have group discuss things that are detrimental to functioning as a group. For each characteristic/action, throw an object into the playing space, the "minefield." Have group choose partners. One partner is blindfolded at one end of field. The non-blindfolded partners stand at the opposite end of the field and try to talk their partners through the minefield without running into any of the obstacles. 20. Human Dragon - Divide your team into 4 teams of 6-8 individuals. You can have odd numbers or vary the length of the "dragon" depending on the skill, size and ability of your athletes. Each team designates the "head" person and the "tail" section of the Human Dragon. All other team members fill in behind the head of the dragon by holding on to the person in front of them at the waist. The goal of the activity is to have the head of each dragon attempt to tag the tail of any other dragon team. Only heads of the dragon can do the tagging because all other team

members must remain connected (with two hands) to their teammates. Players attempt to avoid having their team's tail be tagged and skillfully attempt to shield their tail from other dragons on the prowl. 21. Create A Monster- Make a monster that walks with both hands and feet on the ground. The monster must have one less arm than the number on the squad and one more foot. Once the monster is created, it has to move five feet and make a sound. 22. Encouragement- Have a piece of paper for every team member on the squad with one name on each page. The team sits in a circle. Everyone has 30 seconds to write one positive thing on each team member's sheet (30 seconds per sheet, then pass them). At the end, each girl goes home with a sheet with many encouraging statements. A variation of this game is to have each team member have her own paper taped to her back. 23. Toxic River- Everyone is on one side. You measure a space about 5 feet and call it a toxic river. You want the whole squad to cross as fast as they can. They aren't allowed to cross the toxic river without special pair of boots and there is only one pair of boots. Each person can use the boots only once. The boots cannot be tossed over the river. Each person has to personally give the boots to he next person and if they touch the toxic waste without the boots, the team must start over. Hint: Carrying people over is the key. 24. Human Letters -Divide the squad into groups of 4 to 5 people. The coach calls out a letter. Each group has to spell out the letter on the ground with their bodies. The group to get the letter the fastest, or the most accurate, wins. Keep score. 25. Rock-Paper-Scissors Tag Form two groups. During each turn, a team must decide whether they are rock, paper, or scissors. The teams face each other, and on the count of three shows either rock, paper, scissors. The one who wins chases the other team. If the chased team member gets caught before they reach a designated home base, she becomes part of the other team. 26. Pass the Body Every lies on the floor in one straight line with heads together with legs and body extending out to the side. They extend their arms up and a person will lie on top of the hands. Group passes the body down the line. 27. Bonding Quotes - Assign different cheerleaders to bring in bonding quote or word for each week. At the end of each practice, have each cheerleader explain how she applied that quote or word to practice. Samples: All the talent in the world doesn't mean a thing without your teammates The only place success comes before work is in the dictionary, You have no control over what the other guy does. You only have control over what you do. The best inspiration is not to outdo others, but to outdo ourselves. Think big, believe big, act big, and the results will be big"