INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC EXCHANGES

Research on electronic switching started soon after the Second World War, but commercial fully electronic exchange began to emerge only about 30 years later. However, electronic techniques proved economic for common controls much earlier. In electromechanical exchanges, common control mainly uses switches and relays which were originally designed for use in switching networks. In common controls, they are operated much more frequently and wear out earlier. In contrast, the life of an electronic device is almost independent of its frequency of operation. This gave an incentive for developing electronic common controls and resulted in electronic replacements for registers, markers, translators etc. having much greater reliability than their electromechanical predecessors. Introduction of computer has led to the development of stored-program control (SPC). This enables a digital computer to be used as a central control and perform different functions with the same hardware by executing different programs. As a result, SPC exchanges can offer a wider range of facilities than earlier systems. In addition, the facilities provided to an individual customer can be readily altered by changing the customers class-of-service data stored in a central electronic memory. Moreover, since the processors stored data can be altered electronically, some of these facilities can be controlled by customers. Examples include: 1. Call barring (outgoing or incoming) : The customer can prevent unauthorized calls being made and can prevent incoming calls when wishing to be left in peace. 2. Call waiting : The Call Waiting service notifies the already busy subscriber of a third party calling him. 3. Alarm calls : The exchange can be instructed to call the customer at a pre-arranged time (e.g. morning alarm). 4. Call diversion :The exchange can be instructed to connect calls to a different number when the customer goes away.

5. Three-way call :The customer can instruct the exchange to connect a third party to a call that is already in progress. Electromechanical and Electronic Switching in SPC Exchanges Attempts to introduce electronics and computers in the control sub-system of an exchange were encouraging enough to spur the development of full-fledged electronic switching system, in which the switching network is also electronic. After about 10 years of developmental efforts and field trials, the worlds first electronic switching system, known as No.1 ESS, was commissioned by AT&T at New Jersey in May 1965.Since then, the history of electronic switching system and stored program control has been one of rapid and continuous growth in versatility and range of services. Today SPC is a standard feature in all the electronic exchanges. However, attempts to replace the space division electromechanical switching matrices particularly in large exchanges, and the switching engineers have been forced to return to electromechanical miniature crossbars and reed relays, but with a complete electronic environment. As a result, many space division electronic switching systems use electromechanical switching networks with SPC. The two types of space division electronic switching systems, one using electromechanical switching network and the other using electronic switching network, are depicted in the following figure. Both the types qualify as electronic switching systems although only one of them is fully electronic. With the evolution of time division switching, which is done in the electronic domain, modern exchanges are fully electronic. Electromechanical switching network Electronic switching network

Stored Program Control (a) Electromechanical switching

Stored Program Control (b) Electronic switching

Electronic Switching System There are different approaches followed for the implementation of fully electronic switching system. One approach is to use a FDM multiplex system. A frequency division multiplex (FDM) system could be used as a switch by bringing the two ends of its transmission path together. Another approach was implementing a TDM switching system. It mainly consisting of a switch with N inlets and N outlets with logical gates. If any of the N receiving gates is operated by a train of pulses coincident with those applied to one of the N sending gates, then a transmission path is provided from the incoming trunk to the outgoing trunk via the common highway. For a transmission system, fixed pulse timings are used. If the pulse timings can be altered, then any incoming trunk can be connected to any outgoing trunk i.e. an N x N switch is obtained. Moreover, a memory which stores the appropriate pulse timings can be implemented relatively cheaply. Research on TDM switching proved successful and systems using it are now in service world wide. Consequently, switching systems may be classified as: 1. Space-division (SD) systems. Each connection is made over a different path in space which exists for the duration of the connection. 2. Time-division (TD) systems Each connection is made over the same path in space, but at different instants in time. The distinction between SD and TD applies to the control arrangements of an exchange as well as to its switching network. For example, if an exchange uses individual registers, this is space division. If the register function is performed by a central processor, handling each call in turn, this is time division. Digital Switching Systems The ESS No.1 system was fully electronic but not digital. But later came ESS No.4 system which was digital for trunk portion only. When designed, the cost of A/D conversion (CODEC) on each subscriber line was seen as prohibitive. So the ESS No.4

system was acting as a Trunk/Tandem exchange but not as a local exchange. So the main difficulty for implementing a digital local exchange was the implementation of the subscriber line interface. This was solved by the introduction of Integrated Circuits which made the digital local exchange economically feasible. This implementation handles the following functions:Battery feed Over-voltage protection (from lightning and accidental power line contact) Ringing Supervisory Signaling Coding (A/D inter conversion&low pass filtering) Hybrid (2W to 4W conversion) Testing (a capability of the switch) Examples of digital exchanges include CDOT, OCB, AXE, EWSD, 5ESS etc. The general architecture of a Digital Switching System is depicted in fig2

General architecture of Digital Switching System

Nx2 Mbps links

Subs interface

Trunks interface Other exchanges

Digital Switch

CONTROL PROCESSOR Other auxiliary inter faces

Operation & Maintenance

Fig 2

Evolution of ISDN The next evolutionary step was to move the PCM codec from the exchange end of the customers line to the customers end. This provides digital transmission over the customers line, which can have a number of advantages. Consider data transmission. If there is an analog customers line, a modem must be added and data can only be transmitted at relatively slow speeds. If the line is digital, data can be transmitted by removing the codec (instead of adding a modem). Moreover, data can be transmitted at 64 kbit/s instead of at, say, 2.4 kbit/s. Indeed, any form of digital signal can be transmitted whose rate does not exceed 64 kbit/s. This can include high-speed fax, in addition to speech and data. This concept had led to the integrated services digital network (ISDN), in which the customers terminal equipment and the local digital exchange can be used to provide many different services, all using 64 kbit/s digital streams. Access to an ISDN is provided in two forms: 1. Basic-Rate Access (BRA) The customers line carries two 64 kbit/s B channels plus a 16 kbit/s D channel (a common signaling channel) in each direction . 2. Primary Rate Access (PRA) The line carries a complete PCM frame at 2 Mbit/s in each direction. This gives the customer 30 circuits at 64 kbit/s plus a common signaling channel, also at 64 kbit/s. Control of switching systems Switching systems have evolved from being manually controlled to being controlled by relays and then electronically. The change from the manual system to the Strowger step-by-step system brought about a change from centralized to distributed control. However, as systems developed and offered more services to customers, it became economic to perform particular functions in specialized equipments that were associated with connections only when required, thus, common control was introduced.

Later, the development of digital computer technology enabled different functions to be performed by the same hardware by using different programs; thus switching system entered the era of stored-program control (SPC). There are basically two approaches to organizing stored program control: centralised and distributed. Early electronic switching systems (ESS) developed during the period 1970-75 almost invariably used centralized control. Although many present day exchange designs continue to use centralized SPC, with the advent of low cost powerful microprocessors and very large scale integration (VLSI) chips such as programmable logic arrays (PLA) and programmable logic controllers (PLC), distributed SPC is gaining popularity. The figure below shows the evolution of electronic switching systems from the manual switching systems. The figure also depicts the changing scenario from digital switching to Broadband where the focus will be for high bit rate data transmissions, Development of exchanges

Table

below

summarizes

the

advantages

of

electronic

exchanges

over

electromechanical exchanges. Electromechanical Exchanges done by relays. Electronic Exchanges etc. are managed by software programs Changes can be carried out by simple Any changes in facilities require addition of commands. A few changes can be made by Subs hardware and/or large amount of wiring change. himself. Hence, highly flexible. Flexibility limited. Testing carried out periodically automatically Testing is done manually externally and is time and analysis printed out. consuming. No logic analysis carried out. Full availability, hence no blocking. Partial full-availability, hence blocking. limited facilities to the subscribers. very easily. Very fast. Dialing speed up to 11 digits /sec Slow in speed. Dialing speed is max. 11 Ips and possible. Switching is achieved in a few switching speed is in l milliseconds. microseconds. Much lesser volume required floor space of Switch room occupies large volume. switch room reduced to about one-sixth. Almost noiseless. Lot of switching noise. Short installation and testing period. Long installation and testing time. Large maintenance effort and preventive maintenance necessary. Remedial maintenance is very easy due to plugin type circuit boards. Preventive maintenance is very minimum. A large number of different types of services possible

Category, Analysis, Routing, translation, etc are Translation, Analysis, Routing , Subs Facilities,

STORED-PROGRAM CONTROL Stored-program control (SPC) is a term used to describe computercontrolled telecommunication systems. When SPC was originally conceived, computers were still large and expensive machines and their programs were generally written in lowlevel languages to achieve run-time efficiencies. Integrated circuits had not yet appeared on the scene and the idea of using computers for controlling a telephone exchange, rather than as data processors, was a novel one. Today, VLSI, microprocessors and dense memory chips are commonplace hardware building blocks and software engineering is emerging as a recognized discipline. Characteristics of SPC systems SPC systems in telecommunication networks share many features with other computer controlled systems, particularly those involved with real-time applications such as process control. However, telecommunication presents the following combination of requirements which are not commonly faced in other fields. a) Very high reliability and availability SPC systems are required to provide service for 24 hours a day, year in, year out. During a lifetime which may span two or more decades, they are expected to be out of action for at most a few hours. b) Very large peripheral connectivity Telephone networks support many millions of customers and a single telephone exchange can have tens of thousands of customer terminals. c) High degree of event driven concurrency SPC systems make extensive use of time multiplexed operation in all areas of the network, to maximize the cost-effectiveness of equipment. A large telephone exchange, for example, must handle hundreds of processing intensive call setups simultaneously and thousands of calls may be in speech at the same time. d) Close timing tolerances External signaling interactions have demanding time constraints and call timing for charging purposes must be extremely accurate.

e) Extensive network operation Telecommunication systems cannot be considered as isolated units but must fit within the local, national and international networks of which they are a part. f) Compatibility with existing systems New systems must inter work with those already in place within the overall network, where it is not practical or economic to replace or upgrade the older systems. g) Evolutionary potential New systems must anticipate future network modifications, by providing a means for their upgrading to accommodate new services or methods of operation. h) Powerful management support As telecommunication networks become more sophisticated and complex, there is an increasing requirement for corresponding sophisticated management systems to support the network operator in controlling the network and in planning for network growth and development. Implementation of SPC System architecture When the first generation SPC systems were designed, the high cost of digital computers enforced the use of a single controlling processor (with a standby). Special purpose processors were used to provide a reliable base on which the software could run. Because of the high cost of central processors, SPC systems were only economic for large exchanges (e.g. for 100000 lines or more). Later, the falling cost of integrated circuits and the introduction of standard microprocessors made it economic to use SPC for even the smallest exchanges, including PABXs. It also enabled the number of processors in a large system to be increased. This led to more distributed forms of control. As shown in Figure below, separate processors are now often used as follows. a. To control separate parts of the switching network e.g. customers concentrators; and b. To relieve the central processor of specific functions, e.g. common channel signaling.

c. As a result, the functions of the central processor are reduced to a. co-coordinating the actions of local processors in order to set up complete connections; and b. Performing overall maintenance and administration functions.

Central Processors

Local processors

Switch

Common Channel Signalling

Subscriber concentrators

Fig.1 Thus, the architecture of figure above is characteristic of several modern systems, such as AXE-10, OCB ,EWSD etc Fault tolerance is one of the important aspects of the design of the SPC systems. Fault tolerance implies the provision of some form of redundancy and these systems maintain redundant processing hardware as part of their fault-tolerant design. The basic principles of fault tolerant hardware are straightforward. Two or more similar units, each of which is capable of performing the same function, are provided in the subsystem or system involved. The units can then be used to carry out the same task, and thus provide a means of each checking the others correct functioning. Alternatively, they can carry out different tasks, with one or more healthy units taking over the tasks of a failed unit if this is necessary.

Following are the different modes of operations performed by SPC exchanges for fault tolerance. 1. Worker-Standby mode 2. Synchronous-Duplex mode 3. Load Sharing mode 4. Distributed control 1.Worker Standby systems In worker-standby systems, the systems tasks are carried out by worker units, each of which has associated with it one or more standby units able to take over responsibility for its tasks should it become faulty. The commonest case is a duplicated systems as shown in figure below.

Worker Standby System

Incoming tasks

Standby Unit Worker Unit

Outgoing results

Worker Standby Operation

fig.2 This involves a single worker unit and a single standby unit.

There are two forms of worker-standby implementation viz. Cold standby and hot standby. When a cold standby is provided, the tasks in progress are lost and the standby units takes over the worker role from a predefined initialized state. Hot standby systems, on the other hand, ensure that a standby unit is fully up-to-date on the state of the tasks carried out by the relevant worker unit; thus, the standby is able to take over these tasks without interruption to service should the worker fail. This is a common technique and many SPC systems are employing this method for fault tolerance. 2. Synchronous Duplex mode In Synchronous Duplex Mode of operation, hardware coupling is provided between the two processors, which execute the same set of instructions and compare the results continuously. If mismatch occurs, the faulty processor is identified and is taken out of service within a few milliseconds. When the system is operating normally, the two processors have the same data in their memories at all times and simultaneously receive all information from the exchange environment. One of the processors actually controls the exchange, whereas the other is synchronized with the former but does not participate in the exchange control. The synchronously operating configuration is shown in the fig. below.

Exchange Environment

P1

P2

M1

M2

Synchronous Duplex Operation

3.Load sharing systems In load-sharing systems, each unit is responsible for part of the total system operation, unless a fault is detected in one of the units. Then one or more of the remaining units takes over responsibility for the affected area. Fault detection in load-sharing systems depends on some additional checking and validation, since the units are each dealing with different tasks and so cannot compare results. Sharing of resources calls for an exclusion mechanism so that both the processors do not seek the same resources at the same time. Figure below shows a load sharing configuration with a hardware exclusion device(ED).

A common solution to fault tolerance in SPC systems of this kind is to provide for 1 in N sparing of the units, so that a full system consists of N+1 units, of which any N adequate for operation . failure of any not prejudice the 4.Distributed these loadsharing strategies occur M1
ED

are Exchange Environment system Thus, unit system. Control All P1 P2 can M2 does

individually. However, it is ED = Exclusion Device also possible for combinations of these to be used, and for mixed worker-standby and load-sharing designs to be employed. In advances have made the described. The modes of operations of various schemes can be summarized as follows. Modes Worker Standby Operation One processor is active, other is standby. Standby is brought online only when active Duplex mode fails. Hardware coupling is provided. Execute the same set of instructions and compare the results. If mismatch occurs faulty processor

Load Sharing Configuration

particular, concept of

technical distributed

computing networks more attractive and these often involve mixtures of the schemes

will be isolated. One processor controls the Load Sharing Distributed control exchange. Both processors are active and share the load. Combination of worker-standby, Duplex & Load sharing SOFTWARE ASPECTS OF SPC Software within SPC systems must provide a highly reliable service. However, software differs significantly from hardware in its lack of an inherent failure mechanism by which software can wear out. Thus, software is subject only to failure through design faults leading to erroneous operation, and these can manifest themselves in a variety of ways. Software used in telecommunication networks can be expected to have undergone extensive verification before its introduction to service. Thus, most software faults will arise in little-used areas of program operation, or will only occur when unusual system conditions arise. Great care is taken during development, integration and testing of software to weed out program bugs which may affect its behavior. However, the absence of such bugs cannot be definitely proved, since the possible combinations of system state and input conditions which may arise in service are numerous in number. A common approach is the use of acceptance tests to validate software operation and provide a pass/fail result on the outcome. In their simplest form, such tests can be represented by defensive programming checks, which monitor the inputs and outputs of program modules to verify that these are within predefined limits. These checks can be supported by the underlying operating system software or even, in some cases, but the computer hardware itself. Where ever program errors are detected by such means, the system response is normally to restore the system (including its stored data) to some previous consistent condition, often by reloading system state information which had been safely stored before execution of the failed program. This process is known as backwards error recovery and the restoration of a previous system state is often termed rollback. SOFTWARE FOR AN EXCHANGE

Thus the complete software for an exchange consists of application programs and an operating system. Each application program deals with a subset of overall system operation, and the complete suite of application programs runs within the software environment provided by the operating system. The operating system, in turn, provides a means of sharing the processing resources of the computer hardware among the application programs. The application programs maintain data on the state of each task being handled and relinquish their use of the processing resources while they are waiting for any information from other programs or from the outside world, thus allowing other programs to continue in the meantime. (a) Operating System The operating system provides the environment in which the applications programs run. Its functions include: 1. Control of timing to ensure that processes are executed at specified times (e.g. for alarm calls) or periodically (e.g. for scanning). 2. Scheduling to ensure that processes are carried out with a predetermined order and timing. 3. Interrupt handling to ensure that high-priority processes are given precedence. 4. Inter process communications to facilitate communication between software processes, and, if necessary, between processors. 5. Input/output control to allow communication between the processor and the system it controls. 6. Storage management to control the storage and accessing of exchange, customer and call data. 7. Man- machine communication to provide the protocols for communication between terminals and the processor. (b)Applications Software Software in SPC systems is required to operate in an event driven environment in which a large number of individual customers may required service

concurrently. The level of demand varies significantly over time in response to the nature of business, and the software must be able to cope with this. Part of this demand variation can be catered for where the underlying hardware provides load sharing. However, the software must also be able to service a number of similar tasks simultaneously and to keep track of the status and progress of each as the appropriate input and output signals are received and generated.It is common practice to meet this need with a combination of operating system and application program features.

Digital Switching A Digital switching system, in general, is one in which signals are switched in digital form. These signals may represent speech or data. The digital signals of several speech samples are time multiplexed on a common media before being switched through the system. To connect any two subscribers, it is necessary to interconnect the timeslots of the two speech samples which may be on same or different PCM highways. The digitalised speech samples are switched in two modes, viz., Time Switching and Space Switching. This Time Division Multiplex Digital Switching System is popularly known as Digital Switching System. In this handout, general principles of time and space switching are discussed. A practical digital switch, comprising of both time and space stages, is also explained. Time and Space Switching Generally, a digital switching system several time division multiplexed (PCM) samples. These PCM samples are conveyed on PCM highways (the common path over which many channels can pass with separation achieved by time division.). Switching of calls in this environment , requires placing digital samples from one time-slot of a PCM multiplex in the same or different time-slot of another PAM multiplex. For example, PCM samples appearing in TS6 of I/C PCM HWY1 are transferred to TS18 of O/G PCM HWY2, via the digital switch, as shown in Fig1.

FIG 1 DIGITAL SWITCH

The interconnection of time-slots, i.e., switching of digital signals can be achieved using two different modes of operation. These modes are: i. Space Switching ii. Time switching Usually, a combination of both the modes is used. In the space-switching mode, corresponding time-slots of I/C and O/G PCM highways are interconnected. A sample, in a given time-slot, TSi of an I/C HWY, say HWY1, is switched to same time-slot, TSi of an O/G HWY, SAY HWY2. Obviously there is no delay in switching of the sample from one highway to another highway since the sample transfer takes place in the same time-slot of the PCM frame. Time Switching, on the other hand, involves the interconnection of different time-slots on the incoming and outgoing highways by re-assigning the channel sequence. For example, a time-slot TSx of an I/C Highway can be connected to a different time-slot., TSy, of the outgoing highway. In other words, a time switch is, basically, a time-slot changer. Digital Space Switching Principle The Digital Space Switch consists of several input highways, X1, X2,...Xn and several output highways, Y1, Y2,.............Ym, inter connected by a cross point matrix of n rows and m columns. The individual cross point consists of electronic AND gates. The operation of an appropriate cross point connects any channel, a , of I/C PCM highway to the same channel, a, of O/G PCM highway, during each appropriate time-slot which occurs once per frame as shown in Fig 2. During other time-slots, the same cross point may be used to connect other channels. This cross point matrix works as a normal space divided matrix with full availability between incoming and outgoing highways during each time-slot. Each cross point column, associated with one O/G highway, is assigned a column of control memory. The control memory has as many words as there are time-slot per frame in the PCM signal. In practice, this number could range from 32 to 1024. Each

cross point in the column is assigned a binary address, so that only one cross point per column is closed during each time-slot. The binary addresses are stored in the control memory, in the order of time-slots. The word size of the control memory is x bits, so that 2x = n, where n is the number of cross points in each column. A new word is read from the control memory during each time-slot, in a Cyclic order. Each word is read during its corresponding time-slot, i.e., Word 0 (corresponding to TSO), followed by word 1 (corresponding to TS1) and so on. The word contents are contained on the vertical address lines for the duration of the time-slot. Thus the cross point corresponding to the address, is operated during a particular time-slot. This cross point operates every time the particular time-slot appears at the inlet. in successive frames. normally, a call may last for around a million frames. As the next time-slot follows, the control memory is also advanced by one step, so that during each new time-slot new corresponding words are read from the various control memory columns. This results in operation of a completely different set of cross points being activated in different columns. Depending upon the number of time-slots in one frame, this time division action increases the utilisation of cross point 32 to 1024 times compared with that of conventional space-divided switch matrix. Illustration Consider the transfer of a sample arriving in TS7 of I/C HWY X1 to O/G HWY Y3. Since this is a space switch, there will be no reordering of time i.e., the sample will be transferred without any time delay, via the appropriate cross point. In other words, the objective is to connect TS7 of HWY X1 and TS7 of HWY Y3. The central control (CC) selects the control memory column corresponding output highway Y3. In this column, the memory location corresponding to the TS7 is chosen. The address of the cross point is written in this location, i.e., 1, in binary, is written in location 7, as shown in fig 2.This cross point remains operated for the duration of the time-slot TS7, in each successive frame till the call lasts. For disconnection of call, the CC erases the contents of the control memory locations, corresponding to the concerned time-slots. The AND gates, therefore, are disabled and transfer of samples is halted.

Practical Space Switch

In a practical switch, the digital bits are transmitted in parallel rather than serially, through the switching matrix. In a serial 32 time-slot PCM multiplex, 2048 Kb/s are carried on a single wire sequentially, i.e., all the bits of the various time-slots follow one another. This single wire stream of bits, when fed to Serial to Parallel Converter is converted into 8-wire parallel output. For example, all 8 bits corresponding to TS3 serial input are available simultaneously on eight output wires (one bit on each output wire), during just one bit period, as shown in fig.3. This parallel output on the eight wires is fed to the switching matrix. It can be seen that during one full time-slot period, only one bit is carried on the each output line, whereas 8 bits are carried on the input line during this period. Therefore, bit rate on individual output wires, is reduced to 1/8th of input bit rate=2048/8=256Kb/s Due to reduced bit rate in parallel mode, the cross point is required to be operated only for 1/8th of the time required for serial working. It can, thus, be shared by eight times more channels, i.e.,32 x 8 = 256 channels, in the same frame. However, since the eight bits of one TS are carried on eight wires, each cross point have eight switches to interconnect eight input wires to eight output wires. Each cross point (all the eight switches ) will remain operated now for the duration of one bit only, i.e., only for 488 ns (1/8th of the TS period of 3.9 s)

Fig 3 Serial parallel converter For example to connect 40 PCM I/C highways, a matrix of 40x 40 = 1600

cross points each having a single switch, is required in serial mode working. Whereas in parallel mode working, a matrix of (40/8 x 40/8) = 25 cross point is sufficient. As eight switches are required at each cross point 25 x 8 = 200 switches only are required. Thus, there is a reduction of the matrix by 1/8th in parallel mode working , hence reduction in size and cost of the switching matrix. Digital Time Switch Principle A Digital Time Switch consists of two memories, viz., a speech or buffer memory to store the samples till destination time-slots arrive, and a control or connection or address memory to control the writing and reading of the samples in the buffer memory and directing them on to the appropriate time-slots. Speech memory has as many storage locations as the number of time-slots in input PCM, e.g., 32 locations for 32 channel PCM system. The writing/reading operation in the speech memory are controlled by the Control Memory. It has same number of memory locations as for speech memory, i.e., 32 locations for 32 channel PCM system. Each location contains the address of one of the speech memory locations where the channel sample is either written or read during a time-slot. These addresses are written in the control memory of the CC of the exchange, depending upon the connection objective. A Time-Slot Counter which usually is a synchronous binary counter, is used to count the time-slots from 0 to 31, as they occur. At the end of each frame, It gets reset and the counting starts again. It is used to control the timing for writing/reading of the samples in the speech memory. Illustration Consider the objective that TS4 of incoming PCM is to be connected to TS6 of outgoing PCM. In other words, the sample arriving in TS4 on the I/C PCM has to be delayed by 6 - 4 = 2 time-slots, till the destination time-slot, viz., TS6 appears in the O/G PCM. The required delay is given to the samples by storing it in the speech memory. The I/C PCM samples are written cyclically i.e. sequentially time-slot wise , in the speech

memory locations. Thus, the sample in TS4 will be written in location 4, as shown in fig.4.The reading of the sample is controlled by the Control Memory. The control memorylocation corresponding to output time-slot TS6, is 6. In this location, the CC writes the input time-slot number, viz.,4, in binary. These contents give the read address for the speech memory, i.e., it indicates the speech memory locations from which the sample is to be read out, during read cycle. When the time-slot TS6 arrives, the control memory location 6 is read. Its content addresses the location 4 of the speech memory in the read mode and sample is read on to the O/G PCM. In every frame, whenever time-slot 4 comes a new sample will be written in location 4. This will be read when TS6 occurs. This process is repeated till the call lasts. For disconnection of the call, the CC erases the contents of the control memory location to halt further transfer of samples. Time switch can operate in two modes, viz., i. ii. Output associated control Input associated control

Output associated control In this mode of working, 2 samples of I/C PCM are written cyclically in the speech memory locations in the order of time-slots of I/C PCM, i.e., TS1 is written in location 1, TS2 is written in location 2, and so on, as discussed in the example. The contents of speech memory are read on output PCM in the order specified by control memory. Each location of control memory is rigidly associated with the corresponding time-slot of the O/G PCM and contains the address of the TS of incoming PCM to be connected to. The control memory is always read cyclically, in synchronism with the occurrences of the time-slot. The entire process of writing and reading is repeated in every frame, till the call is disconnected.

FIG 4 OUTPUT ASSOCIATED CONTROL SWITCH It may be noticed that the writing in the speech memory is sequential and independent of the control memory, while reading is controlled by the control memory, i.e., there is a sequential writing but controlled reading. Input associated control Here, the samples of I/C PCM are written in a controlled way, i.e., in the order specified by control memory, and read sequentially. Each location of control memory is rigidly associated with the corresponding TS of I/C PCM and contains the address of TS of O/G PCM to be connected to. The previous example with the same connection objective of connecting TS4 of I/C PCM to TS6 of O/G PCM may be considered for its restoration. The location 4 of the control memory is associated with incoming PCM TS4. Hence, it should contain the address of the location where the contents of TS4 of I/C PCM are to be written in speech memory. A CC writes the number of the destination TS, viz., 6 in this case, in location 4 of

the control memory. The contents of TS4 are therefore, written in location of speech memory, as shown in fig5. The contents of speech memory are read in the O/G PCM in a sequential way, i.e., location 1 is read during TS1, location 2 is read during TS2, and so on. In this case, the contents of location 6 will appear in the output PCM at TS6. Thus the input PCM TS4 is switched to output PCM TS6. In this switch, there is sequential reading but controlled writing.

FIG 5 INPUT ASSOCIATED CONTROLLED TIMR SWITCH Time Delay Switching The writing and reading, of all time-slots in a frame, has to be completed within one frame time period (before the start of the next frame). A TS of incoming PCM may, therefore, get delayed by a time period ranging from 1 TS to 31 TS periods, before being transmitted on outgoing PCM. For example, consider a case when TS6 of incoming PCM is to be switched to TS5 in outgoing PCM. In this case switching can be completed in two consecutive frames only, i.e., 121 microseconds for a 32 channel PCM system. However, this delay is imperceptible to human beings.

Non-Blocking feature of a Time Switch In a Time Switch, there are as many memory locations in the control and speech memories as there are time-slots in the incoming and outgoing PCM highways, i.e., corresponding to each time-slot in incoming highway, there is a definite memory location available in the speech and control memories. Similarly, corresponding to each time-slot in the outgoing highway there is a definite memory location available in the control and speech memories. This way, corresponding to free incoming and outgoing time-slots, there is always a free path available to interconnect them. In other words, there is no blocking in a time switch. Two Dimentional Switching Though the electronic cross points are not so expensive, the cost of accessing and selecting them from external pins in a Space Switch, becomes prohibitive as the switch size increases. Similarly, the memory location requirements rapidly go up as a Time Switch is expanded, making it uneconomical. Hence, it becomes necessary to employ a number of stages, using small switches as building blocks to build a large network. This would result in necessity of changing both the time-slot and highway in such a network. Hence, the network, usually, employs both types of switches viz., space switch and time switch, and. therefore, is known as two dimentional network. These networks can have various combinations of the two types of switches and are denoted as TS, STS, TSST,etc. Though to ensure full availability, it may be desirable to use only T stages. However, the networks having the architecture of TT, TTT, TTTT, etc., are uneconomical, considering the acceptability of tolerable limits of blocking, in a practical network. Similarly, a two-stage two-dimensional network, TS or ST, is basically suitable for very low capacity networks only. The most commonly used architecture has three stages, viz., STS or TST. However, in certain cases, their derivatives, viz., TSST, TSSST, etc., may also be used. An STS network has relatively simpler control requirements and hence, is still being favoured for low capacity networks, viz., PBX exchanges. As the blocking depends mainly on the outer stages, which are space stages, it becomes unsuitable for high capacity systems.

A TST network has lesser blocking constraints as the outer stages are time stages which are essentially non-blocking and the space stage is relatively smaller. It is, therefore, most cost-effective for networks handling high traffic, However, for still higher traffic handling capacity networks, e.g., tandem exchanges, it may be desirable to use TSST or TSSST architecture. The choice of a particular architecture is dependent on other factors also, viz., implementation complexity, modularity, testability, expandability, etc. As a large number of factors favour TST structure, it is most widely used TST Network As the name suggests, in a TST network, there are two time stages separated by a space stage. The former carry out the function of time-slot changing, whereas the latter performs highway jumping. Let us consider a network having n input and n output PCM highways. Each of the input and output time stages will have n time switches and the space stage will consist of an n x n cross point matrix. The speech memory as well as the control memory of each time switch and each column of a control memory of the space switch will have m locations, corresponding to m time-slots in each PCM. Thus, it is possible to connect any TS in I/C PCM to any TS in O/G PCM. In the case of a local exchange, the network will be of folded type, i.e., the O/G PCM highways, via a suitable hybrid. Whereas, for a transit exchange, the network will be non-folded, having complete isolation of I/C and O/G PCM highways. However, a practical local exchange will have a combination of both types of networks. For the sake of explanation, let us assume that there are only four I/C and O/G PCM highways in the network. Hence, there will be only four time switches in each of the T-stages and the space switch will consist of 4x4 matrix. let us consider an objective of connecting two subscribers through this switching network of local exchange, assuming that the CC assigns TS4 on HWY0 to the calling party and TS6 on HWY3 to the called party The speech samples of the calling party have to be carried from TS4 of I/C HWY 0 and to TS6 of O/G HWY3 and those of the called party from TS6 of I/C HWY 3 to TS4 of O/G HWY 0 , with the help of the network. The cc establishes the path, through the

network in three steps. To introduce greater flexibility, it uses an intermediate time-slot, Tsx, which is also known as internal time-slot. The three switching steps for transfer of speech sample of the calling party to the called party are as under: Step 1 Input Time Stage (IT) Step 2 Space stage (S) Step 3 Output Time Stage (OT) TS4 HWY0 to TSx HWY0 Tsx HWY0 to Tsx HWY3 Tsx HWY3 to TS6 HWY3

As the message can be conveyed only in one direction through this path, another independent path, to carry the massage in the other direction is also established by the CC, to complete the connection. Assuming the internal time-slots to be TS10 and TS11, the connection may be established as shown in fig 6.

FIG 6. S T SWITCH Let us now consider the detailed switching procedure making some more assumptions for the sake of simplicity. Though practical time switches can handle 256 time-slots in parallel mode, let us assume serial working and that there are only 32 timeslots in each PCM. Accordingly, the speech and control memories in time switches and control memory columns in space switch, will contain 32 locations each. To establish the connection, the CC searches for free internal time-slots. Let us assume that the first available time-slots are TS10 and TS11, as before. To reduce the complexity of control, the

first time stage is designed as output-controlled switch, whereas the second time stage is input-controlled.

FIG 7 T S T SWITCH STRUCTURE For transfer of speech samples from the calling party to the called party of previous example, CC orders writing of various addresses in location 10 of control memories of IT-10, OT-3 and column 3 of CM-S of corresponding to O/G highway, HWY3. Thus, 4 corresponding to I/C TS4 is written in CM-IT-0, 6 corresponding to O/G

TS6 is written in CM-OT-3 and 0 corresponding to I/C HWY 0 is written in column 3 of CM-S, as shown in fig. 7. As the first time switch is output-controlled, the writing is done sequentially. Hence, a sample, arriving in TS4 of I/C HWY 0, is stored in location 4 of SM-IT-0. It is readout on internal HWY 0 during TS10 as per the control address sent by CM-IT-0. In the space switch, during this internal TS10, the cross point 0 in column 3 is enabled, as per the control address sent by column 3 of CM-S, thus, transferring the sample to HWY3. The second time stage is input controlled and hence, the sample, arriving in TS10, is stored in location 6 of SM-OT-3, as per the address sent by the CM-OT-3. This sample is finally, readout during TS6 of the next frame, thus, achieving the connection objective. Similarly, the speech samples in the other direction, i.e., from the called party to the calling party, are transferred using internal TS11. As soon as the call is over, the CC erases the contents in memory locations 10 and 11 of all the concerned switches, to stop further transfer of message. These locations and time-slots are, then, available to handle next call.

Call-Processing in Electronic Exchanges As far as call processing is concerned, similar basic processes must be performed by switching systems in any network. They are described below in detail. A simple telephone call between two customers whose lines terminate on the same exchange. A sequence of operations takes place in which the calling and called customers lines and the connections to them change from one state to another as described below.

Idle State Initially, the customers handset is in the on-hook condition. The line is idle, waiting for calls to be originated or received. Meanwhile the exchange in monitoring the state of the line, ready to detect a calling condition.

Call request signal The customer sends a signal to the exchange to request a call. For a telephone call, this is done by lifting the handset (off-hook), which causes current to flow in the line. The calling signal is also sometimes known as a seize signal, since it obtains a resource from the exchange.

Calling line identification The exchange detects the calling condition and this identifies the line which originated it. In general, this signal appears on a termination associated with the customers equipment number (EN). Equipment number to Directory number (EN-to-DN) translation must therefore be performed in order to charge for the call. Determination of originating class of service The originating class of service (COS) corresponds to the range of services available to the calling customer. It must therefore be determined before a connection can

be set up.

In an SPC exchange, a customers COS forms part of the data stored for that

customer in the line store: it is sometimes called a class mark. Connecting to the calling line The exchange now makes a connection to the calling line. Proceed to send signal The exchange sends a signal (dial tone) back to the caller to indicate that it is ready to receive the identity of the line termination to which connection is to be made. The exchange is now waiting for this information. Address signal The caller now sends a signal to the exchange to instruct it to route the call to the required destination. In a telephone exchange this is done by dialing or by sending tone pulses from a push-button telephone.

Selection of outgoing line termination

The exchange determines the required outgoing line termination from the address information that it has received. Since the caller dialed the directory number (DN) of the called customer, in general, this involves DN to EN translation. Determination of terminating class of service The exchange needs to determine the terminating COS of the called line, since this affects the procedure for handling the call. For example, if the calls is to a customer having a PBX, the customer will have a group of lines and any of these may be used for the connection. (This also applies to junction or trunk calls; any free circuit on the required outgoing route may be used.) . Testing called line termination The called line may be unavailable, either because it is busy or it is out of service. Therefore, the exchange tests the state of the line before making connection to it. In the case of a call to a PBX (or to an outgoing junction), the exchange tests each termination until; either it finds a free one or all are found busy. Status signal A status signal, sometimes called a call-progress signal, is now sent back to inform the caller of the progress of the call. This is usually an audio-frequency tone. However, it may be a recorded announcement (e.g. for trunk-route congestion or a customers changed number). If the signal is busy tone or number-unobtainable tone(NU tone), the caller replaces the handset and the connection is released. Then the idle state is resumed. Connection to called line termination Having discovered that the called line is obtainable and free, the exchange makes a connection to it.

Alerting called customer The exchange sends a signal to the called line to alert the customer to receive the call. In a telephone exchange, this is done by sending ringing current to the line. At the same time, ringing tone is sent back to the caller as a call progress signal. The exchange is now waiting for an answer.

Answer signal When the called customer answers by lifting the handset the line is looped and current flows. This provides an answer signal to the exchange, causing it to cease sending the alerting signal. The exchange also removes ringing tone from the calling line, thus providing an answer signal to the caller. If the called customer does not answer, the caller replaces the handset. This causes the exchange to release the connections to the calling and called line terminations. The callers line is now again in the idle state. Completion of the connection Receipt of the answer signal from the called customer causes the exchange to complete the connection between the line terminations of the calling and called customers. Conversational state The connection has now been completed between the lines of the two customers and they can converse for as long as they wish.

Clear signals When each customer replaces the handset, line current ceases and so provides a Call CLI by COS of clear signal Idle State to the exchange. callingline Request exchange Release of connection The exchange then clears down the connection between the calling and called line termination. Thus, the idle state is resumed. Connection Dialing of OG line Dial Tone The entire operations involved can be summarized as shown in the diagram below. to line digits selection

COS of calledline

Testing called line

Busy/O OS

Busy /NU tone to calling

line

free
Ring back to calling line

Ringing to called line

Make connection to called line

Called line answer

Completion of connection

Conversation

Release of connection

The processes described above for a local call involved a number of actions taken in response to signals. Signals sent in the direction away from the caller (and towards the called line) are called forward signals and those sent towards the caller (and away from the called line) are called backward signals. Forward signals pass from the caller to the exchange and from the exchange to the called customer; backward signals pass from the exchange to the caller and from the called customer to the exchange. Each signal should produce a response in the opposite direction, thus verifying correct operation. A call over a junction between two exchanges For a call over a junction between two exchanges, the actions between the customers calling signal and connection to an outgoing line occur at the originating exchange. This exchange then sends a seize signal to the terminating exchange. After the originating exchange has sent address information to the terminating exchange, the action s

from receipt of the address information to altering the called customer take place at the terminating exchange. When the called customer sends the answer signal, this is extended back to the originating exchange, in order that its supervision can commence. At the end of the call, the clear signal originated by the calling subscriber is extended forward to the terminating exchange and that from the called customer is sent back to the originating exchange. Both exchanges then release their connections. For a long-distance call the charging rate is normally determined at the trunk exchange as part of the translation of the area code of the called customer. When metering is employed, it is therefore necessary for the supervisory apparatus at the trunk exchange to send meter pulse back over the junction to the originating local exchange. Software for call processing Like any digital computer, an exchange processor uses stored programs for processing input data to give outputs. Many different calls must be processed concurrently in real time. A processor therefore performs successive tasks for one call interspersed with those for other calls. Each time a processor returns to a call, it needs to determine its state by reading data from memory. The store areas that are accessed include: 1. The line store - In addition to class of service, the status of the line is stored (e.g. free, busy etc) 2. The call record - Data stored for each call include; time of origin, EN, ENs of other equipments associated with the connection, actions already taken, switch paths used, last signal received, current state of the call, address digits received, time of answer signals , time of clear down,etc 3. Translation tables Translations are required for address codes, for EN-to-DN translation and for DN-to-EN translation. 4. A map of the switching network . If the map in memory technique is used, the memory must contain a bit for each link in the switching network to indicate whether it is free or busy. The call set-up program looks at these in order to select a suitable path for each connection. SIGNALLING IN TELECOMMUNICATION

A telecommunication network establishes and realizes temporary connections, in accordance with the instructions and information received from subscriber lines and inter exchange trunks, in form of various signals. Therefore, it is necessary to interchange information between an exchange and it external environment i.e. between subscriber lines and exchange, and between different exchanges. Though these signals may differ widely in their implementation they are collectively known as telephone signals. A signalling system uses a language which enables two switching equipments to converse for the purpose of setting up calls. Like any other language. it possesses a vocabulary of varying size and varying precision, ie. a list of signals which may also vary in size and a syntax in the form of a complex set of rules governing the assembly of these signals.This handout discusses the growth of signalling and various type of signalling codes used in Indian Telecommunication. Telephony started with the invention of magneto telephone which used a magneto to generate the ringing current, the only signal, sent over a dedicated line between two subscribers. The need for more signals was felt with the advent of manual switching. Two additional signals were, therefore, introduced to indicate call request and call release. The range of signals increased further with the invention of electro-mechanical automatic exchanges and is still growing further at a very fast pace, after the advent of SPC electronic exchanges. The interchange of signaling information can be illustrated with the help of a typical call connection sequence. 1. A request for originating a call is initiated when the calling subscriber lifts the handset. 2. The exchange sends dial-tone to the calling subscriber to indicate to him to start dialing. 3. The called number is transmitted to the exchange, when the calling subscriber dials the number. 4. If the number is free, the exchange sends ringing current to him. Feed-back is provided to the calling subscriber by the exchange by sending, a) Ring-back tone, if the called subscriber is free.

b) Busy tone if the called subscriber is busy , or c)Recorded message, if provision exists, for non completion of call due to some other constraint . 5 6. The called subscriber indicates acceptance of the incoming call by lifting the handset The exchange recognizing the acceptance terminates the ringing current and the ring-back tone, and establishes a connection between the calling and called subscribers. 7 The connection is released when either subscriber replaces the handset.When the called subscriber is in a different exchange, the 8 9. following inter-exchange trunk. signal functions are also involved, before the call can be set up. The originating exchange seizes an idle inter exchange trunk, connected to a digit register at the terminating exchange. The originating exchange sends the digit. The steps iv to viii are then performed to set up the call. Types of Signalling 1.Subscriber Line signalling Calling Subscriber Line Signaling In automatic exchanges the power is fed over the subscribers loop by the centralized battery at the exchange. Normally, it is 48 V. The power is fed irrespective of the state of the subscriber, viz., idle, busy or talking. Call request When the subscriber is idle, the line impedance is high. The line impedance falls, as soon as, the subscriber lifts the hand-set, resulting in increase of line current. This is detected as a new call signal and the exchange after connecting an appropriate equipment to receive the address information sends back dial-tone signal to the subscriber. Address signal

After the receipt of the dial tone signal, the subscriber proceeds to send the address digits. The digits may be transmitted either by decade dialing or by multifrequency pushbutton dialling. 1. Decadic Dialling The address digits may be transmitted as a sequence of interruption of the DC loop by a rotary dial or a decadic push-button key pad. The number of interruption (breaks) indicate the digit, exept0, for which there are 10 interruptions. The rate of such interruptions is 10 per second and the make/break ration is 1:2. There has to be a inter-digital pause of a few hundred milliseconds to enable the exchange to distinguish between consecutive digits. This method is, therefore, relatively slow and signals cannot be transmitted during the speech phase. 2. Multifrequency Push-button Dialling This method overcomes the constraints of the decadic dialling. It uses two sets of four voice frequencies. Pressing a button (key), Tone Multi-frequency (DTMF) dialling. By this method, the dialling time is reduced and almost 10 digits can be transmitted per second. As frequencies used lie in the speech band, information may be transmitted during the speech phase also, and hence, DTMF telephones can be used as access teminals to a variety of systems, such as computers with voice output. The tones have been so selected as to minimize harmonic interference and probability of simulation by human voice. End of selection signal The address receiver is disconnected after the receipt of complete address. After the connection is established or if the attempt has failed the exchange sends any one of the following signals. 1. 2. Ring-back tone to the calling subscriber and ringing current to the called subscriber, if the called line is free. Busy-tone to the calling subscriber, if the called line is busy or otherwise inaccessible. generates a signal comprising of two frequencies. one from each group. Hence, it is also called Dual-

3.

Recorded announcement to the calling subscriber, if the provision exists, to indicate reasons for call failure, other than called busy. line

Ring back, tone and ringing current are always transmitted from the called subscriber local exchange and busy tone and recorded announcements, if any, by the equipment as close to the calling subscriber as possible to avoid unnecessary busying of equipment and trunks. Answer Back Signal As soon as the called subscriber lifts the handset, after ringing, a battery reversal signal is transmitted on the line of the calling subscriber. This may be used to operate special equipment attached to the calling subscriber, e.g., short-circuiting the transmitter of a CCB, till a proper coin is inserted in the coin-slot. Release signal When the calling subscriber releases i.e., goes on hook, the line impedance goes high. The exchange recognizing this signal, releases all equipment involved in the call. This signal is normally of more than 500 milliseconds duration. Permanent Line (PG) Signal Permanent line or permanent glow (PG) signal is sent to the calling subscriber if he fails to release the call even after the called subscriber has gone on-hook and the call is released after a time delay. The PG signal may also be sent, in case the subscriber takes too long to dial. It is normally busy tone. Called subscriber line signals. Ring Signal On receipt of a call to the subscriber whose line is free, the terminating exchange sends the ringing current to the called telephone. This is typically 25 or 50Hz with suitable interruptions. Ring-back tone is also fed back to the calling subscriber by the terminating exchange.

Answer Signal

When the called subscriber, lifts the hand-set on receipt of ring, the line impedance goes low. This is detected by the exchange which cuts off the ringing current and ring-back tone. Release Signal If after the speech phase, the called subscriber goes on hook before the calling subscriber, the state of line impedance going high from a low value, is detected. The exchange sends a permanent line signal to the calling subscriber and releases the call after a time delay, if the calling subscriber fails to clear in the meantime. Register Recall Signal With the use of DTMF telephones, it is possible to enhance the services, e.g., by dialing another number while holding on to the call in progress, to set up a call to a third subscriber. The signal to recall the dialling phase during the talking phase, is called Register Recall Signal. It consists of interruption of the calling subscribers loop for duration less than the release signal. it may be of 200 to 320 milliseconds duration. 2.Inter-exchange Signaling Inter-exchange signaling can be transmitted over each individual inter exchange trunk. The signals may be transmitted using the same frequency band as for speech signals (inband signaling), or using the frequencies outside this band (out-of-band signaling). Line signals DC Signaling The simplest cheapest, and most reliable system of signaling on trunks, was DC signaling, also known as metallic loop signaling, exactly the same as used between the subscriber and exchange, i.e., i. ii. Circuit seizure/release corresponding to off/on-hook signal of the subscriber. Address information in the from of decade pulses.

In-Band and Out-of-Band Signals

Exchanges separated by long distance cannot use any form of DC line signaling. Suitable interfaces have to be interposed between them, for conversion of the signals into certain frequencies, to enable them to be carried over long distance. A signal frequency (SF) may be used to carry the on/off hook information. The dialing pulses can also be transmitted by pulsing of the states. The number of signals is small and they can be transmitted in-band or out-of band. The states involved are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1. CONDITION State Idle (On hook) FORWARD Seizure(off hook) Release (on hook) BACKWARD Answer(off hook) Clear Back (on hook) Blocking (off hook) off off on off on off off on on off/on Forward On Backward On SINGLE FREQUENCY SIGNALING STATES TONE SIGNAL

For in band signaling the tone frequency is chosen to be 2600Hz. or 2400 Hz. As the frequency lies within the speech band, simulation of tone-on condition indicating end-of call signal by the speech, has to be guarded against, for premature disconnection. Out-of- Band signaling overcomes the problem of tone on condition imitation by the speech by selecting a tone frequency of 3825 Hz which is beyond the speech band. However, this adds up to the hard-ware costs.

E & M Signals

E & M lead signaling may be used for signaling on per-trunk basis. An additional pair of circuit, reserved for signaling is employed. One wire is dedicated to the forward signals ((M-Wire for transmit or mouth) which corresponds to receive or R-lead of the destination exchange, and the other wire dedicated to the backward signals (E-wire for receive or ear) which corresponds transmit or send wire or S-Lead of the destination exchange. The signaling states are shown in table2. TABLE 2. E & M SIGNALING STATES State Idle (On hook) FORWARD seizure (off hook) Release (On hook) BACKWARD Answer (off hook) Clear Back (On hook) Blocking battery battery Earth Earth Open Earth Battery Earth Battery Earth earth Open Earth Earth/open Battery/Earth Open Battery Open Earth Earth Outgoing Exchange M- lead Earth E-lead Open Incoming Exchange M- lead Earth Elead Open

This type of signaling is normally used in conjunction with an interface to change the E & M signals into frequency signal to be carried along with the speech.

Register Signals

It was, however felt that the trunk service could not be managed properlywithout the trunk register which basically is an address digit receiver, with such development, the interexchange signaling was sub- divided into two categories. 1. Line signaling in which the signals operate throughout the duration of call, and 2. Register signaling during the relatively short phase of setting up the call, essentially for transmitting the address information. In other words, register signals are interchanged between registers during a phase between receipt of trunk seizure signal and the exchange switching to the speech phase. These signals are proceed-to-send (PTS) signals, address, signals, and signals indicating the result of the call attempt. The register signals may be transmitted in band or out of band. however, in the latter case, the signaling is relatively slow and only limited range of signals may be used. For example, a information sent as pulses. In-band transmission can be used easily as there can be no possible interference with the speech signals. To reduce transmission time and to increase reliability, a number of frequencies are used in groups. Normally 2 out of 6 frequencies are used. To make the system more reliable compelled sequence is used. Hence, this system is normally called compelled sequence Multi-frequency (CSMF) signaling as shown in Fig.3. In CCITT terminology it is termed as R2 system. As the frequencies need be transmitted only for a short duration to convey the entire information, the post dialling delay is reduced. R2 Signalling CCITT standardized the R2 signaling system to be used on national and international routes. However, the Indian environment requires lesser number of signals and hence, a slightly modified version is being used. There is a provision for having 15 combinations using two out of six frequencies viz., 1380, 1500, 1620, 1740, 1860 and 1980 Hz, for forward signals and another 15 combination using two out of six frequencies viz., 1140,1020, 900, 780, 660 and 540 Hz, for backward signals. In India, the higher frequency in the forward group i.e., 1980 Hz, and the lower frequency in the backward group, i.e., single out-of-band frequency may be selected and

540 hz, are not used. Thus, there are 10 possible combinations in both the directions. The weight codes for the combinations used are indicated in Table 3 and the significance of each signal is indicated in Table 4 and 5. TABLE 3- SIGNAL FREQUENCY INDEX AND WEIGHT CODE

Signal Frequency (Hz) Forward Backward Index Weight Code 1380 1140 f0 0 1500 1020 f1 1 1620 900 f2 2 1740 780 f3 4 1860 660 f4 7

TABLE 4-FORWARD SIGNALS Signal 1 2 Weight 0+1 0+2 Group I Digit 1 Digit2 Group II Ordinary subscriber Subscriber with priority Test / Mtce, 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1+2 0+4 1+4 2+4 0+7 1+7 2+7 4+7 Digit3 Digit4 Digit5 Digit6 Digit7 Digit8 Digit9 Digit0 equipment Spare STD Barred Spare CCB Changed Number to Operator Closed Number Closed Number Spare

TABLE 5 -BACKWARD SIGNALS Signal No. 1 2 3 Weight Code 0+1 0+2 1+2 Group A Send next digit Restart Address Changeover signals Calling identification 5 6 7 1+4 2+4 0+7 Group B Called line free with

out metering Changed number complete, Called line busy to

reception of group B 4 0+4 line Local congestion for

malicious calls send calling Number unobtainable subscribers category Set up speech called line fee, with connection Send last but 1 digit metering Route congestion

8 9 10

1+7 2+7 4+7

Send last but 2 digit Send last but 3 digit Spare

Spare Route Breakdown Malicious call blocking

Note : Signals A2, and A7 to A9 are used in Tandem working only. It can be seen from the tables that, forward signals are used for sending the address information of the called subscriber, and category and address, information of the calling subscriber and backward signals are used for demanding address information and callers category and for sending condition and category of called line. R2 signaling is fully compelled and the backward signal is transmitted as an acknowledgement to the forward signal. This speeds up the interchange of information, reducing the call set up time. It is a self checking system. Each signal is acknowledgement appropriately at the other end after the receiver checks the presence of only 2 and only 2 out of 5 proper frequencies. An example of CSMF signaling between two exchanges may be illustrated by considering a typical case.The various signals interchanged after seizure of the circuit are , 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Originating exchange sends first digit Receipt of the digit is acknowledged by the terminating exchanges by sending A5 (demanding the callers category). A5 is acknowledgement by sending originating exchange Terminating exchange acknowledges this by A1, demanding for next digit. Originating exchange, acknowledges A1 by sending the next digit. The digits are sent in succession by interchange of steps 5 and 6. On receipt of last digit, the terminating exchange carries out group and line selection and then sends A3, indicating switching over to group B signals. 8. This is acknowledgement by the originating exchange by sending the callers category again. a group II signal by the

9. 10.

The terminating exchange acknowledgements by sending the called line condition by sending any of B2 to B6. In response to B6, the originating exchanges switches through the speech path and the registers are released. Alternatively, in response to B2 to B5, the registers are released and appropriate tone is fed to the calling subscriber by the originating exchange.

Digital Signalling All, the systems discussed so far, basically, are on per line or per trunk basis, as the signals are carried on the same line or trunk. With the emergence of PCM systems, it was possible to segregate the signaling from the speech channel. Inter exchange signalling can be transmitted over a channel directly associated with the speech channel, channel-associated signalling (CAS) , or over a dedicated link common to a number of channels, common channel signalling (CCS). The information transmitted for setting up and release of calls is same in both the cases. Channel associated signalling requires the exchanges, to have access to each trunk via the equipment which may be decentralised, whereas, in common channel signalling, the exchange is connected to only a limited number of signalling links through a special terminal. Channel- Associated signalling In the PCM systems the signalling information is conveyed on a separate channel which is rigidly associated with the speech channel. Hence, this method is known as channel associated signalling (CAS). Though the speech sampling rate is 8 Khz, the signals do not change as rapidly as speech and hence, a lower sampling rate of 500 Hz, for digitisation of signals can suffice. Based on this concept, TS 16 of each frame of 125 microseconds is used to carry signals of 2 speech channels, each using 4 bits. Hence, for a 30 channel PCM system, 15 frames are required to carry all the signals. This constitute a 2 millisecond multiframe of 16 frames numbered from F0 to F 15. TS 16 of the frame F0 is used for multiframe synchronisation. TS 16 of F1 contains signal for speech channels 1 and 16 being carried in TS 1 and TS 17,

respectively, TS16 of F2 contains signals of speech channels 2 and 17 being carried in TS2 and TS 18, respectively and so on. Although four bits per channel are available for signalling only two bits are used. As the transmission is separate in the forward and backward direction, the bits in the forward link are called af and bf, and those in the backward link are called ab and bb. Values for these bits are assigned as shown in Table 6. However, the utilisation of such a dedicated channel for signalling for each speech channel is highly inefficient as it remains idle during the speech phase. Hence, another form of signalling known as common-channel signalling evolved.

Bit Value State Forward af Idle Seizure Seizure acknowledge Answer Clear Forward Clear Back 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0/1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 bf 0 0 0 Backward. ab 1 1 1 bb 0 0 1

Table 6 COMMON CHANNEL SIGNALLING SYSTEM No. 7 (CCS#7) Communication networks generally connect two subscriber terminating equipment units together via several line sections and switches for message exchange (e.g. speech, data, text or images). Control information has to be transferred between the exchanges for call control and for the use of facilities. In analog communication networks, channelassociated signalling systems have so far been used to carry the control information. Fault free operation is guaranteed with the channel-associated signalling systems in analog communication networks, but the systems do not meet requirements in digital, processorcontrolled communication network. Such networks offer a considerably larger scope of performance as compared with the analog communication networks due, for instance, to a number of new services and facilities. The amount and variety of the information to be transferred is accordingly larger. The information can no longer be economically

transported by the conventional channel-associated signalling systems. For this reason, a new, efficient signalling system is required in digital, processor-controlled communication networks. The CCITT has, therefore, specified the common channel signalling system no.7 . CCS-7 is optimised for application in digital networks. It is characterised by the following main features : internationally standardized (national variations possible). suitable for the national, international and intercontinental network level. suitable for various communication services such as telephony, text services, data

services digital network (ISDN). high performance and flexibility along with a future-oriented concept which well

meet new requirements. high reliability for message transfer. processor-friendly structure of messages (signal units of multiples of 8 bits). signalling on separate signalling links; the bit rate of the circuits is, therefore,

exclusively for communication. signalling links always available, even during existing calls. use of the signalling links for transferring user data also. used on various transmission media cable (copper, optical fiber) radio relay satellite (up to 2 satellite links) use of the transfer rate of 64 kbit/s typical in digital networks. used also for lower bit rates and for analog signalling links if necessary.

automatic supervision and control of the signalling network.

Signalling Points (SP) and signalling transfer points (STP). The SPs are the sources (originating points) and the sinks (destination points) of signalling traffic. In a communication network these are primarily the exchanges. The STPs switch signalling messages received to another STP or to a SP on the basis of the destination address. No call processing of the signalling messages occurs in a STP. A STP can be integrated in a SP (e.g. in an exchange) or can form a node of its own in the signalling network. One or more levels of STPs are possible in a signalling network, according to the size of the network. All SPs in the signalling network are identified by means of a code within the framework of a corresponding numbering plan and, therefore, can be directly addressed in a signalling message. Signalling links A signalling link consists of a signalling data link (two data channels operating together in opposite directions at the same date rate) and its transfer control functions. A channel of an existing transmission link (e.g. a PCM30 link) is used as the signalling data link. Generally, more than one signalling link exists between two SPs in order to provide redundancy. In the case of failure of a signalling link, functions of the CCS7 ensure that the signalling traffic is rerouted to fault-free alternative routes. The routing of the signalling links between two SPs can differ. All the signalling links between two SPs are combined in a signalling link set. Signalling Network In contrast to channel-associated signalling, which has been standard practice until now, in CCS7 the signalling messages are sent via separate signalling links (See Fig. 1). One signalling link can convey the signalling messages for many circuits. The CCS7 signalling links connect signalling points (SPs) in a communication network. The signalling points and the signalling links form an independent signalling network which is overlaid over the circuit network.

Fig. 1 Signalling Modes Two different signalling modes can be used in the signalling networks for CCS7, viz. associated mode and quasi-associated mode. In the associated mode of signalling, the signalling link is routed together with the circuit group belonging to the link. In other words, the signalling link is directly connected to SPs which are also the terminal points of the circuit group (See Fig.2). This mode of signalling is recommended when the capacity of the traffic relation between the SPs A and

B is heavily utilized. Associated Mode of Signalling In the quasi-associated mode of signalling, the signalling link and the speech circuit group run along different routes, the circuit group connecting the SP A directly with the SP B. For this mode, the signalling for the circuit group is carried out via one or more

defined STPs (See Fig. 3.3). This signalling mode is favourable for traffic relations with low capacity utilization, as the same signalling link can be used for several destinations.

Quasi-associated Mode of Signalling Signalling Routes The route defined for the signalling between an originating point and a destination point is called the signalling route. The signalling traffic between two SPs can be distributed over several different signalling routes. All signalling routes between two SPs are combined in a signalling route set. FUNCTIONAL LAYERS OF CCS7 The signalling functions in CCS7 are distributed among the following parts : message transfer part (MTP) function specific user parts (UP) The MTP represents a user-neutral means of transport for messages btween the users. The term user is applied here for all functional units which use the transport capability of the MTP. Each user part encompasses the functions, protocols and coding for the signalling via CCS7 for a specific user type (e.g. telephone service, data service, ISDN). In this way,

the user parts control the set-up and release of circuit connections, the processing of facilities as well as administration and maintenance functions for the circuits. The functions of the MTP and the UP of CCS7 are divided into 4 levels. Levels 1 to 3 are allotted to the MTP while the UPs form level 4 (See Fig.4).

Fig. 4 Functional Levels of CCS7 The message transfer part (MTP) is used in CCS7 by all user parts (UPs) as a transport system for message exchange. Messages to be transferred from one UP to another are given to the MTP. The MTP ensures that the messages reach the addressed UP in the correct order without information loss, duplication or sequence alteration and without any bit errors. Functional Levels Level I (Signalling Data Link) defines the physical, electrical and functional characteristics of a signalling data link and the access units. Level 1 represents the bearer for a signalling link. In a digital network, 64-kbit/s channels are generally used as signalling data links. In addition, analog channels (preferably with a bit rate of 4.8 kbit/s) can also be used via modems as a signalling data link. Level 2 (Signalling Link) defines the functions and procedures for a correct exchange of user messages via a signalling link. The following functions must be carried out at level 2

delimitation of the signal units by flags. elimination of superfluous flags. error detection using check bits. error correction by retransmitting signal units. error rate monitoring on the signalling data link. restoration of fault-free operation, for example, after disruption of the signalling

data link. Level 3 (Signalling Network) defines the interworking of the individual signalling links. A distinction is made between the two following functional areas : message handling, i.e. directing the messages to the desired signalling line, or to the

correct UP. signalling network management, i.e. control of the message traffic, for example, by

means of changeover of signalling links if a fault is detected and changeback to normal operation after the fault is corrected. The various functions of level 3 operate with one another, with functions of other levels and with corresponding functions of other signalling of other SPs. Signal Units (SU) The MTP transport messages in the form of SUs of varying length. A SU is formed by the functions of level 2. In addition to the message it also contains control information for the message exchange. There are three different types of SUs : Message Signal Units (MSU). Link Status Signal Units (LSSU). Fill-in Signal Units (FISU). Using MSUs the MTP transfers user messages, that is, messages from UPs (level 4) and messages from the signalling network management (level 3).

The LSSUs contain information for the operation of the signalling link (e.g. of the alignment). The FISUs are used to maintain the acknowledgement cycle when no user messages are to be sent in one of the two directions of the signalling link. The structure of the three types of message units is shown in Fig.5.

Fig. 5 Format of Various Signal Units Protocol Information Bits Flag (F) : (8 bits) The SUs are of varying length. In order to clearly separate them from one another, each SU begins and ends with a flag. The closing flat of one SUs is usually also the opening flag of the next SU. However, in the event of overloading of the signalling link, several consecutive flags can be sent. The flag is also used for the purpose of alignment. The bit pattern of a flg is 01111110. Backward Sequence Number (BSN) : (7 bits) The BSN is used as an acknowledgement carrier within the context of error control. It contains the forward sequence number (FSN)

of a SU in the opposite direction whose reception is being acknowledged. A series of SUs can also be acknowledged with one BSN. Backward Indicator Bit (BIB) : (1 bit) The BIB is needed during general error correction. With this bit, faulty SUs are requested to be retransmitted for error correction. Forward Sequence Number (FSN) : (7 bits) A FSN is assigned consecutively to each SU to be transmitted. On the receive side, it is used for supervision of the correct order for the SUs and for safeguarding against transmission errors. The numbers 0 to 127 are available for the FSN. Forward Indicator Bit (FIB) : (1 bit) The FIB is needed during general error correction. It indicates whether a SU is being sent for the first time or whether it is being retransmitted. Length Indicator (LI) : (6 bits) The LI is used to differentiate between the three SUs. It gives the number of octets between the check-bit (CK) field and the LI field. The LI field contains different values according to the type of SU; it is 0 for FISU, 1 or 2 for LISU and is greater than 2 for MSU. The maximum value in the length indicator fields is 63 even if the signalling information field (SIF) contains more than 63 octets. Check bits (CK) : (16 bits) The CKs are formed on the transmission side from the contents of the SU and are added to the SUs as redundancy. On the receive side, the MTP can determine with the CKs whether the SU was transferred without any errors. The SUs acknowledged as either positive or faulty on the basis of the check. Fields specific to MSUs : Service Information Octet (SIO) : (8 bits) It contains the Service Indicator (SI, 4 bits) and Subservice field (SSF, 4 bits) whose last 2 bits are Network Indicator (NI). An SI is assigned to each user of the MTP. It informs the MTP which UP has sent the message and which UP is to receive it. Four SI bits can define 16 UPs (3-SCCP, 4-TUP, 5ISUP, 6-DATAUP, 8-MTP test, etc.). The NI indicates whether the traffic is international (00,01) or national (10,11). In CCS7 a SP can belong to both national and international network at the same time. So SSF field indicate where the SP belongs.

Signalling Information Fields (SIF) : (2 to 272 octets) It contains the actual user message. The user message also includes the address (routing label, 40 bits) of the destination to which the message is to be transferred. The maximum length of the user message is 62 octets for national and 272 octets for international networks (one octet = 8 bits). The format and coding of the user message are separately defined for each UP. Fields Specific to LSSUs Status Field (SF) : (1 to 2 octets) It contains status indications for the alignment of the transmit and receive directions. It has 1 or 2 octets, out of which only 3 bits of first octet are defined by CCITT, indicating out (000), normal (001), Emergency (010) alignments, out-of-service (011), Local processor outage (100) status, etc. Addressing of the SUs (in SIF) A code is assigned to each SP in the signalling network according to a numbering plan. The MTP uses the code for message routing. The destination of a SU is specified in a routing label. The routing label is a component of every user message and is transported in the SIF. The routing label in a MSU consists of the following (See Fig. 6).

Fig. 6 Routing Label of a Message Signal Unit Destination Point Code (DPC) : (14 bits) identifies the SP to which this message is to be transferred. Originating Point Code (OPC) : (14 bits) specifies the SP from which the message originates.

The coding of OPC and DPC is pure binary and using 14 bits linear encoding, it is possible to identify 16,384 exchanges. The number of exchanges in DOT network having CCS7 capability are expected to be within this limit. Signalling Link Selection (SLS) field : (4 bits) The contents of the SLS field determine the signaling route (identifying a particular signalling link within s link set or link sets) along which the message is to be transmitted. In this way, the SLS field is used for load sharing on the signalling links between two SPs. The SIO contains additional address information. Using the SI, the destination MTP identifies the UP for which the message is intended. The NI, for example, enables a message to be identified as being for national or international traffic. LSSUs and FISUs require no routing label as they are only exchanged between level 2 of adjacent MTPs. The message sent from a user to the MTP for transmission contains : the user information, the routing label, the SI, the NI and a LI. The processing of a user message to be transmitted in the MTP begins in level 3 . The MTP is responsible for (a) transmitting, (b) receiving SUs, (c) for correcting transmission errors, (d) for the signalling network management, and (e) for the alignment. Its functions are spread over the functional levels 1, 2 and 3. The message routing (level 3) determines the signalling link on which the user message is to be transmitted. To do this, it analyzes the DPC and the SLS field in the routing label of the user message, and then transfers the message to the appropriate signalling link (level 2). The transmission control (level 2) assigns the next FSN and the FIB to the user message. In addition, it includes the BSN and the BIB as an acknowledgement for the last received MSU. The transmission control simultaneously enters the part of the MSU formed so far in the transmission and retransmission buffers. All MSUs to be transmitted are stored in the retransmission buffer until their fault-free reception is acknowledged by the receive side. Only then are they deleted.

The check bit and flag generator (level 2) generates CKs for safeguarding against transmission errors for the MUS and sets the flag for separating the SUs. In order that any section of code identical to the flag (01111110) occurring by chance is not mistaken for the flag, the user messages are monitored before the flag is added to see if five consecutive ones (1) appear in the message. A zero (0) is automatically inserted after five consecutive 1s. On the receive side, the zero following the five 1s is then automatically removed and the user message thereby regains its original coding. The check-bit and flag generator transfers a complete MSU to level 1. In level 1, the MUS is sent on the signalling data link. The bit stream along a signalling data link is received in level 1 and transferred to level 2. Flag detection (level 2) examines the received bit stream for flags. The bit sequence between two flags corresponds to one SU. The alignment detection (level 2) monitors the synchronism of the transmit and receive sides with the bit pattern of the flags. Using the CKs also transmitted, error detection (level 2) checks whether the SU was correctly received. A fault-free SU is transferred to the receive control, while a faulty SU is discarded. The reception of a faulty SU is reported to error rate monitoring, in order to keep a continuous check on the error rate on the receive side of the signalling link. If a specified error rate is exceeded, this is reported to the signalling link status control by error rate monitoring. The signalling link status control then takes the signalling link out of service and sends a report to level 3. The receive control (level 2) checks whether the transferred SU contains the expected FSN and the expected FIB. If this is the case and if it is a MSU, the receive control transfers the user message to level 3 and causes the reception of the MSU to be positively acknowledged. If the FSN of the transferred MSU does not agree with that expected, the receive control detects a transmission error and causes this and all subsequent MSU to be retransmitted (see subheading "Correction of Transmission Errors"). The message discrimination (level 3) accepts the correctly received user message. It first determines whether the user message is to be delivered to one of the immediately connected UPs or to be transferred to the another signalling link (quasi-associated

message). This preselection is achieved in the message discrimination by evaluation of the DPC. A user message which only passes through a SP (STP) is transferred by the message discrimination to the message routing, where it is treated as a user message to be transmitted. If a received user message is intended for one of the connected UPs (SP), it is transferred to message distribution (level 3). The message distribution evaluates the SIO, thereby determining the UP concerned, and delivers the user message there. Signalling Network Management The signalling network management is a function of level 3. It controls the operation and the interworking of the individual signalling links in the signalling network. To this end, the signalling network management exchanges messages and control instructions with the signalling links of level 2, sends message to the UPs and works together with the signalling network management in adjacent SPs. For the interworking with other SPs the signalling network management uses the transport function of the MTP. Management messages are transferred in MSUs like user messages. For discrimination, the management messages have their own SI. The signalling network management contains 3 function blocks :
(a)

The signalling link management controls and monitors the individual signalling

links. It receives the messages concerning the alignment and status of the individual signalling links, or concerning operating irregularities and effects any changes in status which may be necessary. In addition, the signalling link management controls the putting into service of signalling links, including initial alignment and automatic realignment of signalling links after failures or alignment losses due to persistent faults. If necessary, the signalling link management transfers messages to the signalling traffic management or receives instructions from there.
(b)

The signalling route management controls and monitors the operability of

signalling routes. It exchanges messages with the signalling route management in the adjacent STPs for this purpose. The signalling route management receives, for example, messages concerning the failure or non availability of signalling routes or the overloading

of STPs. In cooperation with the signalling traffic management, it initiates the appropriate actions in order to maintain the signalling operation to the signalling destinations involved.
(c)

The signalling traffic management controls the diversion of the signalling traffic

from faulty signalling links or routes to fault-free signalling links or routes. It also controls the load distribution on the signalling links and routes. To achieve this, it can initiate the following actions : changeover; on failure of a signalling link the signalling traffic management

switches the signalling traffic from the failed signalling link to a fault-free signalling link. change back; when signalling link becomes available again after a fault has been

corrected, the signalling traffic management reverse the effect of the changeover. rerouting; when SP can no longer be reached on a normal route, the signalling

traffic management diverts the signalling traffic to a predefined alternative route. When overloading occurs, the signalling traffic management sends messages to the users in its own SP in order that they reduce the load. The management also informs the adjacent SPs of the overloading in its own SP and requests them to also reduce the load. The signalling traffic management accomplishes its functions by receiving messages from the signalling link and signalling route management. sending control instructions to signalling link and signalling route management. directly accessing the signalling links, e.g. during emergency alignment. modifying the message routing on failure of signalling routes. exchanging management messages with the signalling traffic management in

adjacent SPs. As discussed earlier, level 4 functions, which include formatting of messages based on the applications, are allotted to UPs. Each UP provides the functions for using the MTP for a particular user type. Some of the UPs as currently specified by the CCITT are : telephone user part (TUP)

integrated services digital network user part (ISDN-UP) the signalling connection control part (SCCP) the transaction capabilities application part (TCAP)

For Intelligent Network (IN) application, Intelligent Application Part (INAP) and TCAP are used. SCCP forms the interface between these UPs and MTP. Fig.9 shows the users of the MTP as well as their relationship to one another and to the MTP. CCS7 can be adapted to all requirements due to the modular structure. Expansion for future applications is also possible. Each CCS7 user can specify its own UP, for example, the mobile user part (MUP) is Siemen's own specification for the mobile telephone network

C450.