GSM BSNL Training Part2

mUu;u ikB~;e /Up gradation course
Reading Material
Handout No-ALTMCUP114 02 Rev 2 28.02.2008
Technology Module
i
About this Handout

This handout provides reading material on the technical topics included in the
Syllabus of E3 to E4 Time scale promotion linked training of Officers belonging to
Telecom wing of BSNL. The examination at the end of this one-week module will
include discussions that take place in the class and general understanding of
BSNL executives about the companys telecom infrastructure.

Mode of Examination

The examinations will be conducted with break-up of 30% subjective & 70%
objective pattern questions in each of the modules.

Duration of Examination

Examination duration will be 90 minutes

Qualifying marks

For the successful completion of the training, the executive undergoing the
training ought to score a minimum of 50% of the total marks in each of the
modules.

Failure & Re-appearance

The Executives who dont qualify the examination would be given another
chance to undertake/clear the examination in continuation of their training. This
supplementary examination would be arranged within 3 days of the declaration of
the results at the same venue.

For still failing executives, a second / subsequent supplementary examination
would be held on the date & place as finalized by ALTTC. However no TA/DA
would be admissible to the executives appearing for the same. No repeat of
training would be provided for the unsuccessful executives, unless specifically
agreed by the CGM ALTTC in consultation with corresponding circle CGM.

Reference:

1. Order No. 32-27/04/Trg dated 19th July 2007 of BSNL Corporate office

2. Order No. 32-27/04/Trg dated 12th April 2007 of BSNL Corporate office

Suggestions/Modifications/Improvements may be conveyed to:
DGM (MC), ALTTC, Ghaziabad
ii
CONTENTS

TOPIC Chapter Page
SECTION-I Switching
Digital Switching systems: Concepts 1 1-4
Signaling: CCS7 2 1-6
NGN & BSNL Plans 3 1-7
Intelligent Network 4 1-12
Maintenance issues of battery and power plant 5 1-5
Section-II Transmission
Overview of DWDM 1 1-8
DWDM System Engineering & planning 2 1-6
DWDM Measurements & testing Instruments 3 1-11
Overview of Next generation SDH 4 1-6
SECTION-III Mobile
Overview of Mobile Communication & cellular concepts 1 1-6
GSM Architecture 2 1-5
GPRS/EDGE 3 1-6
GSM Services 4 1-9
Overview of CDMA Technology 5 1-14
SECTION-IV Data Communications
Broadband Wire line & Wireless Access Technologies 1 1-12
TCP/IP/Ethernet, IP Addressing 2 1-10
NIB & Multiplay 3 1-7
MPLS-VPN 4 1-7
Metro Ethernet 5 1-7
SECTION-V Information Technology
BSNL Application Packages 1 1-12
Overview of NOS & RDMS Package 2 1-4
IT Security Policy 3 1-3

iii
Amendment Record

TOPIC Version Date
SECTION-I Switching
Digital Switching systems: Concepts 2 28.02.2008
Signaling: CCS7 2
28.02.2008
NGN & BSNL Plans 2
28.02.2008
Intelligent Network 2
28.02.2008
Maintenance issues of battery and power plant 1 14.12.2007
Section-II Transmission
Overview of DWDM 1 14.12.2007
DWDM System Engineering & planning 1
14.12.2007
DWDM Measurements & testing Instruments 1
14.12.2007
Overview of Next generation SDH 1
14.12.2007
SECTION-III Mobile
Overview of Mobile Communication & cellular concepts 2 28.02.2008
GSM Architecture 2 28.02.2008
GPRS/EDGE 2 28.02.2008
GSM Services 2 28.02.2008
Overview of CDMA Technology 1 14.12.2007
SECTION-IV Data Communications
Broadband Wire line & Wireless Access Technologies 2 28.02.2008
TCP/IP/Ethernet, IP Addressing 2 28.02.2008
NIB & Multiplay 2 28.02.2008
MPLS-VPN 2 28.02.2008
Metro Ethernet 2 28.02.2008
SECTION-V Information Technology
BSNL Application Packages 1 14.12.2007
Overview of NOS & RDMS Package 1 14.12.2007
IT Security Policy 2 28.02.2008

Section-I

Chapter-1

Digital Switching Systems

E3E4 Switching Concepts, Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 4

1.0 DIGITAL SWITCHING CONCEPTS

Telephony was invented in 1876 and automatic telephone exchanges
were developed in 1895. All these exchanges were analog. Now we have only
digital exchanges in the network, which work on time switching or time and space
switching. The digital exchanges are compatible to provide value added services
and Intelligent services
Communication can be defined as the transfer of information from one point
to another point as per desire of the user under the control of some system.

The key aspects of a communication network are :

1) Switching
2) Transmission
3) Call control or signaling
4) End terminals or network elements

2.0 SWITCHING

Switching is basically establishing a temporary path or connection
between two points or it can also be defined as writing at one point of time
and reading at another point of time.

There are two modes of switching employed in our network.

2.1 CIRCUIT SWITCHING

In normal telephone service , basically, a circuit between the calling party
and called party is set up and this circuit is kept reserved till the call is
completed. Here two speech time sots are involved one of calling
subscriber other of called subscriber. It is called circuit switching
Circuit switching is based on the principle of sampling theorem.

2.1.1 SAMPLING THEOREM

Sampling Theorem States
If a band limited signal is sampled at regular intervals of time and at a
rate equal to or more than twice the highest signal frequency in the band, then
the sample contains all the information of the original signal. Mathematically , if fh
is the highest frequency then sampling frequency Fs needs to be greater than or
equal to 2 fh
i .e. Fs >=2 fh
Let us say our voice signals are band limited to 4 KHZ and let sampling
frequency be 8KHZ.

.

. . Time period of sampling Ts = 1 secs.
8000
. or Ts = 125 micro second

If we have just one channel then this can be sampled every 125
microseconds and the resultant samples will represent the original signal. But if
we are to sample N channels one by one at the rate specified by the sampling
theorem, then the time available for sampling each channels would be equal to
Ts/N microseconds The time available per channel would be
Ts=125s
N=32 for 32 chl PCM
125/32=3.9 microseconds per chl
Thus in a 30 channel PCM system, time slot is 3.9 microsecond
and time period of sampling i.e. interval between 2 consecutive samples of a
channels is 125 microsecond. This duration i.e. 125 microsecond is called time
Frame. A signal band is limited to max freq of say fm if sampled at the rate of
2fm then this signal can be reconstructed at the receiving end. This theorem was
given by Nyquist.

2.2 PACKET SWITCHING

The information (speech, data etc) is divided into packets each packet
containing piece of information also bears source and destination address.
These packets are sent independently through the network with the
destination address embedded in them. Each packet may follow different
path depending upon the network.

3.0 SWITCHING CONCEPT

To connect any two subscribers, it is necessary to interconnect the time-slots of
the two speech samples which may be on same or different PCM hightways. The
digitalised speech samples are switched in two modes. Viz. Time Switching and
space Switching . This time Division Multiplex Digital Switching System is
popularly known as Digital Switching System

3.1 Digital Time Switch

Principle

A Digital Time Switch consists of two memories, viz., a speech or buffer
memory to store the samples till destination time-slots arrive, and a control
or connection or adddress memory to control the writing and reading of
the samples in the buffer memory and directing them on to the appropriate
time-slots.

Speech memory has as many storage locations as the number of time-slots
in input PCM,e.g.,32 location for 32 channel PCM system.

The writing / reading operations in the speech memory are controlled by
the control Memory It has same number of memory locations as for
speech memory, i.e.,32 locations for 32 channel PCM system. Each
location contains the address of one of the speech memory locations where
the channel sample is either written or read during a time-slot. These
address are written in the control memory of the CC of the exchange
depending upon the connection objective.

A Time Slot Counter which usually is a synchronous binary counter. is
used to count the time slots from 0 to 31 as they occur. At the end of
each frame, it gets reset and the counting starts again. It is used to control
the timing for writing/reading of the samples in the speech memory.

Buffer/speech memory

Incoming PCM 01 Outgoing PCM
02
04

TS4 TS6
31

Read address

00
01
06

31
Control
/Connection/Address
Memory
Fig. output Associated Control Switch

3.2 SPACE SWITCH:
A space switch is used to simple change the PCM of a incoming time slot
keeping the time slot number same in the outgoing PCM.

The memory location requirement rapidly go up as a Time Switch is expanded
making it uneconomical. Hence, it becomes necessary to employs both types of
switches, viz.., space switch and time switch, and therefore is known as two
dimensional network. These network can have various combinations of the two
types of switches and are denoted as TS, STS TSST, etc.

4 ( four)
Time slot
counter

4.0 Telecom network structure

The telecom network consists of
Local exchanges (LE) Which has only subscribers connected to it.
TAX Exchanges (TAX) Trunk automatic exchanges contains only outgoing
and incoming circuits and no subscriber is connected to it. It is used only for
routing calls.
Tandem exchanges Out going and incoming tandem exchanges are
basically exchanges between TAX and local exchanges for better
management of traffic. These exchanges do not connect subscribers.
Network elements (like telephone, fax, modem etc.)

The telephone network is also referred as PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE
NETWORK (PSTN) .The offered voice service is referred as PLAIN OLD
TELEPHONE SERVICE (POTS)
The PSTN network is organized in a hierarchical manner with Lev-1/Lev-2 TAX
exchanges and then tandem and Local exchanges.
Trunk Automatic Exchange
Lev-I TAX -------In 21 places
Lev-II TAX-------In 301 Places

Types of call

Local call: Call originated and terminated in the same exchange is called local
call
Outgoing call: Call originated from local exchange and terminated in other
exchange after picking up outgoing circuit.
Incoming call: Call received from other exchange and terminated in local
exchange.
Transit call: Call received from other exchange and terminated in other exchange.

When a new call is set up, it needs to be routed from calling party to the called party
through the switch network. The routing is based on the called party number. Normally in
PSTN the switching is static type. In case of link failure alternate paths are available
and routing is done through the alternate paths.

Section-I

Chapter-2

Signaling: CCS7
E3E4 Signaling: CCS7, Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 6

Signaling in Telecom Networks

Common Channel Signaling System No. 7

A signaling system is called a common channel signaling system when the signaling
information related to a group of circuits is transported over a separate common
signaling link.
1.0 Basic Concepts

CCS No. 7 is a CCS (Common Channel Signaling) system which may be used in an
associated and non-associated mode of operation.

CCS7 being a common channel signaling system, has following features

Based on separation of speech circuit from the signaling link.
Speech ckt has no signaling function except when a continuity check is done.
Results in faster call setup
Efficient utilisation of speech ckts.

The overall objective of CCS No. 7 is to provide an internationally standardized general
purpose CCS system:
optimized for operation in digital telecommunications networks in conjunction with
stored program controlled exchanges.
that can meet present and future requirements of information transfer for inter-
processor transactions within telecommunications networks for call control,
remote control and management and maintenance signaling
that provides a reliable means of transfer of information in correct sequence and
without loss or duplication.

The signaling system is optimized for operation over 64-Kbit/s digital channels. It is also
suitable for operation over analog channels and at lower speeds. The system is suitable
for use on point-to-point terrestrial and satellite links.
1.1: Functional Blocks in CCS No. 7
The CCS No. 7 consists of the following functional blocks:

MTP (Message Transfer Part)
TUP (Telephone User Part)
ISUP (ISDN User Part)
SCCP (Signaling Connection Control Part)
TC (Transaction Capabilities)

Fig.3 Architecture of CCS no7

Level Structure of CCS No. 7

The CCS No. 7 protocol has a layered structure consisting of four levels (fig 4):
Level 1 defines the physical, electrical and functional characteristics of the signal
link.
Level 2 defines functions relevant to individual signaling links, including error
control and link monitoring. This level is responsible for reliable transfer of
signaling information between two directly connected signaling points.
Level 3 defines network functions such as message routing and network
management.
Level 4 defines application and user functions. User parts are defined to control
the establishment and release of traffic circuits.

The first three levels together form the Message Transfer Part (MTP). The functions of
each of the CCS No. 7 layers are transparent to one another because of well-defined
interfaces between them. A mechanism has been provided to deliver CCS messages of
up to 272 octets between the MTP and the user part, and within the user part.

Fig .4

Signalling Associations

A CCS7 network can have following types of associations between speech and
signaling path

Associated -Signaling path same as speech path
Non-associated - Signaling path different from speech path and the signaling
path to be used not specifically determined.
Quasi-associated - Non-associated with a predetermined signaling path.

Fig. 5 Associated and Quasi-associated mode of signalling

1.2: CCS No. 7 Network Elements
The signaling network consists of several network elements:
SEP (Signaling End Point)
STP (Signaling Transfer Point)
STEP (Signaling Transfer and End Point)
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
CCS link
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
SWITCHING
SIGNALING
CCS link

- - - - - Voice ckt
Signalling link
Fig.6 Network Elements

An SEP provides high speed, Common Channel Signaling connections for the speech
circuits which terminate at its exchange. Signaling messages arriving at an SEP are
used to set up the necessary speech circuits to complete a telephone call to the end
user.
The STP transfers signaling messages that arrive on one signaling link to a second
signaling link where the message will then be routed toward the destination. An STP
does not contain voice circuits, but it does provide the important function of transferring
messages (either to another STP or to an SEP) towards their ultimate destination.
The STEP performs both the SEP and STP functions. The STEP can transfer signaling
messages that are destined for another exchange, and it can analyze signaling
messages used to set up speech circuits in its exchange.

1.3 Signal Unit Composition
ITU-T Signaling System No. 7 signals are sent in packets known as signal units. The
signal units vary in length according to the type of information transferred. There are
three types of signal units:
MSU (Message Signal Unit): This is used for transferring signaling information
supplied by the MTP itself or by the user part or SCCP.
LSSU (Link Status Signal Unit: This is used for transferring signaling information
used to indicate and monitor the status of the signaling link.
FISU (Fill-In Signal Unit): This is used when there is no signaling traffic to
maintain link alignment.


Point Codes

Every SP (Signaling Point) and STP (Signaling Transfer Point) when integrated in a
network will be allocated its own unique point code. This is used by the MTP routing
function to direct outgoing messages towards their destination in the network as
indicated by the inclusion of the appropriate point code in the routing label. This point
code is known as the DPC (Destination Point Code). The routing label also contains the
point code of the SP originating the message known as the OPC (Originating Point
Code). The combination of the OPC and the DPC will determine the signaling relation. If
two or more signaling links are required then the message handling function performs
load sharing over the links. In this case the SLS (Signaling Link Selection) field is used
to identify the chosen link.

1.4 User Part

The CCS No. 7 functional Level 4, known as the MTP User functions, defines the
functions of the signaling system that are particular to users. The ITU-T has defined
several user functions of CCS No. 7, important are:
TUP - Telephone User Part
ISUP - ISDN User Part
SCCP - Signaling Connection Control Part
TCAP - Transaction Capabilities Application Part

Telephone User Part
The TUP defines the telephone signaling functions necessary for CCS No. 7 to control
national and international telephone calls.

ISDN User Part
The ISUP defines the signaling functions needed for basic and supplementary services
for ISDN voice and non voice applications.

Signaling Connection Control Part
The SCCP is used by call control for non-circuit related message transfer. Intelligent
network features requiring database access, such as credit card verification, virtual
private network services, and 800 services use connectionless SCCP in conjunction
with TCAP to query these databases. ISDN supplementary services use TCAP and
connectionless SCCP for sending information end-to-end. OMAP (Operations,
Maintenance, and Administration Part) uses TCAP and the SCCP connectionless
service in MTP and SCCP routing verification tests, and in circuit validation tests.
Connection-oriented SCCP can be used for the ISUP user-to-user service 3 for data
transfer, and is used for reliable data transfer on the interface between a base station
and MSC (Message Switch Controller) in the GSM network.


Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)

The TCAP provides services for interactive applications distributed over exchanges and
specialized centers in an CCS No. 7 telecommunication network. The TCAP provides
the means to establish non-circuit related communication between two nodes in the
signaling network. Some examples of interactive applications that use the services of
TCAP are as follows:

MAP (Mobile Application Part) used by GSM (Global Systems of Mobile
communications)
INAP (Intelligent Network Application Part)
OMAP (Operations and Maintenance Application Part)

2.0 CCS7 Normal Call Processing Messages

IAM (Initial Address Message): The IAM contains the dialed digits, voice/data
trunk identity, and other related info. IAM/SAM contains all necessary information
to set the path from one switch to the other.
Check tone (optional): For speech path continuity check After completion the
COT (Continuity Signal) message is sent. If the check tone fails, the
CCF(Continuity Check Failure) message is sent .
ACM (Address Complete Message)
Audible ringing tone
ANC (Answer, Charge): On receipt of the answer signal, charging is started.
CLF (Clear Forward): If called subscriber hangs up first, the CLB (Clear-back)
signal is sent in the other direction, followed by the CLF.
RLG (Release Guard): When the incoming equipment is released, a release-
guard signal is sent back.

Advantages of CCS7 signaling:

1. Faster call setup.
2. No interference between signalling tones by network and frequency of human
speech pattern.
3. Greater trunking efficiency due to the quicker set up and clear down, thereby
reducing traffic on the network.
4. No security issues related to the use of in-band signalling with CAS.
5. CCS allows the transfer of additional information along with the signalling traffic
providing features such as caller ID.
6. New services like IN services are possible because of CCS7 signaling.
7. Efficient utilisation of speech ckts.

Section-I

Chapter-3

NGN & BSNL Plans
E3E4 NGN & BSNL Plans Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 7
NGN: CONCEPT AND ARCHITECTURE

The current generation network of BSNL, popularly known as PSTN is mainly
circuit switching based network and it is organized into an hierarchical architecture viz.
Level I TAX exchanges, then Level-II exchanges and then tandem/local exchanges. The
PSTN network is mainly optimized for voice calls and not much suited for data services.
We have a separate network for data services.
Today the world over trend is for a single converged network used for all type of
services viz. voice, data, video which is called Next Generation Network and is a packet
switching based network. To change over from current generation network to next
generation network we have to move in a step-by-step manner to safeguard our existing
network infrastructure and investment and therefore we have to follow an evolutionary
path.

Why NGN?

The NGN concept takes into consideration new realities in the telecommunication
industry characterised by factors such as: the need to converge and optimise the operating
networks and the extraordinary expansion of digital traffic (i.e., increasing demand for
new multimedia services, increasing demand for mobility, etc.).
The other reasons why we should evolve our existing network to NGN are that the
existing circuit switched networks have following problems:
Slow to develop new features and capabilities.
Expensive upgrades and operating expenses.
Proprietary vendor troubles
Large power and cooling requirements.
Limited migration strategy to New tech.
Model obsolescence.

What is NGN?

ITU-Ts Definition of NGN

A Next Generation Network (NGN) is a packet-based network able to provide
Telecommunication Services to users and able to make use of multiple broadband, QoS-
enabled transport technologies and in which service-related functions are independent of
the underlying transport-related technologies. It enables unfettered access for users to
networks and to competing service providers and services of their choice. It supports
generalised mobility which will allow consistent and ubiquitous provision of services to
users. < ITU-T Recommendation Y.2001 (12/2004) - General overview of NGN>.

As per ETSI NGN is a concept for defining and deploying networks, which due to
their formal separation into different layers and planes and use of open interfaces,
offers service providers and operators a platform, which can evolve in a step-by-step
manner to create, deploy and manage innovative services.

The following diagram depicts the concept of NGN.

Current Gen networks NGN

Fig1

In NGN basically the call control (i.e. signaling) and the switching is separated
out in different layers and between these layers open interfaces are used. The call control
functionality is realised by the component which is called call server or softswitch or
media gateway controller and the interfaces to the existing PSTN switches is done with
the help of media gateways for voice transport and by signaling gateways for signaling
transport. For switching and transport of the packets existing IP/MPLS backbone is used.
With NGN architecture the new and innovative services can be given very fast and cost
effectively. Also the capital expenditure and operational expenditure come down
drastically.

Interfaces
Switching
Call
Control
Call
Server
IP/MPLS
Gateways

SDH Transport
with Overlay
packets for data

Common IP
MPLS
Transport over
SDH/
DWDM/Fiber

The NGN is characterised by the following fundamental aspects:
Packet-based transfer
Separation of control functions among bearer capabilities, call/session,
and application/service
Decoupling of service provision from transport, and provision of open
interfaces
Support for a wide range of services, applications and mechanisms based
on service building blocks (including real time/streaming/non-real time
services and multi-media)
Broadband capabilities with end-to-end QoS and transparency
Interworking with legacy networks via open interfaces
Generalised mobility
Unfettered access by users to different service providers

The NGN Architecture
The NGN Architecture consists of several basic components The Soft Switch,
Application Servers, Media Servers, Network Gateways and Access Gateways with the
IP-MPLS Packet Router Network providing the transport layer. Central to the NGN
architecture is the Soft Switch, which is a call server that allows multiple application
services to run concurrently. The block schematic of NGN components and usage of key
protocols are shown in Figure 2.
The Soft Switch is shown at the centre. The SIP Signaling server
provides signaling interface to IP End points in a Broadband environment. The
Application and Media servers work in conjunction with the Soft Switch to deliver the
specific application and the media related functions (such as an IVRS module) to the
customer.
The NGN network is interconnected to the PSTN network through Media
Gateways, which are controlled by the Soft Switch. The capability to interconnect the
soft switches with other soft switches either in ones own network or in any other Service
Providers network is done through Network Gateways.


Fig 2

Functions of Soft Switch (or Call Agent or Telephony Server or Media
Gateway Controller)
1. Based upon Open Architecture
2. Provide all existing services available in TDM network
3. Performs Media Gateway Control Function
4. Performs Call control, signalling and interworking, Traffic measurement and
recording functions
5. Provides Addressing, Analysis, routing and charging facilities
6. Interacts with Application Server to supply services not hosted on
Softswitch
7. Should preferably be developed on Commercially Available Hardware and
Software Platforms.

Functions of Signalling Gateway
1. Provides interworking function between SS7 network and IP network
2. This involves providing various types of User Adaptations so that the SS7
signalling can be terminated in SGW and can be translated and messages
transported over IP Network
3. Performs Packetization of signalling and ensures its transport through IP network

Functions of Trunk Media Gateway
Performs the functions of
1. Voice encoding & Compression
2. Packetization of voice channels
3. CNF (Comfort Noise Generation)
4. VAD (Voice Activity Detection)
5. Echo Cancellation
6. May provide the edge functionality and act as CE

The protocols used are:
Between Softswitch and media gateway H.248/Megaco, MGCP
Between two softswitches - SIP(T) or BICC
Between Softswitch and Signaling gateway - sigtran suite of protocols consisting of
M3UA, M2UA, M2PA, SUA, SCTP etc
Between softswitch and Application server- SIP, Parley ,Jain etc.
Between two media gateways for actual packet transfer- RTP/RTCP


IP TAX IN BSNL

IP TAX is the first step towards the Evolution of Current Generation
Network to Next generation Network in BSNL. In other words IP TAX is the
replacement of existing Level I TAX exchanges to IP based network (Packet switching
network) and rest all the network still remaining circuit switched network. Presently IP
TAX will be installed in parallel to the Lev-I TAX and then it will replace circuit
switched TAX completely with IP TAX.

Generic reference diagram for IP TAX is as below:

Fig 1

Based on the above GR BSNL intends to install as per below given plan:
Setting up Two Soft Switches at New Delhi and Chennai and
Signalling Gateways at New Delhi, Chennai, Kolkotta and Bangalore
Providing Trunk Media Gateways (TMGs) at 21 Level-1 locations
Providing one Announcement Servers in each IP domain i.e. one at New Delhi
and one at Chennai.
Billing interface to Centralized Billing Server at Chennai.
NMS at Chennai with FCAPS
(Fault,Configuration,Accounting,Performance,Security) capabilities.
No separate NTP server is being used in IP TAX, the existing NTP server of our
data network will be used for synchronization.
Following architecture is going to be installed:

Fig 2

BSNLs NGN plans and vision

After the successful implementation of the 200KC pilot project of IP TAX the
BSNL is also in the process of procuring 6400 K lines of the IP TAX in the network in
year 2008-09. This IP TAX project is called class 4 NGN architecture. BSNL Corporate
office is also planning to go for class 5 NGN architecture in which Access Gateways/
Line Gateways will be installed. The ordinary subscribers will be connected to these
Access Gateways/ Line Gateways instead of the PSTN local exchanges. These Access
Gateways/ Line Gateways will be controlled by Softswitch. Simultaneously BSNL is
also envisaging to deploy IMS(IP Multimedia Subsystem) to introduce SIP based
services and also to have Fixed and Mobile convergence.
After successful implementation of class 5 NGN architecture BSNL corporate
office has a vision of replacing the PSTN local exchanges by softswitch NGN
architecture gradually. It is envisaged that by 2016 PSTN network will be completely
replaced by NGN and there will be about 1 billion lines of converged NGN network in
BSNL. To support this much IP subscriber traffic BSNL will have to augment the MPLS
core network in all SSAs in 2008-09 and in all DHQs in year 2009-10. IPv6 will be
introduced in the IP/MPLS core. To augment the transmission capacity BSNL plans to
have a mesh connectivity by STM- 256 network between 24 core routers of the IP/MPLS
network and Edge routers at circle level to be connected to core nodes through 10 Gbps
and 2.5 Gbps links.

Section-I

Chapter-4

Intelligent Network and Services
E3E4 IN services Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 12

1.0 INTELLIGENT NETWORK

Over the last thirty years one of the major changes in the implementation of Public
Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN) has been the migration from analogue to digital
switches. Coupled with this change has been the growth of intelligence in the switching
nodes. From a customers and network providers point of view this has meant that new
features could be offered and used. Since the feature handling functionality was resident
in the switches, the way in which new features were introduced into the network was by
introducing changes in all the switches. This was time consuming and fraught with risk of
malfunction because of proprietary feature handling in the individual switches. To
overcome these constraints the Intelligent Network architecture was evolved both as a
network and service architecture.

In the IN architecture, the service logic and service control functions are taken out of the
individual switches and centralized in a special purpose computer. The interface between
the switches and the central computer is standardised. The switches utilize the services of
the specialized computer whenever a call involving a service feature is to be handled. The
call is switched according to the advice received by the requesting switch from the
computer. For normal call handling, the switches do not have to communicate with the
central computer.

1.1. Objectives of the Intelligent Network

The main objectives of the IN are the introduction and modification of new services in a
manner which leads to substantial reduction in lead times and hence development costs,
and to introduce more complex network functions. An objective of IN is also to allow the
inclusion of the additional capabilities and flexibility to facilitate the provisioning of
services independent of the underlying network's details. Service independence allows
the service providers to define their own services independent of the basic call handling
implementation of the network owner. The key needs that are driving the implementation
of IN are:

Rapid Service Deployment
Most businesses today require faster response from their suppliers, including
telecommunication operators. By separating the service logic from the underlying switch
call processing software, IN enables operator to provide new services much more rapidly.

Reduced Deployment Risk
Prior to IN, the risk associated with the deployment of new services was substantial.
Major investments had to be made in developing the software for the services and then
deploying them in all of the switches. With the service creation environment available,
the IN services can be prototyped, tested and accessed by multiple switches
simultaneously. The validated services can then be rolled out to other networks as well.


Cost Reduction
Because the IN services were designed from the beginning to be reusable, many new
services can be implemented by building on or modifying an existing service. Reusability
reduces the overall cost of developing services. Also, IN is an architecture independent
concept, i.e. it allows a network operator to choose suitable development hardware
without having to redevelop a service in the event that the network configuration
changes.

Customization
Prior to IN, due to complexity of switch based feature handling software, the
considerable time frame required for service development prevented the provider from
easily going back to refine the service after the customer started to use it. With IN, the
process of modifying the service or customization of service for a specific customer is
much less expensive and time consuming. The customization of services is further
facilitated by the integration of advanced peripherals in the IN through standard
interfaces. Facilities such as voice response system, customized announcements and text
to speech converters lead to better call completion rate and user friendliness
of the services.

1.2. IN Architecture

Building upon the discussion in the previous section, one can envisage that an IN would
consist of the following nodes:

Specialized computer system for - holding services logic, feature control, service
creation, customer data, and service management.
Switching nodes for basic call handling
Specialized resources node

The service logic is concentrated in a central node called the Service Control Point
(SCP).

The switch with basic call handling capability and modified call processing model for
querying the SCP is referred to as the Service Switching Point(SSP).

Intelligent Peripheral (IP) is also a central node and contains specialized resources
required for IN service call handling. It connects the requested resource towards a SSP
upon the advice of the SCP.

Service Management Point (SMP) is the management node, which manages services
logic, customers data and traffic and billing data. The concept of SMP was introduced in
order to prevent possible SCP malfunction due to on-the-fly service logic or customer
data modification. These are first validated at the SMP and then updated at the SCP
during lean traffic hours. The user interface to the SCP is thus via the SMP.


Physical Plane

Service Switching Point (SSP)

The SSP serves as an access point for IN services. All IN service calls must first
be routed through the PSTN to the "nearest" SSP. The SSP identifies the incoming call as
an IN service call by analysing the initial digits (comprising the "Service Key") dialled by
the calling subscriber and launches a Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP)
query to the SCP after suspending further call processing. When a TCAP response is
obtained from the SCP containing advice for further call processing, SSP resumes call
processing. The interface between the SCP and the SSP is G.703 digital trunk. The MTP,
SCCP, TCAP and INAP protocols of the CCS7 protocol stack are defined at this interface

Service Control Point (SCP)

The SCP is a fault-tolerant online computer system. It communicates with the
SSP's and the IP for providing guidelines on handling IN service calls. The physical
interface to the SSP's is G.703 digital trunk. It communicates with the IP via the
requesting SSP for connecting specialized resources. SCP stores large amounts of data
concerning the network, service logic, and the IN customers. For this, secondary storage
and I/O devices are supported. As has been commented before, the service programs and
the data at the SCP are updated from the SMP.

Service Management Point (SMP)

The SMP, which is a computer system, is the front-end to the SCP and provides
the user interface. It is sometimes referred to as the Service Management System (SMS).
It updates the SCP with new data and programs(service logic) and collects statistics from
it. The SMP also enables the service subscriber to control his own service parameters via
a remote terminal connected through dial-up connection or X.25 PSPDN. This
modification is filtered or validated by the network operator before replicating it on the
SCP. The SMP may contain the service creation environment as well. In that case
the new services are created and validated first on the SMP before downloading to the
SCP. One SMP may be used to manage more than one SCP's.

Intelligent Peripheral (IP)

The IP provides enhanced services to all the SSP's in an IN under the control
of the SCP. It is centralized since it is more economical for several users to share the
specialized resources available in the IP which may be too expensive to replicate in all
the SSPs. The following are examples of resources that may be provided by an IP:
Voice response system
Announcements
Voice mail boxes
Speech recognition system
Text-to-speech converters

The IN architecture is depicted in below given Figure:

Data
Base
CCS7 Network
IP SSP
USER USER USER USER
Communication Interface
Data
Base
Program Interface
Legend
SMP: Service Management Point
SCP: Service Control Point
Service switching Point
IP: Intelligent peripheral
SMP
SCP

1.3. DESCRIPTION OF IN SERVICE FEATURES

An IN service comprises mandatory (providing core functionality) and optional features.
A brief description of the various features that constitute the IN services offered as part of
IN solution is given in the following paragraphs.

Call Forwarding on Busy/No Answer (CFC)
This service feature allows the called user to forward calls if the called user is busy or
doesn't answer within a specified number of rings.

Customer Profile Management (CPM)
This feature allows the user to perform online modification of the password
(authorization Code).

Mass Calling (MAS)
This service feature allows processing of large numbers of incoming calls in a given time
span, generated by call-in broadcasts, advertisements or games, etc.

Origin Dependent Routing (ODR)
This service feature allows the subscriber to have calls routed according to the calling
party's area of origination. Based on the area of origination the subscriber can also accept
or reject the call.

Origination Call Screening (OCS)
This service feature allows the subscriber to bar the calls originating from certain areas
identified by their area codes.

Off-net Access (OFA)
This service feature allows a VPN user to access his or her VPN from any non-VPN
station by using a personal identification number.

Off-net Calling (ONC)
This service feature allows the VPN user to call any external public number from a VPN
location. Authorization is required for accessing this feature.

Premium Charging (PRMC)
This service feature allows for the pay back of the part of the cost of a call to the called
party, when he is considered a value added service provider. The call is charged at a
premium over normal call charge.

Private Numbering Plan (PNP)
This service feature allows the subscriber to maintain a numbering plan within his private
network, which is separate from the public numbering plan.

Reverse Charging (REVC)
This service feature allows the service subscriber to receive calls at his own expense and
be charged for the entire cost of the call.

Time Dependent Routing (TDR)
This service feature enables the subscriber to route calls based on time of day, day of
week and day of year. The precedence when more than one type of parameters are
specified for determining routing shall be
1. Day of year
2. Day of week
3. Time of day

Call Distribution (CD)
This service feature allows the subscriber to have the calls routed to more than one
directory number. Based on the values defined, only a percentage of calls are routed
to a directory number.


IN Services
Virtual Card Calling Service (VCC)
Account Card Calling service (ACC)
Premium Rate Service (PRM)
Universal Access Number service (UAN)
Universal Personal Number (UPN)
Tele Voting (T-VOT)
Free Phone Service (FPH)
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
Fixed Line Pre-paid (FLPP)

Access Codes for IN Services :

Existing New Codes Service Access
1600 1800 Free Phone
1601 1801 VPN
1602 1802 VCC(ITC)
1603 1803 Tele voting (no charge)
1604 1804 ACC
1901 1860 UAN(Local)
1902 1861 Tele voting(Charge)
0900 1867 PRM
0901 1860 UAN(LD)
1868 UPN
1907 1807 UAN Mgmt
1808 UPN Mgmt
1809 VPN Mgmt

SCP Codes :

Kolkata 345
Bangalore 425
Lucknow 180
Ahmedabad 233
Hyderabad 424

SCP Locations :

Zone Location of IN
Platform
Circles Covered
East Kolkatta Bihar, Jharkhand, West
Bengal,Orissa,Assam, North East-I & II,
CTD and A&N Islands
South Bangalore TamilNadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Chennai
T.D.
North Lucknow UP (E), UP (W), Uttaranchal, Punjab,
Haryana, H.P., J&K and Rajasthan
West Ahmedabad Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Chattisgarh, AP
Central Hyderabad All India(Mass Calling)

Two platforms types:
General Purpose IN (GPIN)
Mass Calling IN (MCIN)

GPIN are in following Cities Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Lucknow, Bangalore
MCIN is in the following City Hyderabad

Virtual Card Calling Service (ITC)

Also known as Indian Telephone Card. Meant for customers who
want to make STD/ISD calls from any Bfone (may not be his own)
and limit the usage. No metering will be there on the Calling
Telephone Number. Metering will be there against the VCC account.

Access code : 1602-SCP Code- PIN Destination No.
(1802 by 30-04-2009)
Brand Name : ITC, i.e. India telephone card
Most popular service
Most revenue providing

Account Card Calling Service (ACC)

To place calls from any PSTN phone to any destination no and
have the cost of these calls charged to the account specified by
the account card calling (ACC) number.
Personal identification number(PIN) is required for
o Balance enquiry
o Making call
o Change of PIN
Subscriber can renew the account by depositing a fresh amount
of money after expiry of existing deposit with in the validity
period of the Account.
Detailed record for all the ACC calls will be sent to the
subscriber for his information.

Free Phone Service (FPH) or Toll Free No.

Meant for customer oriented organizations who want that their
customers should feel free to contact without worrying about call
charges.
Here the concept of reverse charging is applied with additional
features.
The service subscriber will have one logical number against
more than one PSTN no. distributed all over the network. He
can have his own routing plan using Time Dependent Routing,
Origin Dependent Routing facilities.

Premium Rate Services

Concept of charging on higher pulse rate for the Services
rendered by the subscriber.
The pulse rate will be decided by the subscriber. Caller is
charged.
The revenue will be shared by the Subscriber and BSNL
He can have his own routing plan using TDR, ODR on local
access basis.
A typical PRM no. would look like 1867 XYZ ABCD
Where Service Access Code : 1867
XYZ : 3 digit SCP code
ABCD : Last 4 digits are PRM no

Universal Access Number Service

Publish one number(unique IN number) and have the incoming
call routed destination based on origin of call or time/day on
which the call is made.
The caller will be charged as per the normal charge of PSTN
call.
One logical number against more than one PSTN no.
distributed all over the network.

Universal Personal Number Service

Outgoing facility also available in UPN service. It introduces
the concept of Personal mobility rather than terminal mobility.
A subscriber to this service can receive or make calls using his
Universal Personal Number from any BSNL phone.
The subscriber will be given some management codes and
password. Using that he can convert/reconvert any BSNL
phone into his Universal Personal Number.
All the calls made by subscriber using his UPN will be billed at
his UPN by the IN platform.
The subscriber will be able to get all his calls incoming on the
UPN number anywhere in India.

This is a service newly introduced through Alcatel IN Platform.

Virtual Private Network
Enables the subscriber to establish a private network using existing public
network resources.
Virtual PABX and it can be nation wide.
Individual members can have privileges-ON net.
Calling possible from outside VPN-Off net
Billing will be against the Group id

VPN Features
Multi site Organization
Short Group Numbers
Abbreviated Dialing
Date & Time Screening
Exception List
Call Duration Control
Multiple Account Codes
Dual Invoicing
Call Forwarding
Hunting List
Substitution

Tele-Voting Service
To conduct telephonic public opinion polls and surveys. Thus provides
easiest way to conduct poll/survey.
Opinion by dialing the advertised Tele-voting number. The calling user can
be charged (Unit) or charge free.
The service can be available based on origin or time basis.

Tele Vote Features

Validity Period
Counters
Global Vote Counter
Local Tele voting Counter per
VOT number
Winner Counter
Black List
Origin Dependent Handling
Day Type/Time Dependent
Handling
Pre Filtering at SSP

Fixed Line Pre-paid Service

Types of FLPP Services to be introduced in BSNL
1. PCO FLPP Account - offering only Prepaid Services (for Local +STD+ISD)
2. General FLPP Account - offering both Prepaid & Postpaid services
3. General FLPP Account offering only Prepaid services

FLPP PCO and FLPP General Pure pre paid - can be given to subscribers from AXE-
10, 5ESS, EWSD, E-10B, OCB-283 and not from CDOT.

Dialing Plan: Only Destination Number needs to be dialed.

Internal Routing Plan:
As on date only OCB-283 exchanges can act as SSP and trigger the FLPP Calls to
the SCP.
Rest of the new Technology exchange shall only prefix the FLPP Call with 1805-
345/ 233 and then the call shall be routed to nearest OCB 283 exchange which
will further trigger the FLPP Calls to the SCP.
If the FLPP Call is originated from E-10B Exchange then the exchange shall
simply route to any of the new technology exchange. Further routing shall be as
explained above.

FLPP General Pre paid over post paid - can be given to subscribers from AXE-10,
5ESS, EWSD, OCB-283 and not from E-10B, CDOT.
Dialing Plan:
a. Post paid by default : Only Destination Number needs to be dialed(this shall not be
FLPP Call).
b. To Make prepaid call: 1805 345/233 + destination number

Internal Routing Plan:
As on date only OCB-283 exchanges can act as SSP and trigger the FLPP Calls to
the SCP.
Rest of the new Technology exchange shall simply route the FLPP Calls to
nearest OCB -283 exchange which will further trigger the FLPP Calls to the SCP.
(Not available from CCB PCOs)

Note:
FLPP Prepaid over Post paid can not be provided from E-10B and C-DoT
exchanges because of its inability to send more than 16 digits on trunks.
FLPP Pure Prepaid can not be provided from C-DoT exchanges because of it
routes the local without treating it as IN Call and ISD calls can also be not made
because of its inability to send more than 16 digits on trunks.

Section-I

Chapter-5

Maintenance issues: Battery and Power plant

E3E4 Battery Power plant, Ver1 14.12.2007 1 of 5

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

The power plant of any telecommunication system is usually referred as the heart of
the installation since the communication system can function only as long as power
supply is available. Failure of power supply system in any installation renders the
communication facilities offered by it to be instantly paralyzed.

Requirement of Power Supply:

Any power supply arrangement for a communication system must have two basic
characteristics.

i. Reliability of the components of the power plant and continuity of the power
supply.

ii. The power fed to the exchange equipment should be free from noise or hum
and to telegraph equipment from large ripple harmonics.

Maintenance Free Secondary Cells

Maintenance free, valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries ensure a reliable effective
and user friendly source of power. It is spill proof and explosion resistant and there is no
need to add water or to clean terminals. It has low self-discharge rate which eliminates
the need for equalizing charges. The container is made of polypropylene. Each plate is
individually wrapped by a highly absorbent, microporous glass separate developed
specially for VRLA batteries. The chemically inert glass ensures life long service. The
absorbed electrolyte ensures that there is no spillage even in the unlikely event of
puncture of the cell. Gas evolution under float conditions is negligible. The water loss
throughout life due to gassing is roughly 0.1% of the total electrolyte present in the cell.
This will in no way affect performance and also eliminate the need for specially
ventilated battery room and acid resisting flooring. As the batteries can be installed in
stacks, there will be considerable space saving also.

Various capabilities of Batteries are 120 AH, 400 AH, 600 AH, 1000AH, 1500 AH, 2000
AH, 2500 AH, 3000 AH, 4000 AH & 5000 AH.

VRLA Technology A brief review of Chemical Reaction

The electrode in all lead acid batteries, including VRLA battery is basically identical. As
the battery is discharged the lead dioxide positive active material and the spongy lead
negative active material react with the sulphuric acid electrolyte to form lead sulphated
and water. During charge, this process is reversed. The Coulombic efficiency of the
charging process is less than 100% on reaching final stage of charging or under over
charge conditions, the charging energy is consumed for electrolyte decomposition of


water and the positive plates generate oxygen gas and the negative plates generate
hydrogen gas.

Under typical charging conditions, oxygen at the positive plate occurs before hydrogen
evolution at the negative. This feature is utilized in the design of VRLA batteries. In
flooded cells, the oxygen gas evolved at the positive plate bubbles upwards through the
electrolyte and is released through the vents. In MF-VRLA batteries the oxygen gas
evolved, at the positive plate, instead of bubbling upwards in transported in the gas
phase through the separator medium to the negative plate. The separator is a highly
absorbent glass matrix type with very high porosity, designed to have pore volume in
excess of the electrolyte volume (starved electrolyte design), due to which the oxygen
gas finds an unimpeded path to the negative plate. the oxygen gas gets reduced by
reaction with the spongy lead at the negative plate, turning a part of it into a partially
discharged condition, there by effectively suppressing the hydrogen gas evolution at the
negative plate. This is what is known as the oxygen recombination principle.

The part of negative plate which was partially discharged is then reverted to the original
spongy lead by subsequent charging. Thus a negative plate keeping equilibrium
between the amount which turns into spongy lead by charging and the amount of
spongy lead which turns into lead sulphated by absorbing the oxygen gas generated at
the positive plate. The oxygen recombination principle can be shown by the following
reaction:
1. Reaction at positive plate :

H2O = 1/2 O2 + 2e (1)

2. Reaction at negative plate :

Pb + 1/2 O2 = PbO .(2)

PbO + H2SO4 = PbSO4 + H2O .(3)
To reaction (1)

PbSO4 + 2H + 2e = Pb + H2SO4 (4)
To reaction (3)

To reaction (2)
3. The total reaction at negative plate

1/2 O2 + 2H = H2O

Thus, the recombination technology makes the battery virtually Maintenance Free.


Battery capacity :The energy that can be taken out of a battery before the cell
voltage collapses is called the battery capacity. It is defined as Discharge current (A
) Discharge Duration time (hours).

MONITORING OF VRLA BATTERIES

Following steps are required for monitoring of the VRLA Batteries:
(a) Periodic physical inspection of each cell of the battery for cracks and leaking etc.
(b) Discharge of battery for a short duration and recording the voltages of each cell
in the string.
(c) Measurement of a mark deviation (>30%) in the impedance or conductance of
the cell as compared to the one recorded at the time of commissioning.
(d) Measurement & recording of cell temp. periodically.
(e) Float Voltage of cells & its comparison with the mid point voltage.
(f) Float current in fully charged battery.

Periodic Physical Inspection: Check for any crack or leakage every month. If not
every month, at least once in two months.

Battery Partial Discharge Test: Put battery to a test discharge for 30 minutes by
shutting power plant so that 20% of the battery is discharged. This can be decided by
the table supplied by the manufacturer. Record the Voltage of each cell. Any cell
showing more than 5% variation compared to voltage of other cell can be potential weak
cell.
Impedance Measurement:Take impedance measurement when the charger is on and
the battery is on float. Any change in impedance/conductance of the cell more than 40%
shows imminent failure of the battery/cell. A change of <30% shows a healthy battery/
cell.

Temperature: Every 10 degree rise in battery temperature doubles the chemical
reaction in the battery. The SMPS power plant takes care of the temperature by
reducing the charging voltage but still it is important to measure individual cell temp.
periodically and keep record for study and analysis.

Float Voltage: Float voltage is another important parameter on which life and
performance of the battery depends. The float voltage should be set to 2.25 V per
cell and charge voltage to 2.3 V per cell taking the adjustment factor of 3 mV/cell
per degree centigrade.

Mid-point Voltage Measurement: Some battery monitors measure the midpoint
voltage of each battery string. In this method the monitor will raise an alarm if there is a
sufficient imbalance in the two half string voltages.

Individual Cell Monitoring: In this technique, the voltage of each is measured and
deviation in any of cell can be detected quickly.


Effect of Temperature on the battery:
With rise in temperature the battery life decreases.
For every 10 degree rise in temperature, the capacity of battery becomes half.
There is a temperature compensation in SMPS Power Plants and it is 3 milli-volt per
degree rise in temp.

Life of battery:
Batteries upto 200AH: 4 Years
Batteries more than 200 AH: 6 years

SMPS(Switched Mode Power Supply) Power plant:

The salient features of SMPS power plant are:
1) The power system is intended primarily to provide uninterrupted DC power to
telecom exchange and current for charging the batteries.
2) The system works from commercial AC mains which is rectified and regulated to
-54 V DC and is fed to the equipment (exchange).
3) The modules switching frequency for SMPS is 107.5 kHz. Therefore size of the
module is very compact.
4) The system has provision to connect three sets of VRLA batteries and facility to
charge them simultaneously to ensure that uninterrupted DC power is always
available to the exchange.
5) The power systems is suitable for VRLA batteries.

Life of Power Plant:
Static P/P : 15 years
SMPS P/P: 15 years


Earthing

Purposes of Earthing

Apart from protection from hazardous stray currents in electrical equipment in
Telecommunication circuits and equipments, earthing is provided for the following
purposes:

(a) Reduction of Crosstalk and Noise :
One pole of the battery (+ve pole) is earthed in the telephone exchange so
that cross talk between the various circuits due to the speech currents of
one circuit finding path through the other via common battery feed points of
the transmission bridge and poor NSN via earthed terminal of the battery is
reduced.
(b) Protection of buildings and equipments from lighting strikes.
(c) Used as return path for the conductors in some telegraph and voice circuits.
(d) Protection of costly apparatus and persons against foreign voltages and
leakage currents from power wirings to the metallic frame of the equipment.
(e) Earth is used to afford convenience & reliability, in the operate path of the
circuits involved in the switching apparatus of telecom circuits.
(f) Earthing power supply systems is used to effect reliability of power as it
helps to provide stability of voltage conditions preventing excess fluctuations
and providing a measure of protection against lighting.
Earth Electrodes :

Three types of earth electrodes are commonly used for earthing systems.
1) Rod electrodes
2) Plate electrodes
3) Strip electrodes

Instruction for monitoring of Earth resistance were issued from Corporate office. As per
the instruction:

E/R is to be measured every six months.
Earth resistance should be less than 0.5 for electronic
One dry season must be included in these two occasions.
For lightning prone area, it should be measured every month.
Wherever, it is beyond limits, it should be immediately brought within limits.
Procedure for laying earth resistance may be followed as prescribed in the latest
issue of EI on Protection Earthing I-001.
Reduction in card failure has been observed by improving the earth resistance.

Section-II
Chapter-1
Overview of DWDM
E3E4 DWDM Overview Rev Nil 14.12.2007 1 of 8
Overview of DWDM
Definition
Dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) is a fiber-optic
transmission technique that employs light wavelengths to transmit data
parallel-by-bit or serial-by-character.
Overview
This tutorial addresses the importance of scalable DWDM systems in
enabling service providers to accommodate consumer demand for ever-
increasing amounts of bandwidth. DWDM is discussed as a crucial
component of optical networks that allows the transmission of e-mail,
video, multimedia, data, and voicecarried in Internet protocol (IP),
asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), and synchronous optical
network/synchronous digital hierarchy (SONET/SDH), respectively, over
the optical layer.
1. The Challenges of Today's Telecommunications Network
To understand the importance of DWDM and optical networking, these
capabilities must be discussed in the context of the challenges faced by
the telecommunications industry, and, in particular, service providers.
Most U.S. networks were built using estimates that calculated bandwidth
use by employing concentration ratios derived from classical engineering
formulas such as Poisson and Reeling. Consequently, forecasts of the
amount of bandwidth capacity needed for networks were calculated on
the presumption that a given individual would only use network
bandwidth six minutes of each hour. These formulas did not factor in the
amount of traffic generated by Internet access (300 percent growth per
year), faxes, multiple phone lines, modems, teleconferencing, and data
and video transmission. In fact, today many people use the bandwidth
equivalent of 180 minutes or more each hour.
Therefore, an enormous amount of bandwidth capacity is required to
provide the services demanded by consumers. At the transmission speed
of one Gbps, one thousand books can be transmitted per second.
However today, if one million families decide they want to see video on
Web sites and sample the new emerging video applications, then
network transmission rates of terabits (trillions of bits per second [Tbps])
are required. With a transmission rate of one Tbps, it is possible to
transmit 20 million simultaneous 2-way phone calls or transmit the text
from 300 yearsworth of daily newspapers per second.
In addition to this explosion in consumer demand for bandwidth, many
service providers are coping with fiber exhaust in their networks. Today,
many carriers are nearing one hundredpercent capacity utilization
across significant portions of their networks. Another problem for carriers
is the challenge of deploying and integrating diverse technologies in one
physical infrastructure. Customer demands and competitive pressures
mandate that carriers offer diverse services economically and deploy
them over the embedded network. DWDM provides service providers an
answer to that demand (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Optical Transport to Optical Networking: Evolution of the
Phototonics Layer
Use of DWDM allows providers to offer services such as e-mail, video,
and multimedia carried as Internet protocol (IP) data over asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) and voice carried over SDH. Despite the fact that
these formatIP, ATM, and SDHprovide unique bandwidth
management capabilities, all three can be transported over the optical
layer using DWDM. This unifying capability allows the service provider
the flexibility to respond to customer demands over one network.
A platform that is able to unify and interface with these technologies and
positions the carrier with the ability to integrate current and next-
generation technologies is critical for a carrier's success.
2. Resolving the Capacity Crisis
Faced with the multifaceted challenges of increased service needs, fiber
exhaust, and layered bandwidth management, service providers need
options to provide an economical solution. One way to alleviate fiber
exhaust is to lay more fiber, and, for those networks where the cost of
laying new fiber is minimal, this will prove the most economical solution.
However, laying new fiber will not necessarily enable the service provider
to provide new services or utilize the bandwidth management capability
of a unifying optical layer.
A second choice is to increase the bit rate using time division
multiplexing (TDM), where TDM increases the capacity of a fiber by
slicing time into smaller intervals so that more bits (data) can be
transmitted per second (see Figure 2). Traditionally, this has been the
industry method of choice (STM1, STM 4, STM 16, etc.). However,
when service providers use this approach exclusively, they must make
the leap to the higher bit rate in one jump, having purchased more
capacity than they initially need. Based on the SDH hierarchy, the next
incremental step from 10 Gbps TDM is 40 Gbpsa quantum leap that
many believe will not be possible for TDM technology in the near future.
This method has also been used with transport networks that are based
on the synchronous digital network (SDH) standard for international
networks.

Figure 2. Increased Network CapacityTDM
The telecommunications industry adopted the SDH standard to provide a
standard synchronous optical hierarchy with sufficient flexibility to
accommodate current and future digital signals. SDH accomplishes this
by defining standard rates and formats and optical interfaces. For
example, multiple electrical and optical signals are brought into a SDH
terminal where they are terminated and multiplexed electrically before
becoming part of the payload of an STM1, the building block frame
structure of the SDH hierarchy. The STM1 payloads are then
multiplexed to be sent out on the single fiber at a single rate: STM-4 to
STM-16 to STM-64 and eventually to STM-256.
SONET and SDH, two closely related standards, provided the foundation
to transform the transport networks, as we know them today. They
govern interface parameters; rates, formats, and multiplexing methods;
and operations, administration, maintenance, and provisioning (OAM&P)
for high-speed transmission of bits of information in flashing laser-light
streams. A synchronous mode of transmission means that the laser
signals flowing through a fiber-optic system have been synchronized to
an external clock. The resulting benefit is that data streams transmitting
voice, data, and images through the fiber system flow in a steady,
regulated manner so that each stream of light can readily be identified
and easily extracted for delivery or routing.
3. Capacity Expansion and Flexibility: DWDM
The third choice for service providers is dense wavelength division
multiplexing (DWDM), which increases the capacity of embedded fiber by
first assigning incoming optical signals to specific frequencies
(wavelength, lambda) within a designated frequency band and then
multiplexing the resulting signals out onto one fiber. Because incoming
signals are never terminated in the optical layer, the interface can be bit-
rate and format independent, allowing the service provider to integrate
DWDM technology easily with existing equipment in the network while
gaining access to the untapped capacity in the embedded fiber.
DWDM combines multiple optical signals so that they can be amplified as
a group and transported over a single fiber to increase capacity (see
Figure 3). Each signal carried can be at a different rate and in a different
format (SDH, ATM, data, etc.) For example, a DWDM network with a mix
of SDH signals operating at 2.5 Gbps and 10 Gbps over a DWDM
infrastructure can achieve capacities of over 40 Gbps. A system with
DWDM can achieve all this gracefully while maintaining the same degree
of system performance, reliability, and robustness as current transport
systemsor even surpassing it. Future DWDM terminals will carry up to
80 wavelengths of STM-16, a total of 200 Gbps, which is enough
capacity to transmit 40,000 volumes of an encyclopedia in one second.

Figure 3. Increased Network CapacityWDM
The technology that allows this high-speed, high-volume transmission is
in the optical amplifier. Optical amplifiers operate in a specific band of the
frequency spectrum and are optimized for operation with existing fiber,
making it possible to boost light wave signals and thereby extend their
reach without converting them back to electrical form. Demonstrations
have been made of ultra wideband optical-fiber amplifiers that can boost
light wave signals carrying over 100 channels (or wavelengths) of light. A
network using such an amplifier could easily handle a terabit of
information. At that rate, it would be possible to transmit all the world's TV
channels at once or about half a million movies at the same time.
Consider a highway analogy where one fiber can be thought of as a
multilane highway. Traditional TDM systems use a single lane of this
highway and increase capacity by moving faster on this single lane. In
optical networking, utilizing DWDM is analogous to accessing the unused
lanes on the highway (increasing the number of wavelengths on the
embedded fiber base) to gain access to an incredible amount of
untapped capacity in the fiber. An additional benefit of optical networking
is that the highway is blind to the type of traffic that travels on it.
Consequently, the vehicles on the highway can carry ATM packets, SDH,
and IP.
4. Capacity Expansion Potential
By beginning with DWDM, service providers can establish a grow-as-
you-go infrastructure, which allows them to add current and next-
generation TDM systems for virtually endless capacity expansion (see
Figure 4). DWDM also gives service providers the flexibility to expand
capacity in any portion of their networksan advantage no other
technology can offer. Carriers can address specific problem areas that
are congested because of high capacity demands. This is especially
helpful where multiple rings intersect between two nodes, resulting in
fiber exhaust.

Figure 4. Capacity Expansion Evolution: A Strategy for the Long
Term
Service providers searching for new and creative ways to generate
revenue while fully meeting the varying needs of their customers can
benefit from a DWDM infrastructure as well. By partitioning and
maintaining different dedicated wavelengths for different customers, for
example, service providers can lease individual wavelengthsas
opposed to an entire fiberto their high-use business customers.
Compared with repeater-based applications, a DWDM infrastructure also
increases the distances between network elementsa huge benefit for
long-distance service providers looking to reduce their initial network
investments significantly. The fiber-optic amplifier component of the
DWDM system enables a service provider to save costs by taking in and
amplifying optical signals without converting them to electrical signals.
Furthermore, DWDM allows service providers to do it on a broad range of
wavelengths in the 1.55m region. For example, with a DWDM system
multiplexing up to 16 wavelengths on a single fiber, carriers can
decrease the number of amplifiers by a factor of 16 at each regenerator
site. Using fewer regenerators in long-distance networks results in fewer
interruptions and improved efficiency.
5. DWDM Incremental Growth
A DWDM infrastructure is designed to provide a graceful network
evolution for service providers who seek to address their customers'
ever-increasing capacity demands. Because a DWDM infrastructure can
deliver the necessary capacity expansion, laying a foundation based on
this technology is viewed as the best place to start. By taking incremental
growth steps with DWDM, it is possible for service providers to reduce
their initial costs significantly while deploying the network infrastructure
that will serve them in the long run.
Some industry analysts have hailed DWDM as a perfect fit for networks
that are trying to meet demands for more bandwidth. However, these
experts have noted the conditions for this fit: a DWDM system simply
must be scalable. it is possible for service providers to begin evolving the
capacity of the TDM systems already connected to their network. Mature
STM-64 systems can be added later to the established DWDM
infrastructure to expand capacity to 40 Gbps and beyond.
6. The Optical Layer as the Unifying Layer
Aside from the enormous capacity gained through optical networking, the
optical layer provides the only means for carriers to integrate the diverse
technologies of their existing networks into one physical infrastructure.
DWDM systems are bit-rate and format independent and can accept any
combination of interface rates (e.g., synchronous, asynchronous, STM-1,
STM-4, STM-16 etc) on the same fiber at the same time. If a carrier
operates both ATM and SDH networks, the ATM signal does not have to
be multiplexed up to the SDH rate to be carried on the DWDM network.
Because the optical layer carries signals without any additional
multiplexing, carriers can quickly introduce ATM or IP without deploying
an overlay network. An important benefit of optical networking is that it
enables any type of cargo to be carried on the highway.
But DWDM is just the first step on the road to full optical networking and
the realization of the optical layer. The concept of an all-optical network
implies that the service provider will have optical access to traffic at
various nodes in the network, much like the SDH layer for SDH traffic.
Optical wavelength add/drop (OWAD) offers that capability, where
wavelengths are added or dropped to or from a fiber, without requiring a
SDH terminal. But ultimate bandwidth management flexibility will come
with a cross-connect capability on the optical layer. Combined with
OWAD and DWDM, the optical cross-connect (OXC) will offer service
providers the ability to create a flexible, high-capacity, efficient optical
network with full optical bandwidth management. These technologies are
today's reality: DWDM has been utilized in the long-distance network
since 1995, OWAD will be available in products in 1998, and the first
OXC was showcased at industry conventions in 1997.
7. Key DWDM System Characteristics
There are certain key characteristics of acceptable and optimal DWDM
systems. These characteristics should be in place for any DWDM system
in order for carriers to realize the full potential of this technology. The
following questions help determine whether a given DWDM system is
satisfactory.
Does the system reuse embedded equipment and fiber plant?
DWDM systems at 2.5 Gbps should use the full capability of the
embedded equipment and fiber base.
Is the system robust and reliable?
Well-engineered DWDM systems offer component reliability, system
availability, and system margin. Although filters were often susceptible to
humidity, this is no longer the case.
Do the pump lasers have connectors, or are they spliced in the
optical amplifier?
An optical amplifier has two key elements: the optical fiber that is doped
with the element erbium and the amplifier. When a pump laser is used to
energize the erbium with light at a specific wavelength, the erbium acts
as a gain medium that amplifies the incoming optical signal. If a
connector is used rather than a splice, slight amounts of dirt on the
surface may cause the connector to become damaged.
Is manual intervention required when adding or removing
channels?
Automatic adjustment of the optical amplifiers when channels are added
or removed achieves optimal system performance. This is important
because if there is just one channel on the system with high power,
degradation in performance through self-phase modulation can occur. On
the other hand, too little power results in not enough gain from the
amplifier.
Does the system use fluoride- or silica-based fiber amplifiers?
In the 1530- to 1565-nm range, silica-based optical amplifiers with filters
and fluoride-based optical amplifiers perform equally well. However,
fluoride-based optical amplifiers are intrinsically more costly to
implement. The long-term reliability of fluoride-based fibers has not yet
been verified.
Can the system's number of wavelengths and bit rate be upgraded?
While the answer is yes for all DWDM systems, planning for this is
critical. If service providers put together their networks in a specific way
and then want to upgrade, one of two things must happen: They need
either more power or additional signal-to-noise margin. For example,
each time providers double the number of channels or the bit rate, 3 dB
of additional signal-to-noise margin is needed.
Does the system offer standards-compliant maintenance
interfaces?
Standard transaction language 1 interfaces are widely available for
DWDM systems. Interfaces should readily fit into a service provider's
typical maintenance scheme.
8. Conclusion
Optical networking provides the backbone to support existing and
emerging technologies with almost limitless amounts of bandwidth
capacity. All-optical networking (not just point-to-point transport) enabled
by optical cross-connects, optical programmable add/drop multiplexers,
and optical switches provides a unified infrastructure capable of meeting
the telecommunications demands of today and tomorrow. Transparently
moving trillions of bits of information efficiently and cost-effectively will
enable service providers to maximize their embedded infrastructure and
position themselves for the capacity demand of the next millennium.

Section-II

Chapter-II

DWDM system engineering & planning
E3E4 DWDM Sys Engg & Plg Rev Nil 14.12.2007 1 of 6
DWDM system engineering & planning

1. Objective:- DWDM system engineering & planning is basically to create
awareness of system engineering as well as of used by the planners. There is no
planning for fresh DWDM ring in BSNL at present. The planning of DWDM
equipment is being done on congestion of STM-16 ring capacity further we are
facing the problems of exhausting the fiber in our OF cable and there fore it is not
possible to install more number of SDH, STM-16.

2. Equipment nomenclature / application code:- For system engineering
basic tool, the first requirement is to learn how to read the system code. The system
code is given as follows
nWx-y.z

where for each application code n is the maximum number of wavelength. It means
the number of channels. For example 16channel system. 32 channel system or higher
capacity system.

W. is the letter indicating span distance. This is divided
L. indicating long haul
V. Indicating very long haul
U. Indicating ultra long hauls.
X. is the maximum number of spans allowed within the application code
with or without line amplifier. The deployment. of line amplifier is depend upon
the various important parameters of EDFA and fiber types.

y is the maximum bit rate (STM level) on each DWDM wavelength (channel)
.Maximum bit rate per wavelength depends upon type of fiber as given below in
brief .

z is the fiber type, as follows.
2 indicating G.652 fiber
3 indicating G. 653 fiber]
5 indicating G 655 fiber

For example.
nWx-y.z
32.L.8.2.5Gbs.2
Where
n(n is the maximum number of wavelength)=32
w=L( long haul system)
x(is the maximum number of spans)=8
y(y is the maximum bit rate)=2.5Gbs.
z(z is the fiber type)=G.652.
the maximum bit rate per channel for G.652 fiber for targeting spans distance
80Km is 2.5 Gbs ( STM-16) only.

3. No of spans/ section with Optical Line Amplifier (OLA)
In long haul maximum number of 8 section or 7 line amplifier maybe deployed for
the maximum optical reach distance, in this case is 640 Km. In very long to haul
type deployment maximum number of 3 section or 2 line amplifier may be placed
in route. Ultra long haul system dose not support any EDFA therefore as present
BSNL has no planning for deploying ultra long haul system in BSNL network. In
between long haul and very long haul, some verdure are supporting medium long
haul system with 5 sections. & 4 line amplifier

G-692- suggested channel central frequency spacing for
application on G.652/G.655

80 Kms
8*22db
OBA OLA OPA

5*30db 100 Kms

OBA OLA OPA

3*33db 120 Kms

OBA OLA OPA

1*37db
160Kms

OBA OPA

For example: the long haul deployment of EDFA is discussed below

Maximum span distance is 80 Kms. The maximum transmission loss per section is
22 db. The maximum link distance for DWDM link is 640 Kms with spans of
80 Kms each.. The assumptions are as follows;

Fiber alternation including splice loss, connector loss etc. in IIIrd window is
taken 0.28-db/ Km
0.28 x 80 = 22.40 db
For G.652 fiber, the dispersion for maximum link distance of 640 Km is 12800
ps/nm
The G.652 fiber cable affer 20 ps /km dispersion. There for 640 Kms dispersion is
640 x 20=12800 ps/nm.

If be consider lowest RX level as 21 db, than only 1db mtce margin is there.

Mixed networking is possible
* Based on G.652, 0.275 db/km, 20ps/nm. km
At present rout condition, to restore the cable fault normally a piece of cable is
placed. Therefore instead of 1 joint double joint has to be made. So mtce margin
should be more.

4 Wavelength Grid:

In BSNL, only G.652 fiber cable has been laid in our network. Therefore it is
recommended a minimum of 100 Ghz frequency spacing ( 0.8 nm spacing ) maximum
up to 40 channel are to be deployed

One of the key element of DWDM system is optical fiber amplifier. Erbium
Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) is the most common commercial available amplifier
telecom industry. Most of the EDFA are available commercially working on C band with
range of 1530-1565 nm only. The different wavelength sources (LASER) as finalized by
ITU-T only shall be used with a central wavelength frequency 193.1 Thz. For 16 channel
DWDM system, the channel spacing is 200 Ghz. Further spacing is half i.e. 100 Ghz for 32
channel DWDM system. In general as the number of channel is increased, inter channel
spacing is narrowed.

G-692- suggested channel central frequency spacing for application on
G.652/G655 Fibbers:

Channel Number Frequency ( Thz) Wavelength in nm
1 192.1 1560.61
2 192.2 1559.79
3 192.3 1558.98
4 192.4 1558.17
5 192.5 1557.38
6 192.6 1556.55
7 192.7 1555.58
8 192.8 1554.94
9 192.9 1554.13
10 193.0 1553.33
11 193.1 1552.52
12 193.2 1551.72
13 193.3 1550.92
14 193.4 1550.12
15 193.5 1549.32
16 193.6 1548.51
17 193.7 1547.72
18 193.8 1546.92
19 193.9 1546.12
20 194.0 1545.32
21 194.1 1544.63
22 194.2 1543.73
23 194.3 1542.94
24 194.4 1542.14
25 194.5 1541.35
26 194.6 1540.56
27 194.7 1539.77
28 194.8 1538.98
29 194.9 1538.19
30 195.0 1537.40
31 195.1 1536.61
32 195.2 1535.82

To utilized available resources in BSNL network, the following are the key tools for
design consideration of DWDM system planning

1. Fiber type
2. Transmit power and Receiver sensitivity.
3. Amplifier spacing.
4. Inter channel spacing
5. Number of wavelength.

5. Data for planning

A. Identification of DWDM Routs as per traffic requirement:-

1. Identification of routes should normally be done with more than 60% load. The
number of fiber loaded on this cable should be at least 50% in cases of 12 fiber OF
cable.

2. The present Band Width requirement for various services should be taken into
account. To calculate the anticipated bandwidth for further, we should consider
growth of B.W demand in the past for two years and we should also focus on new
services likely to be introducing in the network. In general bandwidth requirement
gets normally double after every alternate year. Planning should take care for at
least 10 year of equipment life. We should also consider working systems on the
routes. At least 2 no. of STM-16 system or more than 2 systems should be working
on the chosen route for DWDM deployment.

B. Rout planning:

The planning of DWDM systems is being done on our existing nationals/ regional
SDH rings. On our existing cable route, a meaning full survey needs to be done for
ascertaining for fiber capacity utilized and to find out good spare fiber also. For
calculation of losses per section, the losses at IIIrd window i.e. 1550nm should be
measured for all section. The distance of each section i.e. From ADM to ADM or
ADM to Repeater should also be measured and put in table form for each proposed
plan DWDM link along with section transmission losses.

The due consideration should be focused on present add/ drop traffic at various
locations and further add/drop requirement on the basis of geographical and
financial implications. Development of a systematic layered architect should be also
consider for further proof network..

6. Planning elements for DWDM system:

Two type of DWDM systems for available in telecom industry.

1. Open system i.e transponder based system.
2. Integrated system i.e non-transponder based system.

Fresh equipment including SDH equipment can be planned only with integrated non-
transponder based system. In this type of system SDH ADM laser wavelength is as per ITU
T prescribed wavelength grid. Since open system also with open door to use existing
SDH/PDM/ATM equipment etc. and open system is also welcome new services without
SDH network. Therefore we should plan only open DWDM. System in our BSNL network.

Since at present the BSNL network is based or G.652 fiber, so we can plan only
maximum 32-channel equipment with 2.5 Gbs with bit rate per channel. However we can
plan least 12 number of transponder initially the vender should be asked to supply more
transponder as and when required as per traffic need by placing a clause in tender
document.

Keeping in new of repeater spacing, present/ Future - add/Drop requirement,
geoghariical condition, the planning of long haul, medium long haul and very haul system
can be done. Even in one link mix planning is also possible.

With G655 fiber, OF cable we can plane systems of 160 channels in C band with 10
Gbs per channel bit rate also

7. Survivability requirement in DWDM network

After considering due optical parameter in the link engineering and because of 640 Kms limit
of optical reach distance on G.652 fiber it be not possible to convert all SDH rings in to
DWDM optical rings. Therefore best-suited topology for our network is:

1. DWDM: Point to Point

2. DWDM: Point to Multi Point

However we can plan some optical DWDM link by deploying Optical Add Drop Multiplexes
(OADM) in our network to add /drop of limited number of wavelength in between point-to-
point deployment. (This is nothing but Point to multi Point deployment topology).

3. SDH : Ring

4. Ultimately Mesh topology with help of Optical cross Connects .

Since due to deployment of DWDM equipment point to point or point to multi point it
is not offering any optical protection for route failure or equipment failure. However SDH
protection (Ms- BSHR-2fiber ring) on our STM-16 rings is successfully offing protection in
case of route failure or equipment failure as per features available in SDH network
Survivability.

8. Conclusion:

The success of planning is depending upon the following important parameter.

1. Planning should be done always in advanced.

2. Planning should be based on present and futures authentic value added data.

3. Planning should be executive always in time with definite time frame.

4. the success of any project is always depend upon the amount of investment and due
return from the project.

Section-II

Chapter-3

DWDM Measurements &
Testing Instruments
E3E4 DWDM Testing Rev Nil 14.12.2007 1 of 11
Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexed (DWDM) Testing
Definition
At its simplest, a dense wavelength division multiplexed (DWDM) system can be viewed as
a parallel set of optical channels, each using a slightly different light wavelength, but all
sharing a single transmission medium. This new technical solution can increase the capacity
of existing networks without the need for expensive equipment and can significantly reduce
the cost of network upgrades.
Overview
DWDM systems offer an attractive, cost-effective way for the telecommunications industry
to expand network bandwidth. This new technology allows telecom operators to meet ever-
growing requirements for new services and have greater flexibility in the provision of these
services. By allowing fiber-optic links, both existing and new, to carry several channels
simultaneously, DWDM makes optimum use of facilities, easily reaching transmission
capabilities four to eight times those of traditional time division multiplexed ('1'DM) systems
and offering even greater potential capacities.
The planning, installation, and maintenance of DWDM networks demand that much closer
attention be paid to a number of limiting performance parameters than has been the case
until now This tutorial discusses these parameters as well as other factors involved in
field-testing DWDM systems.
Topics
1. The Need for New Testing Tools
2. Spectral Measurements
3 Parameters to be measured in the Field
4 Optical Spectrum Analyzer
5 OSA Characteristics
6. Wavelength Meter
7. New Requirements for Traditional Fiber-Optic Test Instruments
8.Characterizing Fiber for DWDM Applications
9. Field Testing DWDM Systems
10.. Conclusion
1. The Need for New Testing Tools
Although both designing and implementing DWDM systems calls for considerably more
care than has been needed for con
v
entional systems, by and large, the skill and
capability necessary has increased to a degree: existing knowledge bases and facilities,
with some additional training and upgraded instrumentation, will meet the challenges
that the new technology presents. However, the same cannot be said for field testing.
New parameters must be measured, and component characteristics once of interest only
before installation must now be verified regularly. In addition, accuracy and stability
requirements reach new levels, and an entirely new dimensionwavelengthmust be
considered. Field test equipment suitable for troubleshooting in single wavelength
systems cannot cope with these needs. New instrumentation is urgently required.

Testing and troubleshooting single-wavelength systems in the field can be accomplished
by monitoring a few well-defined parameters. For example, optical power loss, or
attenuation, has always been a key factor in the performance of fiber-optic links, and
portable optical loss test sets have been developed to measure this loss in the field.
Instruments with optical time domain reflectometric capabilities have been developed to
locate faulty elements in a link. As system sophistication has grown, so has the
significance of optical return loss, especially in the CATV Meld, IA here source-laser
instability caused by reflected energy can have serious effects on signal quality. Field
instrumentation has been developed to monitor this parameter as well. All this test
equipment is still required in the DWDM environment, but with much more stringent needs
of WDM. In the fiber itself, both chromatic and polarization mode dispersion spread signal
pulses and set limits on the transmission capacity, and their effects may he severe on the
transmission signal integrity. New instrumentation capabilities may be needed to identify the
sources of these disturbing influences and ensure that they do not adversely affect
performance.
2. Spectral Measurements
The major new requirement in the test and monitoring of DWDM systems is the need to
characterize components and link accurately as a function of wavelength. Instrumentation to
do so already existsthe optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) has long been a fixture in network
development and test laboratories. Now, however, similar capabilities must be provided in
the field. Capabilities must be usable for maintenance personnel working in conditions that
are very different from those in the stable, controlled laboratory environment. Major
advances in instrumentation engineering are needed to take measurement capabilities that
were once available only in a laboratory out into the field (see Figure 2).
Figure2 DWDM Critical System parameters
5/19/2007 DWDM/ALT/TX-I/Opti.Test/06 9

3.Parameters to Be Measured in the Field
The core measurement capabilities needed in the spectral domain include the following:
Channel powerOne must be able to measure the optical power in each channel to
verify the equal distribution of power over the bandwidth of the optical amplifiers
(EDFAs) that are used in the link (i.e., to measure the spectral uniformity of the optical
power).
Channel center wavelength and spacing--The precise value of the center
wavelength of each channel must be measured in order to detect unacceptable
drifts in DFB laser sources.
Signal-to-noise ratioThis is one of the most important parameters to be
measured for each channel in a DWDM system, as it is the best indicator of the
overall performance of the channel. The noise measurement it incorporates must be
based on measurements of the noise floor between channels.
Cros s t al k. This parameter reveals the level of unwanted signal (noise plus
contribution from other channels) in the pass band of the tested channel. It is
awkward to incorporate its measurement into field tests because it is a two-step
operation, but it can be critical.
Total optical powerBecause adverse effects of non-linear phenomena in the
optical fiber depend on the total power carried, the parameter must be measured by
summing individual channel powers.
4. The Optical Spectrum Analyzer
Although by its very nature the laboratory-based optical spectrum analyzer meets the new
testing requirement for measurements as a function of wavelength, present-day OSA
versions are entirely unsuited to field use. Large and heavy, laboratory OSAS are not
packaged for portability. The sophisticated optics they contain make them extremely
vulnerable to shock and in frequent need of realignment and re-calibration. Their proper use
requires a high degree of operator skill. (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Traditional Optical Spectrum Analyzer Design, Single Pass
Monochromater

Producing an OSA that is small, rugged, and reliable enough to be carried about in the
field and to be operated by technicians lacking extensive experience with laboratory
OSAs is a challenge whose resolution involves the following three steps:
1. Eliminating the features and capabilities of laboratory instruments not required
for the maintenance of DI1'DM networks (e.g., spectral measurement abilities
outside the EDFA wavelength region)
2. Selecting and developing an optical configuration that can withstand shock and
operate without the delicate mechanical displacements used by conventional
single-pass and double-pass monochromater designs (see Figure 4) Simplifying
the traditional, complex, laboratory oriented user interface to accommodate the
needs of the field operator.
Figure 4. Narrowband, Shock-Resistant OSA Design

5. OSA Characteri sti cs
Characteristics essential to a field version of an OSA, while measuring the core
parameters already identified, include the following:
Dynamic rangeAn adequate dynamic rangethe ability to measure weak
signals in the presence of strong onesis needed to measure the power in a
strong, non-saturated signal and that of the adjacent noise floor (in a specified
bandwidth). For example, in a system with too GIIz (0.8 nm) channel spacing,
an OSA must be able to measure an optical signal at a given wavelength and,
just 0.4 nm away, an ASE noise level that may be 30 dB to 35 dB weaker (see
Figure 5).
Figure 5. Dynamic Range Calculation for an Optical Spectrum Analyzer

Optical sensitivityThe instrument sensitivitythe lowest signal level it can
quant4is generally determined by electronic considerations (the dark current
of detectors, noise in detector preamplifiers, etc.). It must be low enough to
permit the measurement of component insertion loss and assess the signal-to-
noise ratio in all parts of a network.
Resolution bandwidth
The resolution bandwidth of an OSA determines its

ability to deal with close optical channel spacing. It is measured as the width of
the response curve at half peak power (i.e., 3 dB down) of the instrument to a
Fiber
Detector
Aperture
Diffraction
Grating
monochromatic test signal. It is often called full-width half-maximum
(FWHM) (see Figure 6).
Figure 6
Resolution
Bandwidth
3dB
Resolution Bandwidth Calculation Resolution Bandwidth Calculation
for an OSA for an OSA
A A B B
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
Power ( Power (dBm dBm) )

Wavelength accuracyThis is without doubt the shortcoming of the optical
spectrum analyzer. Good absolute wavelength accuracy requires the perfect
positioning of the grating, which is difficult to do with rotational mechanisms.
However, the precision of OSAs gives them the ability to detect unacceptable
relative drifts in DFB laser sources. Outboard calibration options such as acetylene
absorption cells can be used to improve absolute accuracy to a level acceptable for
many other DWDM test applications (see Fi gur e 7).
Resolution
Bandwidth
3dB
OSA Absolute Wavelength OSA Absolute Wavelength
Accuracy Accuracy
A A B B
. .
Although complete redesign of the traditional USA is needed before its capabilities can be
offered to field personnel faced with the difficult task of maintaining and troubleshooting
DWDM networks, its potential advantages in measuring appropriate parameters make the
USA the leading candidate to dominate the DWDM test field. The OSA offers, in a single
package, virtually all the test capabilities needed, but many steps must be taken to simplify
the hardware and make it rugged, as well as to provide the one-button test procedures,
auto-diagnostic functions, and easy approaches

6. The Wavelength Meter
The interferometer-based wavelength meter is used in the laboratory to make accurate,
repeatable measurements of source wavelengths. Such measurements are often needed in
DWDA4 systems, in particular to check the center wavelengths and the drift characteristics
of each of the transmitted optical channels. Although the intrinsic accuracy of about o.00i
nm that such instruments attain in the laboratory is entirely adequate to characterize
DWDM components, providing comparable capabilities in field instrumentsincluding
such features as internal wavelength-reference sources and fast-fourier transform (FFT)
processing for de convolutionis a design and engineering challenge of considerable
magnitude (see Figure 8). Nevertheless, the wavelength meter is expected to be the
instrument of choice for such DWDM tasks as accurately measuring the center wavelengths
of distributed feedback lasers and monitoring how they change with time (both short-term
and long-term), temperature, and other environmental conditions. Among the
characteristics that are particularly important in a field version of a wavelength meter are
the following:
Movable
mirror
Detector
Beam splitter
Fibre
Fixed mirror
Traditional Wavelength Meter Traditional Wavelength Meter

Absolute wavelength accuracy
The ability to accurately measure the absolute

wavelength of a channel is the strongest attribute of this type of instrument. With the help
of an interferometer, which is usually both precise and accurate in wavelength, the absolute
accuracy of the wavelength meter should be better than about 0.005 nm, adequate to
locate individual DWDM channel wavelengths.
Absolute power accuracyThe ability to measure the exact power in each
DWDM channel is important to verify the power flatness throughout the link. Using a
wave meter, the actual power in each channel can be determined through use of the
FFT calculation to an accuracy. The resulting absolute power accuracy will usually be
a little lower than that OSA (see of the Figure 9).
Wavelength and Power Accuracy Wavelength and Power Accuracy
Power accuracy
Wavelength meter measurement window
Good wavelength accuracy

Dynamic rangeThe ability to measure weak signals in the presence of strong
ones, dynamic range is requiredas it is in the OSAto measure the noise floor
in a multi channel transmission system. The wavelength meter can attain a
dynamic range of 20 dB to 25 dB for characterization of DWDM channels.
Number of channelsThe number of channels the instrument can extract
depends on the mechanical precision of the interferometer and on the extraction
capacity of the FF'I' algorithm used. Forty to a hundred channels should be
attainable, enough to characterize DWDM systems properly.
The wavelength meter's strength in absolute wavelength measurement enhances
the OSA and is an excellent complementary instrument for the complete
characterization of DWDM systems. Furthermore, certain field operations determining
DFB center wavelengths and troubleshooting lasers, in particular require the accuracy
that the wavelength meter provides.
Once again, the challenge is to modify present wavelength meters, which are
intended for use in the laboratory, to make them suitable for the demanding DWI)M
field environment. The new field wavelength meter will have to be rugged and portable
and will have to offer simple andto as great a degree as possible automatic test
procedures.
7. New Requirements for Traditional Fiber
Optic Test Instruments
In addition to instrumentation specifically designed for the maintenance of DWI)M systems
(i.e., the new OSAs and wavelength meters whose characteristics have been outlined
elsewhere in this tutorial), conventional field installation and test equipment must also be
considered because of the strong influence that some of the properties of fiber-optic links
have on DWDM transmission. Although many of the basic attributes of these links are
independent of the transmission mode used (TDM or WDM) and can thus be measured
using conventional instruments, a few parameters arc critical to proper DWDM operation,
and special care must be taken in selecting field instruments to measure them.
Optical Loss Test Sets (OLTS)
Because of the use of several channels at different, precisely defined wavelengths,
dedicated WDM power meters must be calibrated at specified wavelengths in the 1530 nm
to 1565 nm band, in order to measure the power in individual channels at the output of
demultiplexers. Optical loss test sets will also be used at the wavelengths used for optical
supervisory channels (OSC)1480 nm, 1510 nm, and 1625 nm, depending on the system
design. Dedicated DFB light sources will be needed to verify the loss budget when the fiber
is installed. The longest OSC wavelength, 1625 nm, requires particular attention since this
wavelength lies outside the range in which the fiber or cable manufacturer guarantees the
performance of its product. Optical loss test sets specifically intended for this wavelength
can be expected to reach the market soon.
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
A clear tendency is emerging in the OTDR world to offer capabilities in the fourth window
spectral region, at 1625 nm. In addition to the ability to test and troubleshoot the important
1625 nm optical supervisory channel, using this wavelength presents other important
advantages. In particular, in many circumstances, live fibers may be tested at the 1625 nm
wavelength while normal DWDM transmission continues uninterrupted in the F.DFA
spectral region. Because optical losses due to fiber bending are more pronounced at 1625
nm than at the shorter DWDM operational wavelengths, OTDR testing at the long
wavelength can reveal critical points in the installed fiberplaces where the performance
of the fiber is acceptable at the time of installation but could degrade over time (see Figure
1o).
B e n d i n g L o s s C o m p a r i s o n a t
1 3 1 0 n m , 1 5 5 0 n m a n d 1 6 2 5 n m

Back Reflection Meter
In a conventional (non-WDM) network, the optical return loss (ORL) can be determined
with a single measurement using a back reflection meter at the operating wavelength. In
DWDM system there are two possibilities: an aggregate measure covering the entire
wavelength band in use or a detailed one, giving result for each channel wavelength.
Although the first is obviously quicker to perform and may provided enough information
to satisfy a go/no-go acceptance test, ORL can vary considerable from channel to channel.
This ORL variation with wavelength may be caused by defective Bragg gratings or, more
often, from bad connectors at the output port of a multiplexer or demultiplexer. Excessive
back reflection can cause instability in DFB source lasers, thereby affecting the overall
system performance. As result, an ability to perform the more complex wavelength
depended measurement will often be needed.
An aggregate measurement is made with a broadband source and as independent power
meter in the same way the measurement is carried out in a single wavelength optical link.
The measurement result is single value- the total ORL power at the test point, over the
entire transmission spectrum. The value of the ORL as a function of wavelength is often a
more useful parameter intrinsically, and its determination may be essential of the simpler
aggregate test should fail on a particular link. It is measured using a high-power
broadband source, usually an erbium-amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) source. High
power is needed to provide enough power in each measurement band, which nay be as
little as 0.1nm wide, to give an adequate is an optical spectrum analyzer of adequate
resolution and sensitivity. The result, of course, is an individual ORL reading often just
the information needed to guide a troubleshooting session- for each DWDM channel (see
Figure 11).

8. Characterizing Fiber for DWDM
Theory predictsand field experience confirmsthat the characteristics of the
fiber itself can have significant impact on the performance of DWDM
networks and that the particular characteristics, which are most important, are
not necessarily those of greatest concern in conventional single-wavelength
links.
Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic dispersion, the variation of the index of refraction of the fiber with
wavelength, can be a critical determinant of system performance in DWDM systems,
especially those that use a judiciously selected amount of dispersion to minimize certain
undesirable nonlinear effects in the fiber itself. Its value is determined during fiber
manufacture, however, and few situations have arisen in which it is necessary to verify
this value in the field.
As DWDM systems are operated ever closer to their limits, however, a need is likely to
emerge to verify that this parameter is adequately controlled at every point in the optical
path. The eventual development of field instrumentation to measure chromatic dispersion
is likely, especially if the management of chromatic dispersion on installed fiber turns out
to be more complex than expected.

Polarization Mode Dispersion
Polarization mode dispersion (PM D), in which various polarization states of the optical
signal propagate at different velocities, is especially difficult to deal with. Its effects
prevent many present-day optical systems from using high-bandwidth transmission
equipment meeting stm-64 specifications. Since current state-of-the-art DWDM
technology offers eight such stm-64 channels, where the fiber can support the rate, PM 1)
can he a serious limitation to system performance and to prospects for upgrading that
performance.
PMD affects the transmission quality by spreading signal pulses and, therefore, raising the
bit error rate (HER) of the system. It arises in the first place because of asymmetries in the
fiber itself, so the primary remedy must be applied at the manufacturing level. But the
damage does not necessarily end there. During installation, the fiber can be crushed,
kinked, or otherwise overstressed. Environmental and climatic changes can also affect its
circular geometry and thus worsen its PMD characteristics. Post-installation testing may be
needed to ensure that a network does not overly suffer from PMD and that the installed
facilities can be upgraded to support tomorrow's higher bit rates. (See Figure 12)

Second-order PMD, the variation of polarization mode dispersion with wavelength, is
considered to have a negligible effect on network performance. However, it acts as a
completely random contribution to the network's chromatic dispersion, possibly negating
deliberate steps taken in network design to provide the exact amount of this dispersion to
reduce nonlinear disturbances in signal propagation. Although this parameter bears
watching, its long-term importance cannot yet be predicted.
9. Field Testing DWDM Systems
As previously indicated, the implementation of DWDM transmission systems in the field
on a large scale will have a major impact on each level of installation and system
verification. New skills will have to be developed to face these new challenges, and exiting
test instrumentation will require adaptation. Nevertheless, one instrument emerges as the
apparent reference DWDM system characterization tool- the option spectrum analyzer.
The optical spectrum analyzer is eminently suited to almost all the field testing needed in
DWDM systems: measurements of signal levels, signal-to-noise ratio, cross talk as well as
channel spacing and stability. The graphic presentation of modern OSA instrument, clearly
showing how the parameter of interest varies with wavelength, gives and excellent
overview

of many of the phenomena crucial to the proper operation of DWDM network and valuable
clues for the subsequent investigation of any problems that the measurement might reveal.
Nevertheless, in many contexts is offers too much information and often not the specific
information the field maintainer or troubleshooter needs. Operating and readout procedures
and tools must be greatly simplified from those appropriate to laboratory OSA if the
instrument is to be cost- effective in the field

However, to complement OSA testing in the field, center wavelength must be accurately
measured. This parameter can be important, especially if the system under study is part of a
large one whose standards must be respected. Other instrumentation offering more accurate
wavelength calibration-a wavelength meter, most likely-is also needed for such operation as
the measurement of DBF characteristics.
10. Conclusion
Any telecommunication service provider who operates or installs DWDM system must meet
testing requirements well beyond those needed for older-generation equipment and must be
prepared t o perform sophisticated testing in the field on existing line and equipment
laboratories, now must be considered.
Throughout the life cycle of a network, from planning through installation to routine
maintenance. These new requirements will inevitably lead to the development of new field
test instruments tailored for use in DWDM systems. The core of this new instrumentation
suitethe reference test instrumentis likely to be the optical spectrum analyzer because of
its ability to perform most of the measurements needed for system characterization,
maintenance, and troubleshooting.

Section-!!

Chapter-+

OvER v!EW OF NEXT GENERAT!ON SDH
E3E4 Next Gen SDH Rev Nil 14.12.2007 1 of 6
OVER VIEW OF NEXT GENERATION SDH

Since the turn of 20
th
centaury, the telecommunication has
switched over from the traditional voice transport to data transport.
Though digitized voice is still a very large contributor for bandwidth as
wall as for revenue. Therefore instead of an evolution of the existing
transport standard, a revolution is necessary to cope up additional data
transport. This revolution is the justification for the title of the article
Overview Of next Generation SDH.

During the evolution of digital multiplexes, e.g. from the primary
rate multiplexes 2048kbit/s E1 and 1544kbit/s DS1 up to the fourth order
multiplexes 139.264 Mbit/s E4 and 274.176 Mbit/s DS4, referred as
Pleisiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) signals, improved network
synchronization and better Operations, Administration and Maintenance
(OA&M) has become necessary. The OA&M structure should provide a
measure for the better quality the transported signals and a validation of
the connection through network. The existing PDH structure could not be
used to fulfill this requirement. The revolutionary Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy (SDH) and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) were
designed to meet the required improvements.

A PDH network has a strong vertical structure and is star shaped.
The SDH/SONET network has a strong horizontal structure with ring
shaped hierarchical layers and Add/Drop Multiplexes (ADM) providing
the interconnection between the layers and connections for client or
tributary signals. The first generation SDH/ SONET appeared after the
standardization in 1986.

As the PDH multiplexes were designed to transport voice signals
and private lines the SDH and SONET multiplex were designed initially
to transport the same signals. Because of their nature of multiplexing
they are referred to as Time Division Multiplexes (TDM). An additional
advantage of the revolutionary design of SDH/SONET is the multiplexing
structure where tributary signals are mapped as payload into containers.
These containers, together with their own timing information and OA&M
overhead, are transported as independent virtual containers in the
SDH/SONET network. The multiplex structure of SDH/SONET is also
designed to enable the
Evolution to higher order multiplexes to meet the demand for
transporting more and more payload. The original structure of SDH is
given as follows

SDH Initial Multiplex Structure
CC
Pointer processing multiplexing
Aligning
Mapping
DS1
E1
DS2 E3/DS3
E4
C-11
C-12 C-2
C-3
C-4
VC-11 VC-12 VC-2
VC-3
TU-11
TU-12
TU-2
TU-3
TUG-2
TUG-3
VC-4
AU-4
AUG-1
STM-1
x4
x3
x1
x7
x1
x
3
x3
x1
x1

The ITU-T extended the concept of four times larger payload
transport capabilities than the previous multiplex container in
SDH/SONET as was prevailing in the PDH.

The payload capacity of these new higher order multiplexes
cannot only be used to transport four times the pay load container from
the previous multiplex but can also be used to transport a single
CONTIGUOUS PAYLOAD CONTAINER. This mythology used is called
Concatenation. To provide the increased bandwidth, the solution is
only to define the concept of Contiguous concatenation (CCAT) and
introducing VCAT in existing networks by using Virtual concatenation
(VCAT). It appeared that VCAT could also be used to provide efficiently
a matching bandwidth for non-voice related signals The most recent
defined application is the deployment of VCAT to enable the gradual
introduction of an all-Optical Transport Network (OTN) as an evolution of
existing SDH/ SONET. The figure shows SDH extended multiplex
structure.

SDH Extended Multiplex Structure
CC
Pointer processing multiplexing
Aligning
Mapping
DS1
E1
DS2 E3/DS3
E4
C-11
C-12 C-2
C-3
C-4
VC-11 VC-12 VC-2 VC-3
TU-11 TU-12 TU-2
TU-3
TUG-2
TUG-3
VC-4
AU-4
AUG-1
STM-1
x4
x3
x1
x7
x1
x
3
x3
x1
x1
C-4-4c C-4-16c C-4-64C C-4-256C
VC-4-4c VC-4-16c VC-4-64c VC-4-256c
AU-4-4c AU-4-16c AU-4-64c AU-4-256c
AUG-4
AUG-16
AUG-64
AUG-256
STM-4 STM-16 STM-64 STM-256
x4
x4
x4
x4
x4
x1 x1
x1
x1
x1 x1 x1
x1
Contiguous Concatenation
Higher order multiplexes

Virtual Concatenation

VCAT makes possible to transport pipes to be right-sized for various
data payloads by allowing SDH/SONET channels to be multiplexed in arbitrary
arrangements. VCAT break down data packets and maps them into the base
units of TDM frames e.g. , STS-1 (51 Mb/s) for SONET and AU-4 (155Mb/s)
for SDH. This data is then grouped in multiple data flows of varying size to
create larger, aggregate payloads optimally sized to match available
SDH/SONET container capacity. VCAT is used at the end Network Elements of
the Link (Intermediate network elements needs not to aware the facility of
VCAT), which permits each channel used to be independently transmitted
through legacy transport network.. Data is encapsulated using GFP. The ITU
standard for VCAT is G.707.

HO-VCAT High- Order Virtual Concatenation

High- Order VCAT manipulates data along higher order paths. STS-1/3 for
SONET and VC-3/4 for SDH. HO-VAT can be used to transport Gbit Ethernet
traffic, can also be used to transport 100 MBit Ethernet traffic.

LO-VCAT Lowh- Order Virtual Concatenation

Low order VCAT applies concatenation at the lower granular
VT1.5/VC-12 level. LO-VCAT is used to transport lower rate data such
as 10/100 MBit Ethernet.

VC Rate Efficiencies
Ethernet (10M) VC3 20% VC-12-5v 92%
100M Ethernet
STM-1
= 64 x VC-12
VC-12-5v
VC-12-46v
2x 10M Ethernet
VC-12-5v
8x E1 Services
Example:
More services integrated- by using VC!
Fast Ethernet (100M) VC-4 67% VC-12-46v 100%
Data Rates Efficiency w/o VC using VC
Gigabit Ethernet (1G) VC-4-16c 42% VC-4-7v 85%
ESCON (200M) VC-4-4c 33% VC-3-4v 100%
Fibre Channel (800M) VC-4-16c 33% VC-4-6v 89%

LINK CAPACITY ADJUSTMENT SCHEME (LCAS)
For the dynamic applications of bandwidth, which can vary in time, the
payload capacity provided by the VCAT is not used efficiently. For the effective
utilization, a protocol has been designed to flexibly adjust the payload container
size. This protocol in named as LINK CAPACITY ADJUSTMENT SCHEME
(LCAS).

IN LCAS protocol, the LCAS overheads signals are added to
the virtual concatenation control information. This information is required
to provide a flexible and hitless increase or decrease of the payload
bandwidth. This core tool can effectively be used to provide bandwidth
on demand to users such as Ethernet, Private Lines Customers.

This dynamic bandwidth control can also be used by
carriers to provide protection/ Survivability, when network faces any
undesirable problems. LCAS works with VCAT to dynamically allocate
bandwidth by reconfiguring VCAT groups in real time. LCAS is bi-
directional signaling protocol between network elements that are
continuously monitoring a link. This monitoring process ensures that
changes in the network capacity do not impair a customers traffic
transportation. The ITU standard defining LCAS is G.7042.

Generic Frame Procedure (GFP).

The major part of IP, Ethernet traffic is transported over the public
network by encapsulating it in Frame Relay, Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP), High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), Packet over SONET/SOH
(POS) or Asynchronous Transport Multiplex (ATM). SAN (Storage Area
Network) protocols such as Fiber Channel (FC), Enterprise Systems
Connectivity (ESCON) and Fiber Connectivity (FICON) have originally
then transported over the public network by using propriety solutions.
GFP offers two different mapping modes GFP-T & GFP-F. The ITU
standard is G.7041.
GFP-T GFP Transport

GFP-T offers direct transmission of data streams regarding low
latency, such as VoIP, digital video and SAN application.

GFP-F GFP Framed
GFP-T is normally used to encapsulate packet/ frame based
protocols such as IP/PPP or Ethernet. The frame is entirely assembled
before transmission through the SONET/SDH network.

Figure given below is an example of how packet data can be
transported.
IP
Ethernet
SAN
HDLC
ATM POS
SDH
FC ESCON FICON
PDH
Packet data transfer
PPP

At present, most line interfaces for IP edge routers and most Frame
Relay and PPP interfaces operate at POH rates or low order SDH/
SONET rates, although STM-16/0C-48 and STM-64/0C-192l in inter--
faces are being introduced in big way, specially in MAN and WAN
networks. Taken into account, the widespread availability of inexpensive
10/100/1000 Mbit/ s Ethernet interfaces on Customer Premises
equipment (CPE), there is a strong interest for a QOS friendly, standard-
based mechanism to transport IP, Ethernet and SAN traffic over TDM
and WDM networks. Based on this interest, a mapping of all these
Variable Bit Rate (VBR) signals into a Constant Bit Rate (CBR) signal
was developed. This mapping is defined as Generic Frame Procedure
(GFP). It offers significantly reduced latency and effective, improved
bandwidth utilization.

Section-III

Chapter-1

Overview of
Mobile Communication & Cellular Concepts

E3E4 Mobile concepts, Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 6
Mobile communications: Basic concepts
From ancient to modern times, mankind has been looking for means of long distance
communications. For centuries, letters proofed to be the most reliable way to transmit
information. Fire, flags, horns, etc. were used to transmit information faster. Technical
improvements in the 19
th
century simplified long distance communications: Telegraphy,
and later on telephony. Both techniques were wireline. In 1873, J. C. Maxwell laid the
foundation of the electro-magnetic theory by summarising empirical results in four
equations, which are still valid today. It would however be several decades before
Marconi made economic use of this theory by developing devices for wireless
transmission of Morse signals (about 1895). Already 6 years later, the first transatlantic
wireless transmission of Morse signals took place. Voice was transmitted the first time in
1906 (R. Fesseden), and one of the first radio broadcast transmission 1909 in New York.

The economically most successful wireless application in the first half of the 20
th
century was radio broadcast. There is one transmitter, the so-called radio station.
Information, such as news, music, etc. is transmitted from the radio station to the
receiver equipment, the radio device. This type of one-way transmission is called
simplex transmission. The transmission takes place only in one direction, from
the transmitter to the receiver.
The first commercial wireless car phone telephony service started in the late 1940
in St. Louise, Missouri (USA). It was a car phone service, because at that time,
the mobile phone equipment was bulky and heavy. Actually, in the start-up, it
filled the whole back of the car. But it was a real full duplex transmission
solution. In the 50ies, several vehicle radio systems were also installed in Europe.
These systems are nowadays called single cell systems. The user data
transmission takes place between the mobile phone and the base station (BS). A
base station transmits and receives user data. While a mobile phone is only
responsible for its users data transmission and reception, a base station is capable
to handle the calls of several subscribers simultaneously. The transmission of user
data from the base station to the mobile phone is called downlink (DL), the
transmission from the mobile phone to the base station uplink (UL) direction.
The area, where the wireless transmission between mobile phones and the base
station can take place, is the base stations supply area, called cell. For
conversation, a technical solution is required, where the information flow can take
place in two directions. This type of transmission is called duplex transmission.
Walky-talky was already available the early 30ies. This system already allowed a
transmission of user data in two directions, but there was a limitation: The users
were not allowed to transmit at the same time. In other words, you could only
receive or transmit user information. This type of transmission is therefore often
called semi-duplex transmission. For telephony services, a technical solutions is
required, where subscribers have the impression, that they can speak (transmit)
and hear (receive) simultaneously. This type of transmission solution is regarded
as full duplex transmission.

Single cell systems are quite limited. The more and more distant the subscriber is from
the base station, the lower the quality of the radio link. If the subscriber is leaving the
supply area of the cell, no communication is possible any more. In other words, the
mobile communication service was only available within the cell. In order to overcome
this limitation, cellular systems were introduced. A cellular mobile communication
system consists of several cells, which can overlap. By doing so, a whole geographical
area can be supported with the mobile communication service.

But what happens, when a subscriber moves during a call from one cell to another cell? It
would be very annoying, if the call is dropped. If the subscriber is leaving a cell, and in
parallel is entering a new cell, then the system makes new radio resources available in the
neighbouring cell, and then the call is handed over from on cell to the next one. By doing
so, service continuation is guaranteed, even when the subscriber is moving. The process
is called handover (HO).

A handover takes place during a call, i.e. when the mobile phone is in active (dedicated)
mode. A mobile phone can also be in idle mode. In this case, the mobile phone is
switched on, but no resources are allocated to it to allow user data transmission. In this
mode, the mobile phone is still listening to information, broadcasted by the base station.
Why? Imagine, there is a mobile terminated call. The mobile phone is then paged in the
cell. This means the phone receives information that there is a mobile terminated call. A
cellular system may consist of hundreds of cells. If the mobile network does not know, in
which cell the mobile phone is located, it must be paged in all of them. To reduce load on
networks, paging in is done in small parts of a mobile an operators network. Mobile
network operators group cells in administrative units called location areas (LA). A
mobile phone is paged in only one location area.
But how does the cellular system know, in which location area the mobile phone is
located? And how does the mobile phone know? In every cell, system information is
continuously transmitted. The system information includes the location area information.
In the idle mode, the mobile phone is listening to this system information. If the
subscriber moves hereby from one cell to the next cell, and the new cell belongs to the
same location area, the mobile stays idle. If the new cell belongs to a new location area,
then the mobile phone has to become active. It starts a communication with the network,
informing it about it new location. This is stored in databases within the mobile network,
and if there is a mobile terminated call, the network knows where to page the subscriber.
The process, where the mobile phone informs the network about its new location is called
Location Update Procedure (LUP).

With the introduction of cellular mobile communication systems, we
refer to generations. First generation prominent mobile communication systems were
TACS (Total Access Communications System)
NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephony)
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service)
C450
All of them were commercially launched in the 80s of the last century. The 1
st
generation
mobile communication systems often offered national wide coverage. But there were
limitations: Most of them did not support roaming. Roaming is the ability to use an other
operators network infrastructure. International roaming is the ability to go even to
another country and use the local operators infrastructure.
Most 1
st
generation mobile communication systems only supported
speech transmission, but not data transmission, such as fax. Supplementary services, such
as number indication and call forwarding, when busy. The transmission takes place
unprotected via the radio interface as a consequence, eavesdropping is possible. Also
the radio interface was the main bottleneck in terms of capacity. Improved solutions were
urgently required. This led to the inauguration of the 2
nd
generation mobile
communication systems, one of which is GSM.
GSM Frequency Bands
GSM-900 uses 890915 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the
base station (uplink) and 935960 MHz for the other direction (downlink),
providing 124 RF channels (channel numbers 1 to 124) spaced at 200 kHz.
Duplex spacing of 45 MHz is used.
In some countries the GSM-900 band has been extended to cover a larger
frequency range. This 'extended GSM', E-GSM, uses 880915 MHz (uplink) and
925960 MHz (downlink), adding 50 channels to the original GSM-900 band.
The GSM specifications also describe 'railways GSM', GSM-R, which uses
876915 MHz (uplink) and 921960 MHz (downlink). GSM-R provides
additional channels and specialized services for use by railway personnel.
All these variants are included in the GSM-900 specification.
GSM-1800 uses 17101785 MHz to send information from the mobile station to
the base tranceiver station (uplink) and 18051880 MHz for the other direction
(downlink), Duplex spacing is 95 MHz.
GSM-850 uses 824849 MHz to send information from the mobile station to the
base station (uplink) and 869894 MHz for the other direction (downlink).
GSM-1900 uses 18501910 MHz to send information from the mobile station to
the base station (uplink) and 19301990 MHz for the other direction (downlink).
GSM Handsets
Today, most telephones support multiple bands as used in different countries. These are
typically referred to as multi-band phones. Dual-band phones can cover GSM networks
in pairs such as 900 and 1800 MHz frequencies or 850 and 1900. European tri-band
phones typically cover the 900, 1800 and 1900 bands giving good coverage in Europe
and allowing limited use in North America, while North American tri-band phones utilize
850, 1800 and 1900 for wide-spread North American service but limited world-wide use.
A new addition has been the quad-band phone, supporting all four major GSM bands,
allowing for global use.

Section-III

Chapter-2

GSM Architecture

E3E4 GSM Architecture, Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 5

GSM Introduction

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is a 2
nd
Generation (2G), an
open, digital cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data
services. GSM differs from first generation wireless systems in that it uses digital
technology and time division multiple access transmission methods. GSM is a
circuit-switched system that divides each 200kHz channel into eight 25kHz time-
slots. GSM operates in the 900MHz and 1.8GHz bands in Europe and the
1.9GHz and 850MHz bands in the US. The 850MHz band is also used for GSM
and 3GSM in Australia, Canada and many South American countries. GSM
supports data transfer speeds of up to 9.6 kbit/s, allowing the transmission of
basic data services such as SMS (Short Message Service). Another major
benefit is its international roaming capability, allowing users to access the same
services when travelling abroad as at home. This gives consumers seamless and
same number connectivity in more than 210 countries. GSM satellite roaming
has also extended service access to areas where terrestrial coverage is not
available.

GSM Architecture

Above figure shows the functional blocks at macro level. These are briefly
explained in this handout.

MS
1.0 Mobile Station (MS)

In GSM, the mobile phone is called Mobile Station (MS). The MS is a
combination of terminal equipment and subscriber data. The terminal equipment
as such is called ME (Mobile Equipment) and the subscriber's data is stored in a
separate module called SIM (Subscriber Identity Module).

Therefore, ME + SIM = MS.

From the users point of view, the SIM is certainly the best-known database used
in a GSM network. The SIM is a small memory device mounted on a card and
contains user-specific identification. The SIM card can be taken out of one mobile
equipment and inserted into another. In the GSM network, the SIM card identifies
the user just like a traveller uses a passport to identify himself.

The SIM card contains the identification numbers of the user and a list of
available networks. The SIM card also contains tools needed for authentication
and ciphering. Depending on the type of the card, there is also storage space for
messages, such as phone numbers. A home operator issues a SIM card when
the user joins the network by making a service subscription. The home operator
of the subscriber can be anywhere in the world, but for practical reasons the
subscriber chooses one of the operators in the country where he/she spends
most of the time.

2.0 Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS) contains the network elements MSC,
GMSC, VLR, HLR, AC and EIR.

The Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)
The main functions of NSS are:
Call control: This identifies the subscriber, establishes a call, and clears the
connection after the conversation is over.
Charging: This collects the charging information about a call (the numbers of the
caller and the called subscriber, the time and type of the transaction, etc.) and
transfers it to the Billing Centre.
Mobility management: This maintains information about the subscriber's
location.
Signalling: This applies to interfaces with the BSS and PSTN.
Subscriber data handling: This is the permanent data storage in the HLR and
temporary storage of relevant data in the VLR.

2.1 Mobile services Switching Centre (MSC): The MSC is responsible for
controlling calls in the mobile network. It identifies the origin and
destination of a call (mobile station or fixed telephone), as well as the type
of a call.
The MSC is responsible for several important tasks, such as the following.
Call control: MSC identifies the type of call, the destination, and the origin
of a call. It also sets up, supervises, and clears connections.
Initiation of paging: Paging is the process of locating a particular mobile
station in case of a mobile terminated call (a call to a mobile station).

2.2 Gateway Mobile services Switching Centre (GMSC): The GMSC is
responsible for the same tasks as the MSC, except for paging. It is
needed in case of mobile terminated calls. In fixed networks, a call is
established to the local exchange, to which the telephone is connected to.
But in GSM, the MSC, which is serving the MS, changes with the
subscribers mobility. Therefore, in a mobile terminated call, the call is set
up to a well defined exchange in the subscribers home PLMN. This
exchange is called GMSC. The GMSC than interacts with a database
called Home Location Register, which holds the information about the
MSC, which is currently serving the MS. The process of requesting
location information from the HLR is called HLR Interrogation. Given the
information about the serving MSC, the GMSC then continues the call
establishment process. In many real life implementations, the MSC
functionality and the GMSC functionality are implemented in the same
equipment, which is then just called MSC. Many operators use GMSCs for
breakout to external networks such as PSTNs.

2.3 Visitor Location Register (VLR): VLR is a database, which contains
information about subscribers currently being in the service area of the
MSC/VLR, such as:
Identification numbers of the subscribers
Security information for authentication of the SIM card and for
ciphering

The VLR carries out location registrations and updates. When a mobile
station comes to a new MSC/VLR serving area, it must register itself in the
VLR, in other words perform a location update. Please note that a mobile
subscriber must always be registered in a VLR in order to use the services
of the network. Also the mobile stations located in the own network is
always registered in a VLR.
The VLR database is temporary, in the sense that the data is held as long
as the subscriber is within its service area. It also contains the address to
every subscriber's Home Location Register, which is the next network
element to be discussed.

2.4 Home Location Register (HLR): HLR maintains a permanent register of
the subscribers. For instance the subscriber identity numbers and the
subscribed services can be found here. In addition to the fixed data, the
HLR also keeps track of the current location of its customers. As you will
see later, the GMSC asks for routing information from the HLR if a call is
to be set up to a mobile station (mobile terminated call).

2.5 Authentication Centre (AC): The Authentication Centre provides security
information to the network, so that we can verify the SIM cards
(authentication between the mobile station and the VLR, and cipher the
information transmitted in the air interface (between the MS and the Base
Transceiver Station)). The Authentication Centre supports the VLR's work
by issuing so-called authentication triplets upon request.

2.6 Equipment Identity Register (EIR): As for AC, the Equipment Identity
Register is used for security reasons. But while the AC provides
information for verifying the SIM cards, the EIR is responsible for IMEI
checking (checking the validity of the mobile equipment). When this
optional network element is in use, the mobile station is requested to
provide the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI) number. The
EIR contains three lists:
A mobile equipment in the white list is allowed to operate normally.
If we suspect that a mobile equipment is faulty, we can monitor the use
of it. It is then placed in the grey list.
If the mobile equipment is reported stolen, or it is otherwise not allowed
to operate in the network, it is placed in the black list.

3.0 Base Station Subsystem (BSS): The Base Station Subsystem is
responsible for managing the radio network, and it is controlled by an
MSC. Typically, one MSC contains several BSSs. A BSS itself may cover
a considerably large geographical area consisting of many cells (a cell
refers to an area covered by one or more frequency resources). The BSS
consists of the following elements:
BSC Base Station Controller
BTS Base Transceiver Station
TRAU Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit (often referred to as TC
(Transcoder))

Radio path control: In the GSM network, the Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is
the part of the network taking care of radio resources, that is, radio channel
allocation and quality of the radio connection.

Synchronisation: The BSS uses hierarchical synchronisation, which means that
the MSC synchronises the BSC, and the BSC further synchronises the BTSs
associated with that particular BSC. Inside the BSS, synchronisation is controlled
by the BSC. Synchronisation is a critical issue in the GSM network due to the
nature of the information transferred. If the synchronisation chain is not working
correctly, calls may be cut or the call quality may not be the best possible.
Ultimately, it may even be impossible to establish a call.

Air- and A-interface signalling: In order to establish a call, the MS must have a
connection through the BSS. The BSS is located between two interfaces, the air-
and the A-interface. The MS must have a connection through these two
interfaces before a call can be established. Generally speaking, this connection
may be either a signalling connection or a traffic (speech, data) connection.

Mobility management and speech transcoding: BSS mobility management
mainly covers the different cases of handovers.

Section-III

Chapter-3

Overview of GPRS & EDGE
E3E4 GPRS & Edge, Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 6

Overview of GPRS

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is the world's most ubiquitous wireless
data service, available now with almost every GSM network. GSM system (2G)
with GPRS capability is sometimes also known as 2.5G. GPRS is a connectivity
solution based on Internet Protocols that supports a wide range of enterprise and
consumer applications.

Theoretical maximum speeds of up to 171.2 kilobits per second (kbps) are
achievable with GPRS using all eight timeslots at the same time. This is about
three times as fast as the data transmission speeds possible over today's fixed
telecommunications networks and ten times as fast as current Circuit Switched
Data services on GSM networks. Practically with throughput rates of up to 40
kbit/s, users have a similar access speed to a dial-up modem, but with the
convenience of being able to connect from anywhere. GPRS customers enjoy
advanced, feature-rich data services such as colour Internet browsing, e-mail on
the move, powerful visual communications such as video streaming, multimedia
messages and location-based services.

To use GPRS, users specifically need:
a mobile phone or terminal that supports GPRS (existing GSM phone
may NOT support GPRS);
a subscription to a mobile telephone network that supports GPRS;
Configuring mobile phone with the operator specific details.
Knowledge of how to configure handset is required. Many operators
provide configuration support through SMS.
Knowledge of how to send and/or receive GPRS information using their
specific model of mobile phone, including software and hardware
configuration
a destination to send or receive information through GPRS. Whereas
with SMS this was often another mobile phone, in the case of GPRS, it
is likely to be an Internet address, since GPRS is designed to make the
Internet fully available to mobile users for the first time. From day
one, GPRS users can access any web page or other Internet
applications- providing an immediate critical mass of uses;

GPRS standardization

The ETSI (European Telecommunications Standardization Institute) does the
standardisation work for GPRS.

Key points

GPRS uses a packet-based switching technique, which will enhance GSM data
services significantly, especially for bursty Internet/intranet traffic.
Some application examples:
Bus, train, airline real-time information
Locating restaurants and other entertainment venues based on current
Location
Lottery
E-commerce
Banking
E-mail
Web browsing
The main advantages of GPRS for users:
Instant access to data as if connected to an office LAN
Charging based on amount of data transferred (not the time connected)
Higher transmission speeds
The main advantages for operators:
Fast network roll-out with minimum investment
Excess voice capacity used for GPRS data
Smooth path to 3G services

In circuit switching, each time a connection is required between two points, a link
between the two points is established and the needed resources are reserved for
the use of that single call for the complete duration of the call.

In packet switching, the data to be transferred is divided up into packets, which
are then sent through the network and re-assembled at the receiving end.


The GPRS network acts in parallel with the GSM network, providing packet
switched connections to the external networks. The requirements of a GPRS
network are the following:

The GPRS network must use as much of the existing GSM infrastructure
with the smallest number of modifications to it.
Since a GPRS user may be on more than one data session, GPRS should
be able to support one or more packet switched connections.
To support the budgets of various GPRS users, it must be able to support
different Quality of Service (QoS) subscriptions of the user.
The GPRS network architecture has to be compatible with future 3rd and
4th generation mobile communication systems.
It should be able to support both point-to-point and point-to-multipoint data
connections.
It should provide secure access to external networks.

Figure shows the architecture of a GPRS network. The GPRS system
brings some new network elements to an existing GSM network. These elements
are:
Packet Control Unit (PCU)
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): the MSC of the GPRS network
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): gateway to external networks
Border Gateway (BG): a gateway to other PLMN
Intra-PLMN backbone: an IP based network inter-connecting all the
GPRS elements
Charging Gateway (CG)
Legal Interception Gateway (LIG)
Domain Name System (DNS)
Firewalls: used wherever a connection to an external network is required.

Not all of the network elements are compulsory for every GPRS network.

Packet Control Unit (PCU)
The PCU separates the circuit switched and packet switched traffic from the user
and sends them to the GSM and GPRS networks respectively. It also performs
most of the radio resource management functions of the GPRS network. The
PCU can be either located in the BTS, BSC, or some other point between the MS
and the MSC. There will be at least one PCU that serves a cell in which GPRS
services will be available. Frame Relay technology is being used at present to
interconnect the PCU to the GPRS core.

Channel Codec Unit (CCU)
The CCU is realised in the BTS to perform the Channel Coding (including the
coding scheme algorithms), power control and timing advance procedures.

Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)

The SGSN is the most important element of the GPRS network. The SGSN of
the GPRS network is equivalent to the MSC of the GSM network. There must at
least one SGSN in a GPRS network. There is a coverage area associated with a
SGSN. As the network expands and the number of subscribers increases, there
may be more than one SGSN in a network. The SGSN has the following
functions:

Protocol conversion (for example IP to FR)
Ciphering of GPRS data between the MS and SGSN
Data compression is used to minimise the size of transmitted data units
Authentication of GPRS users
Mobility management as the subscriber moves from one area to another,
and possibly one SGSN to another
Routing of data to the relevant GGSN when a connection to an external
network is required
Interaction with the NSS (that is, MSC/VLR, HLR, EIR) via the SS7
network in order to retrieve subscription information
Collection of charging data pertaining to the use of GPRS users
Traffic statistics collections for network management purposes.

Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)

The GGSN is the gateway to external networks. Every connection to a fixed
external data etwork has to go through a GGSN. The GGSN acts as the anchor
point in a GPRS data connection even when the subscriber moves to another
SGSN during roaming. The GGSN may accept connection request from SGSN
that is in another PLMN. Hence, the concept of coverage area does not apply to
GGSN. There are usually two or more GGSNs in a network for redundancy
purposes, and they back up each other up in case of failure. The functions of a
GGSN are given below:

Routing mobile-destined packets coming from external networks to the
relevant SGSN
Routing packets originating from a mobile to the correct external network
Interfaces to external IP networks and deals with security issues
Collects charging data and traffic statistics
Allocates dynamic or static IP addresses to mobiles either by itself or with
the help of a DHCP or a RADIUS server
Involved in the establishment of tunnels with the SGSN and with other
external networks and VPN.

From the external network's point of view, the GGSN is simply a router to an IP
sub-network. This is shown below. When the GGSN receives data addressed to
a specific user in the mobile network, it first checks if the address is active. If it is,
the GGSN forwards the data to the SGSN serving the mobile. If the address is
inactive, the data is discarded. The GGSN also routes mobile originated packets
to the correct external network.

GPRS MS (Mobile Station/Handset)
Different GPRS MS classes were introduced to cope with the different needs of
future subscribers. The mobiles differ in their capabilities.

What is EDGE?
Further enhancements to GSM networks are provided by Enhanced Data rates
for GSM Evolution (EDGE) technology. EDGE provides up to three times the
data capacity of GPRS. Using EDGE, operators can handle three times more
subscribers than GPRS; triple their data rate per subscriber, or add extra
capacity to their voice communications. EDGE uses the same TDMA (Time
Division Multiple Access) frame structure, logic channel and 200kHz carrier
bandwidth as today's GSM networks, which allows it to be overlaid directly onto
an existing GSM network. Some people classify the GSM network with EDGE
capability as 2.75G.

EDGE allows the delivery of advanced mobile services such as the downloading
of video and music clips, full multimedia messaging, high-speed colour Internet
access and e-mail on the move.

Although EDGE requires no hardware or software changes to be made in GSM
core networks, base stations must be modified. EDGE compatible transceiver
units must be installed and the base station subsystem (BSS) needs to be
upgraded to support EDGE. New mobile terminal hardware and software is also
required to decode/encode the new modulation and coding schemes and carry
the higher user data rates to implement new services.

Due to the very small incremental cost of including EDGE capability in GSM
network deployment, virtually all new GSM infrastructure deployments are also
EDGE capable and nearly all new mid- to high-level GSM devices also include
EDGE radio technology. The Global mobile Suppliers Association (GSA) states
that, as of May 2007, there were 223 commercial GSM/EDGE networks in 113
countries, from a total of 287 mobile network operator commitments in 142
countries (source: www.gsacom.com).

Section-III

Chapter-4

GSM Services

E3E4 GSM services Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 9
INTRODUCTION
The primary objective of a mobile telephony system is to allow mobile subscribers to
communicate effectively. GSM systems provide this by offering a number of different
basic telecommunications services.

The service functionality of GSM system improves with each system release.
Technical specifications are continuously being developed in order to incorporate new
and improved functions into the system.

SERVICE CATEGORIES

There are two main types of telecommunications services:

Basic services: These are available to all subscribers to a mobile network.
For example, the ability to make voice telephone calls is a basic service.
Basic telecommunication services can be divided into two main categories:

Teleservices: A teleservice allows the subscriber to communicate
(usually via voice, fax, data or SMS) with another subscriber. It is a
complete system including necessary terminal equipment.
Bearer services: A bearer service transports speech and data as digital
information within the network between user interfaces. A bearer
service is the capability to transfer information and does not include
the end-user equipment. Every teleservice is associated with a bearer
service. For example, a bearer service associated with the speech
telephony teleservice is the timeslot assigned to a call on a TDMA
frame over the air interface.

Supplementary services: These are additional services that are available by
subscription only. Call forwarding is an example of a supplementary
service.

GSM systems are also designed to enable operators to differentiate their services from
their competitors services using a technique based on Mobile Intelligent Network
(MIN) solutions.

BASIC TELECOMMUNICATIONS SERVICES

1.0 BEARER SERVICES

GSM systems offer a wide range of bearer services. The DTI supports data
services offered by the system. Rates up to 48 kbits/s are possible.

1.1 Traffic to PSTN: for data traffic external to PLMN such as internetworking
with ISDN or directly to PSTN, the system selects a suitable modem in the DTI.

1.2 Traffic to ISDN: an entire set of data communication services with ISDN
terminals is available. Unrestricted digital information is transferred and no
modem is necessary.

1.3 Traffic to Packet Switched Public Data Network (PSPDN): Packet service
supports synchronous data transfers with the PSPDN with rates from 1.2 to 48
kbits/s. With synchronous data transfers a packet mode terminal can be directly
connected to the MS. Synchronous data communication between an MS and a
packet switched network is possible via the packet Assembler-Disassembler
(PAD) facility. Rates between 300 and 9600 bits/s are supported.

Figure 1 Data call in GSM to PSPDN

1.4 Traffic to Circuit Switched Public Data Network (CSPDN): Data
communications with a CSPDN is possible via the PSTN or ISDN, depending
on the CSPDN-transit network interface.

1.5 Traffic to Internet: traditionally, an MSC accessed Internet nodes via existing
networks such as the PSTN. However, the direct access function enables an
MSC to communicate directly with Internet nodes, thus reducing call set-up
time.

1.6 ISDN Primary Rate Access (PRA): this function enables an MSC to provide
PRA services to subscribers. For example, a network operator can offer PABX
connection services through the PLMN. In this way the operator can compete
directly with PSTN operators for ISDN business subscribers. PRA provides a
data rate of up to 2 Mbits/s.

MSC/VLR
PAD
PST
N
PAD
PST
N
BSC
IPNetwork
PSPDN
2.0 TELESERVICES

This section describes the major teleservices supported by GSM systems.

2.1 Speech: This is normal telephony (two-way voice communication) with the
ability to make and receive calls to/from fixed and mobile subscribers
worldwide. This is the most fundamental service offered.

2.2 Emergency calls: The emergency call function enables a subscriber to make an
emergency call by pressing a predefined button or by using the emergency
number. With an emergency area origin identifier, the call is automatically
routed to the emergency center nearest to the subscriber. Emergency calls can
be made with the phone itself, without a valid SIM-card, overriding locked
phone and pin codes.

2.3 Facsimile group 3: GSM supports International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) group 3 facsimile. Standard fax machines
are designed to be connected to a telephone using analog signals, a special fax
converter is connected to the exchange. This enables a connected fax to
communicate with any analog fax in the fixed network.

2.4 Dual Tone Multi Frequency (DTMF): This is a tone signaling facility which
is often used for various control purposes, such as remote control of answering
machines and interacting with automated telephone services.

2.5 Alternative Speech/Fax: This service allows the subscriber to alternate
between speech and fax within one call setup. The subscriber can start the call
either with speech or fax and then alternate between the two call types. The
subscriber can switch several times within the same call.

2.6 Short Message Services (SMS): This service allows simple text messages
consisting of a maximum of 160 alphanumeric characters to be sent to or from
an MS.

If the MS is switched off, or has left the coverage area, the message is stored in
a Short Message Service Center (SMS-C). When the mobile is switched on
again or has re-entered the network coverage area, the subscriber is informed
that there is a message. This function guarantees that messages are delivered.

2.7 SMS Cell Broadcast (SMSCB): The cell broadcast facility is a variation of the
short message service. A text message with a maximum length of 93 characters
can be broadcast to all mobiles within a certain geographic area. Typical
applications are traffic congestion warnings and accident reports, and in the
future, possibly advertisements.

2.8 Voice mail: This service is an answering machine within the network that is
controlled by the subscriber. Calls can be forwarded to the subscribers voice
mailbox. The subscriber accesses the mailbox using a personal security code.

2.9 Fax mail: This service allows the subscriber to receive fax messages at any fax
machine via the MS. Fax messages are stored in a network service center. The
subscriber accesses the fax mail via a personal security code and the fax is then
sent to the desired fax number.

3.0 SUPPLEMENTARY SERVICES

This section describes the main supplementary services supported by GSM
systems.

3.1 Call forwarding: This service provides the subscriber with the ability to
forward incoming calls to another telephone number in the following situations:

Call forwarding on MS not reachable
Call forwarding on MS busy
Call forwarding on no reply
Call forwarding, unconditional

3.2 Barring of outgoing calls: The subscriber can activate or deactivate this service
from the MS with a variety of options for barring outgoing calls. For example,
the subscriber can:
Bar all outgoing calls
Bar all outgoing international calls
Bar all outgoing international calls except those directed to
the home PLMN

3.3 Barring of incoming calls: With this function, the subscriber can prevent
incoming calls. This is desirable because in some cases the called mobile
subscriber is charged for parts of an incoming call (e.g. during international
roaming).

There are two incoming call barring options:

Barring of all incoming calls
Barring of incoming calls when outside home PLMN

3.4 Advice of Charge: The advice of Charge (AoC) service provides the MS with
information needed to calculate the charge of a call. This information is
provided at call set-up.

Charges are indicated for the call in progress when mobile originated. For a
mobile terminated call, AoC only offers information on the roaming leg.

3.5 Account Codes: This service enables a subscriber, e.g. a business, to identify
an account number, which is to be charged for particular call components.
Account codes can be identified on a per call basis.

3.6 Call waiting: This service notifies the mobile subscriber, usually by an audible
tone, for incoming call. The call can then be answered, rejected or ignored.
The incoming call can be any type of basic service including speech, data or
fax. There is no notification in the case of an emergency call or SMS.

3.7 Call hold: This supplementary service enables the subscriber to put the basic
normal telephony service on hold in order to set up a new call or accept a
waiting call. Communication with the original call can then be re-established.

3.8 Multiparty service: The multiparty service enables a mobile subscriber to
establish a multiparty conversation, that is, a simultaneous conversation
between up to six subscribers. This service can only be used with basic speech
telephony.

3.9 Calling line identification services:
These supplementary services cover both the presentation and restriction of the
calling line identity. The presentation part of the service supplies the called
party with the ISDN or MSISDN number of the calling party. The restriction
service enables calling parties to restrict the presentation of their numbers on the
MSs of called parties. Restriction overrides presentation

3.10 Connected line identification presentation/restriction:
These supplementary services supply the calling party with the ISDN number
of the connected (called) party. The restriction enables the connected party to
restrict the presentation. Restriction overrides presentation. This service is
useful when the call is forwarded or when it is connected via a switchboard.

3.11 Closed User Group (CUG):
The CUG service enables subscribers connected to the PLMN/ISDN and
possibl0y other networks, to form groups in which access is restricted. For
example, members of a specific CUG can communicate with each other, but
generally not with users outside the group.

4.0 INNOVATIVE SERVICES

Innovative features offer a level of service beyond the basic network standards.
New features are developed on an ongoing basic as customer demands and
competition increase. Some features are described in this section.

Single personal number: The single personal number service allows a
subscriber to arrange call forwarding to other networks when the mobile is not
reached in the subscribers primary network. With this feature, one directory
number can reach the subscriber even though the subscriber may have
subscriptions in several different networks.

Dual numbering: This feature allows the subscriber to have two different
directory numbers connected to the same subscription and the same mobile
equipment. In this way different accounts can be connected to the different
directory numbers. For example, the subscriber may want one business account
and one private account connected to the same subscription. Support for this
feature is required in the MS.

Immediate call itemization: This feature is also called Hot billing. It is used
when it is necessary to have immediate call charging data output (e.g. to bill a
third party for use of a telephone, which is rented).

Regional call itemization: These features allow subscribers to subscribe
to a service in a specified geographical area. Requests for service outside the
area are rejected with the exception of emergency calls and SMS. For local
subscriptions, the geographical area consists of a number of cells, and for
regional subscriptions, the area consists of LAs. The cells or LAs do not need
to be adjacent but can be spread out over the PLMN. For regional
subscriptions, LAs in other PLMNs in other countries may be included.
Handovers are not influenced.

Geographically differentiated charging: This feature enables the GSM PLMN
area to be divided into different tariff regions. A tariff region is defined as a set
of cells. A subscriber may be offered cheaper calls within certain areas. This
feature can be combined with the service regional subscription.

5.0 LOCATION BASED SERVICES

A location Based service (LBS) can be described as an application that is
dependent on a certain location. Two broad categories of LBS can be defined as
triggered and user requested. In a user requested scenario, the user is retrieving
the position once and uses it on subsequent requests for location dependent
information. This type of service usually involves either personal location (i.e.
finding where you are) or service location (i.e. where is the nearest). Examples
of this type of LBS are navigation (usually involving a map) and direction
(routing information). A triggered LBS by contrast relies on a condition set up
in advance that, once fulfilled, retrieves the position of a given device. An
example is when the user passes across the boundaries of the cells in a mobile
network. Another example is in emergency center triggers an automatic location
request from the mobile network.

5.1 GSM Cellular Locations

Due to the cellular nature of the GSM mobile telephone network, it is possible
to determine the location of a regular GSM mobile telephone. The basic
system of cell ID, described below, is somewhat crude but techniques are
available to provide increased accuracy. This section describes one method of
increasing the accuracy of cell ID but others also exit. The advantage of
cellular positioning over GPS is that the signal is much stronger and therefore
will operate indoors; it is also unaffected by the urban canyon effect (subject to
GSM coverage).

5.1.1 Cell lD

Cell ID is the most basic form of cellular location and works simply by
detection the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) with which the telephone is
registered. At any moment in time, the mobile telephone/Station (MS) is
registered to a BTS. This is usually the nearest BTS but may occasionally be
the BTS of a neighbouring cell due to terrain, cell overlap or if the nearest
BTS is congested. Cells vary in size depending on terrain and the anticipated
number of users; hence in city centers cells are much smaller than in rural
location. This difference in cell size greatly affects the accuracy of a position
fix since the location reported is in fact the location of the BTS and the MS
may be anywhere within the boundary of the cell. Typically the extent of
error in urban locations may be around 500 metres but in rural locations this
can increase up to about 15 kms. Each base-station will have multiple
antennae, each covering a sector of the cell. So a BTS with there antennae
will produce a cell with there 120
0
sectors. By detecting the antenna with
which the MS is registered, the location of the MS can be narrowed down to
somewhere within a sector of the cell with the BTS at its apex.

5.2 Applications

Service providers hope that location services will stimulate demand for
wireless data services. Location information may be used by an application
provider to personalize the service, or to improve the user interface by
reducing the need to interact with a small device while on the move. This
section aims to give a brief insight into a range of likely applications of
location based services.

5.2.1 Communication
Some LBS applications with self-contained user device obtain a position
using one of the methods described above, perform some processing and then
present the resulting data back to the user. Many other applications will require
the position to be sent to a server either for display to other parties, processing
or referencing against additional content. Consumer applications will often use
SMS text messaging because it is simple to use and familiar to most mobile
users. The disadvantage of SMS is that it is limited to text-based data (although
the impending Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) will allow still images,
audio and video to be transmitted). WAP may be considered as an alternative
communications channel that provides more data capacity and reduces the end-
to-end delay. SMS is also rather expensive as a data carrier and so may not be
cost effective for some applications where position reports need to be
transmitted at 5 minutes intervals though out the day, for example. GPRS may
be a more appropriate bearer for some applications as only the data transmitted
will be charged for and the high data rates would allow for large position and
telemetry logs to be downloaded at the end of the day if required. All of the
communications channels discussed so far have relied on the GSM network but
for safety critical applications or for tracking of devices in remote areas GSM
may not be appropriate. A satellite network, such as Inmarsat C or D+ may be
preferable if global coverage is required, although there will be an obvious trade
off with cost per position report and the hardware is likely to be more bulky and
demand more power.

5.2.2 Fleet Management
The purpose of a fleet management application is to allow a company to keep
track of its mobile assets in near real time and to be able to use that information
not only to increase performance and utilization but also decrease operating
costs. As an example, consider the case of a delivery company. By having its
fleet of delivery vans reporting their position at regular intervals throughout the
day, if an urgent collection is required the company knows which is the nearest
van and can calculate the travel time required, therefore optimizing the
distribution of tasks. If the vehicle is also reporting telemetry data about engine
performance and driving habits (acceleration, breaking etc.) the company can
also detect mechanical problems before they cause damage and encourage their
drivers to adopt a more fuel efficient driving behavior. Geographic boundaries,
known as geofences, could be configured that trigger alerts when the object
being traced crosses the geofences perimeter. These could be defined so that
when the lorry arrives within 5 miles of the depot an alert is triggered to
forewarn the loading day crew of the vans arrival. Location data could also be
viewed by customers to get information about the location of their deliveries
and expected delivery time.

5.2.3 Routing
Navigation is another increasingly common implantation of location based
services and the benefits in terms of optimized routing, avoidance of traffic
congestion and early warning of diversions, accidents and road works are
easy to recognize. Apart from detailed turn-by-turn directions, there is
growing demand for Wheres my nearest? Type applications where an end
user requests the nearest business of a particular type relative to their current
location. For example, Wheres my nearest Italian restaurant? .To date,
there applications have relied on self positioning by the user where the user
has to define their location manually either by entering a street name, town
name, postcode or some other reference. This is because until now it has not
been possible for a third party application provider to determine roll-out of
APls to the networks Cell ID data will provide a significant boost to these
services.

5.2.4 Safety and Security
An emerging application of location-based services is in the area of workforce
safety. By equipping their workforce with a small electronic device that
enables location determination and transmission into a service center, a
company can monitor the condition of lone workers and those in high-risk
areas. Status updates may be requested at regular intervals and the device may
have a panic button to allow the user to request for assistance to be
dispatched to their precise location in the event of an emergency. Vehicles can
now be equipped with covertly installed tracking devices to allow their safe
recovery in the event of theft. Many of these systems are so successful that
motor insurance companies now offer discounts to the insurance premiums of
those that choose to have the relevant devices installed.

5.2.5 Entertainment
The limited availability of low-cost, mass market positioning devices has so
far been a barrier to location based services entering the entertainment arena
because they require specialized GPS hardware. However, the combination
of the ever-decreasing price of GPS technology and the imminent
availability of GSM Cell ID, positing has contributed to the appearance of
some innovative entertainment applications. Location-based directory
services are using either a WAP or SMS interfaces. Examples for this type
of applications are DJ requests, voting, competitions are dating services.
Many applications within the entertainment sector will be enhanced by the
MMS application.

Section-III

Chapter-5

Overview of CDMA Technology
E3E4 CDMA Overview, Ver1 14.12.2007 1 of 14
OVERVIEW OF CDMA

1. INTRODUCTION
Access Network, the network between local exchange and subscriber, in the Telecom
Network accounts for a major portion of resources both in terms of capital and manpower. So far,
the subscriber loop has remained in the domain of the copper cable providing cost effective
solution in the past. Quick deployment of subscriber loop, coverage of inaccessible and remote
locations coupled with modern technology have led to the emergence of new Access
Technologies. The various technological options available are as follows:

1. Multi Access Radio Relay
2. Wireless In Local Loop
3. Fibre In the Local Loop

2. WIRELESS IN LOCAL LOOP (WILL).
Fixed Wireless telephony in the subscriber access network also known as Wireless in
Local Loop (WILL) is one of the hottest emerging market segments in global
telecommunications today. WILL is generally used as the last mile solution to deliver basic
phone service expeditiously where none has existed before. Flexibility and expediency are
becoming the key driving factors behind the deployment of WILL.

Different technologies have been developed by the different countries, like, CT2 from
France, PHS from Japan, DECT from Europe, and DAMPS & CDMA from USA. Let us
discuss CDMA technology in WILL application as it has a potential ability to tolerate a fair
amount of interference as compared to other conventional radios. This leads to a considerable
advantage from a system point of view.

3. SPREAD SPECTRUM PRINCIPLE
Originally Spread spectrum radio technology was developed for military use to counter the
interference by hostile jamming. The broad spectrum of the transmitted signal gives rise to
Spread Spectrum. A Spread Spectrum signal is generated by modulating the radio frequency
(RF) signal with a code consisting of different pseudo random binary sequences, which is
inherently resistant to noisy signal environment.
A number of Spread spectrum RF signals thus generated share the same frequency spectrum
and thus the entire bandwidth available in the band is used by each of the users using same
frequency at the same time.

On the receive side only the signal energy with the selected binary sequence code is accepted
and original information content (data) is recovered. The other users signals, whose codes do not
match contribute only to the noise and are not de-spread back in bandwidth (Figure-I).This
transmission and reception of signals differentiated by codes using the same frequency
simultaneously by a number of users is known as Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Technique as opposed to conventional method of Frequency Division Multiple Access and Time
Division Multiple Access.
1.25MHz 1.25MHz

10KHz
CDMA ACCESS -A CONCEPT
Wideband Spectrum
Transmitted
Other CELL
Interference
Other Users Noise

10KHz
DATA
(9.6Kbp)
ENCODING
CARRIER
PN
SOURCE
DATA
DECODER
CARRIER
FILTER
1.25MHz 1.25MHz
PN
SOURCE
Background Noise
Wideband Spectrum
Received
Despread original
data&other noise
DATA to be transmitted
External
interference

Figure-1
In figure -1 it has been tried to explain that how the base band signal of 9.6 Kbps is spread using
a Pseudo-random Noise(PN) source to occupy entire bandwidth of 1.25 Mhz. At the receiving
end this signal will have interference from signals of other users of the same cell, users of
different cells and interference from other noise sources. All these signals get combined with the
desired signal but using a correct PN code the original data can be reproduced back. CDMA
channel in the trans and receive direction is a FDD (Frequency Division Duplexing) channel. The
salient features of a typical CDMA system are as follows:

Frequency of operation: 824-849 Mhz and 869-894 Mhz
Duplexing Method: Frequency Division Duplexing (FDD)
Access Channel per carrier: Maximum 61Channels
RF Spacing: 1.25 Mhz
Coverage: 5 Km with hand held telephones and approx. 20 Km
with fixed units.

The different types of codes used for identification of traffic channels and users identification etc.
are as follows:

4. DIFFERENT CODES
4.1. Walsh Code: In CDMA the forward traffic channels are separated by unique Walsh code.
All such codes are orthogonal to each other. The individual subscriber can start communication
using one of these codes. These codes are traffic channel codes and are used for orthogonal
spreading of the information in the entire bandwidth. Orthogonality provides nearly perfect
isolation between the multiple signals transmitted by the base station
The basic concept behind creation of the code is as follows:
(a) Repeat the function right
(b) Repeat the function below
(c) Invert the function diagonally

Seed 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 1 1 0

4.2. Long Code: The long pseudo random noise (PN) sequence is based on 2
42
characteristic
polynomial. Reverse traffic channels (Mobile to Base) are separated by this long code and the
data in the forward direction (Base to Mobile) is scrambled. The PN codes are generated using
linear shift registers. The long code is unique for the subscribers and is known as users address
mask. It repeats every 41 days (at a clock rate of 1.2288 Mcps)

PN offset (Masking)
- Masking will cause the generator to produce the same sequence but offset in time.
- Masking provides the shift in time for PN codes.
- Different masks correspond to different time shifts.
- ESN are used as masks for users on the traffic channels.
4.3. Short Code: The short pseudo random noise (PN) sequence is based on 2
15
characteristic
polynomial. This short code differentiates the cells & the sectors in a cell. It also consists of
codes for I & Q channel feeding the modulator. Each cell uses different PN offsets. It repeats
every 26.67 msec (at a clock rate of 1.2288 Mcps)

5.0 CDMA Channels
Forward Link Channels
Pilot Channel
Sync Channel
Paging Channels
Traffic Channels
Reverse Link Channels
Access Channels
Traffic Channels

Pilot channel (W0)
The pilot is used by the subs unit to obtain initial system synchronization and to distinguish cell
sites. Every sector of every cell site has a unique pilot channel.
Transmitted constantly.
Allows the mobile to acquire the system.
Provides mobile with signal strength comparison.
Approximately 20% of the radiated power is in the pilot.
Has unique PN Offset for each cell or sector.

Sync channel (W32)
Used during system Acquisition stage. Sync channel provides the subscriber unit with network
information related to cell site identification, pilot transmit power & cell site PN offset.
Used by mobile to synchronize with the system
Transmits sync message with
- Pilot PN offset - System time
- Long PN code - System ID
- Network ID - Paging channel data rate
Tx at 1200 bps
PAGING CHLS (W1-W7)
On this channel base station can page the subs unit and it can send call set-up and traffic
channel assignment information.
Means of communication between base to mobile station.
Paging CHL data Rates can be 2.4,4.8 or 9.6 Kbps.
CDMA assignment has 7 paging channel.
Each paging CHL supports 180 pages per second.
Total pages/ CDMA RF channel = 1260
Provides mobile with
- System Parameter message - Neighbour list
- Access Parameter list - CDMA Channel list
Used by base station to :
- Page mobile - Transmit overhead information
- Assign mobile to traffic channel
Traffic Channels (W8-W31 & W33-W63)
The traffic channel carries the actual call. That is, the voice and control information between
the subs unit & base station.
TX up to 9.6kbps on rate set 1 and up to 14.4kbps on rate set 2.

Access Channel.
(a) Provides communication from Mobile to base station when mobile is not using traffic
Channel. The access channel is used for call origination & for response to pages, orders &
registration requests. It is paired with corresponding paging channel.
(b) Each Access CHL use long PN code.
(c) Base station responds to transmission on a particular Access Channel.
(d) Mobile responds to base station message by emitting on Access Channel.
(e) Transmits at 4800bps.


It is clear from the figure that in the forward direction both the rate sets are supported and the
data rate after convolution encoding will be 19.2 Ksps. Then using the PN code the signal is
scrambled. In which each symbol coming out of block interleaver is exclusively-ORed with one
symbol of scrambling sequence. Power control bits are then punctured at appropriate places.
Then this signal is orthogonally spread using one of the walsh codes. At this place the data rate
increases to 1.2288 Mcps, which is sent on I & Q channel. All the information is sent on both the
quadrature channels and the each quadrature is spread using short PN code. These short PN
codes are second layer of coding used to isolate one sector from another. Now this signal is
transmitted which will be received and demodulated at the mobile end.

Rake receiver
CDMA mobiles use rake receivers. The rake receiver essentially a set of four or more receivers
(or fingers). One of the receivers constantly searches for different multipaths and helps to direct
the other three fingers to lock onto strong multipath signals.
Allows combined reception of up to three different paths.
Provides searcher receiver to identify changes in path characteristics/new cells.
Provides both path diversity and frequency diversity.
Forward Traffic Channel Generation
9600 bps
4800 bps
2400 bps
1200 bps
Rate set 1
I PN
Convolutional
Encoder &
Repetition
Block
interleaver
Long
Code PN

decimator decimator

User
Address
Mask
(ESN)
O PN
Power
Control
bit
19.2 ksps

1.2288

19.2
ksps

R=1/2

Mcps
800bps

Rate set 2
14400 bps
7200 bps
3600 bps
1800 bps

R=3/4
Wt
1.2288
Mcps
64:1 24:1

In this process also both the rate sets are supported. After convolutional encoding the rates will
be 28.8 Ksps. In this case orthogonal modulation is followed by a data burst randomizer that
determines when to turn off the mobile transmitter to reduce average transmit power. In order to
Reverse Traffic Channel Generation
9600 bps
4800 bps
2400 bps
1200 bps
Rate set 1
I PN
Convolutional
Encoder &

Block
interleav
Long
Code PN

User
Address
Mask
(ESN)
O PN

28.8 ksps
1.2288

19.2
ksps

R=1/3

Mcps

Rate set 2
14400 bps
7200 bps
3600 bps
1800 bps

R=1/2

1.2288
Mcps
Data
Burst
Rand.
Orthogonal
Modulation
307.2
KHz
Correlator 1
Correlator 2
Correlator 3
Searcher Correlator
C
O
M
B
I
N
E
R

CDMA mobile rake receiver

take advantage of reduced speech activity the vocoder reduces its data rate allowing the
transmission of the signal at a lower average level of power. The mobile uses full rates when it
transmits, but when redundant information is produced by symbol repetition scheme the data
burst randomizer turns off the transmitter pseudo randomly reducing the average transmission
power. Then the signal is direct sequence spread using long code and occupies the entire
bandwidth. The signal is then sent on I and Q channels and short PN codes are used for spreading
the signal, the quadrature branch is delayed by bit to produce OQPSK modulation.Which is
sent to base station for reception and demodulation.

5. ADVANTAGES :
CDMA wireless access provides the following unique advantages:
5.1. Larger Capacity: Let us discuss this issue with the help of Shannons Theorem. It states
that the channel capacity is related to product of available band width and S/N ratio.
C = W log
2
(1+S/N)

Where C = channel capacity
W = Band width available
S/N = Signal to noise ratio

It is clear that even if we improve S/N to a great extent the advantage that we are expected to get
in terms of channel capacity will not be proportionally increased. But instead if we increase the
bandwidth (W), we can achieve more channel capacity even at a lower S/N. That forms the basis
of CDMA approach, wherein increased channel capacity is obtained by increasing both W &
S/N. The S/N can be increased by devising proper power control methods.

5.1.1 Vocoder and variable data rates: As the telephone quality speech is band limited to 4
Khz, when it is digitized with PCM its bit rate rises to 64 Kb/s. Vocoding compress it to a lower
bit rate to reduce bandwidth. The transmitting vocoder takes voice samples and generates an
encoded speech/packet for transmission to the receiving vocoder. The receiving vocoder decodes
the received speech packet into voice samples. One of the important features of the variable rate
vocoder is the use of adaptive threshold to determine the required data rate. Vocoders are
variable rate vocoders. By operating the vocoder at half rate on some of the frames the capacity
of the system can be enhanced without noticeable degradation in the quality of the speech. This
phenomenon helps to absorb the occasional heavy requirement of traffic apart from suppression
of background noise. Thus the capacity advantage makes spread spectrum an ideal choice for use
in areas where the frequency spectrum is congested.

5.2. Less (Optimum) Power per cell:
Power Control Methods: As we have already seen that in CDMA the entire bandwidth
of 1.25 MHz, is used by all the subscribers served in that area. Hence they all will be transmitting
on the same frequency using the entire bandwidth but separated by different codes. At the
receiving end the noise contributed by all the subscribers is added up. To minimize the level of
interfering signals in CDMA, very powerful power control methods have been devised and are
listed below:

1. Reverse link open loop power control
2. Reverse link closed loop power control
3. Forward link power control

The objective of open loop power control in the reverse link (Mobile to Base) is that
the mobile station should adjust its transmit power according to the changes in its received power
from the base. Open loop power control attempts to ensure that the received signal strength at the
base station from different mobile stations, irrespective of their distances from the base station,
should be same.

In Closed loop power control in reverse link, the base station provides rapid corrections
to the mobile stations open loop estimates to maintain optimum transmit power by the mobile
stations. The base station measures the received signal strength from the mobile connected to it
and compares it with a threshold value and a decision is taken by the base every 1.25ms to either
increase or decrease the power of the mobile.

In forward link power control (Base to Mobile) the cell(base) adjusts its power in the
forward link for each subscriber, in response to measurements provided by the mobile station so
as to provide more power to the mobile who is relatively far away from the base or is in a
location experiencing more difficult environment.

These power control methods attempt to have an environment which permits high quality
communication (good S/N) and at the same time the interference to other mobile stations sharing
the same CDMA channel is minimum. Thus more numbers of mobile stations are able to use the
system without degradation in the performance. Apart from the capacity advantage thus gained,
power control extends the life of the battery used in portables and minimizes the concern of ill
effects of RF radiation on the human body.

5.3. Seamless Hand-off: CDMA provides soft hand-off feature for the mobile crossing from one
cell to another cell by combining the signals from both the cells in the transition areas. This
improves the performance of the network at the boundaries of the cells, virtually eliminating the
dropped calls.

5.4. No Frequency Planning: A CDMA system requires no frequency planning as the adjacent
cells use the same common frequency. A typical cellular system with a repetition rate of 7 and a
CDMA system is shown in the following figures which clearly indicates that in a CDMA
network no frequency planning is required.

F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
CDMA Frequency Reuse

F 7
F 6
F 2
F 1
F 5
F 3 A
F 4 F 1
F r e q u e n c e y R e u s e o f 7

5.5. High Tolerance to Interference: The primary advantage of spread spectrum is its ability to
tolerate a fair amount of interfering signals as compared to other conventional systems. This
factor provides a considerable advantage from a system point of view.

5.6. Multiple Diversity: Diversity techniques are often employed to counter the effect of fading.
The greater the number of diversity techniques employed, the better the performance of the
system in a difficult propagation environment.

CDMA has a vastly improved performance as it employs all the three diversity techniques in the
form of the following:
A. Frequency Diversity: A wide band RF signal of 1.25 Mhz being used.
B. Space Diversity: Employed by way of multipath rake receiver.
C. Time Diversity: Employed by way of symbol interleaving, error detection
and correction coding.

6. CAPACITY CONSIDERATIONS
Let us discuss a typical CDMA wireless in local loop system consisting of a single base
station located at the telephone exchange itself, serving a single cell. In order to increase the
number of subscribers served the cell is further divided into sectors. These sectors are served
by directional antennas.

CDMA Capacity

W/R 1 1
N= -------*-----*--------*n *g
Eb/Io d 1+f
Where
N= calls per sector
W= Spread spectrum Bandwidth (1.25 MHz)
R= data rate (9.6 kbps or 14.4 kbps)
Eb/Io= Bit energy/ other user interference density (7dB)
d= Voice activity factor (0.4)
f= other interference/ same interference (0.6)
n= loading factor (0.8)
g= reduction for variable power (0.85)

N= 27 users per sector for R=9.6Kbps
18 users per sector for R=14.4Kbps

Evolution of CDMA Networks

First deployment of CDMA in commercial cellular systems was in 1994-95 only with IS-95 A as
air-interface standard and IS-41 in core network; the complete network known as cdmaOne. Next
evolutionary step was use of IS-95B air interface standard which supported maximum data rate
up-to 64 kbps to a user. Further in CDMA 2000 1x version many of the limitations of earlier IS-
Data only 2.4 Mbps
RF backward compatible
Voice, 14.4k Voice, 64k
Voice, 9.6k
Data only 10-60k
Voice, 128k/384k
GSM
(Europe)
CDMA
CDMA2000 1x IS-95A
GPRS
EDGE
WCDMA
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO
IS-95B
95 standard were overcome and new features were added. As a result CDMA 2000 1x has a
higher voice capacity and better handling of packet data services.

Salient Features of CDMA 2000 1x

Backward Compatibility with IS-95A & IS-95B
Support for High data rates on same 1x Carrier
Support for Simple IP and Mobile IP functionality for seamless mobility for data services.
Higher capacity for voice communication
Increased battery life
Faster forward Power control (relative to IS-95)
New Radio Configuration to support high data rates and more voice capacity.

Architecture of CDMA 2000 1x Network:

CDMA 2000 1x Network Architecture is divided in to three parts.

CS-CN (Circuit Switched Core Network)
PS-CN (Packet Switched Core Network)
RAN (Radio Access Network)


Circuit Switched Core Network: This section is dedicated for voice communication and also
for wireless authentication. This section includes four parts
MSC (Mobile Switching Center)
HLR (Home Location Register)
VLR (Visitor Location Register)
AUC (Authentication Center)

MSC (Mobile Switching Center): It is responsible for setting up, managing and clearing
connections as well as routing the calls to the proper user & provides the network interfaces, the
charging function and the function of processing the signaling. MSC get data for call handling
from 3 databases: VLR/HLR/AUC.

HLR (Home Location Register): It is a static database. When a user applies for mobile service,
all data about this subscriber will be stored in HLR. It have information of a subscriber like ESN,
MDN, IMSI, MIN, service information and valid term. It also stores the mobile subscriber
location (MSC/VLR address), to set up the call.

VLR (Visitor Location Register): VLR is a dynamic database used by MSC for information
index. It stores all related information of mobile subscribers that enter its coverage area, which
enables MSC to set up incoming and outgoing calls. It stores the subscriber parameters which
includes subscriber number, location area identity (LAI), users status, services which subscriber
can use and so on. When the subscriber leaves this area, it should register in another VLR, and
the previous VLR will delete all the data about this subscriber. VLR can be built together with
the MSC or set separately.

AUC (Authentication Center): It is an entity to prevent illegal subscribers from accessing
CDMA network. It can generate the parameter to confirm the subscribers identity. At the same
time it can encrypt users data according to users request. AUC can be built separately or
together with HLR

Packet Switched Core Network: To provide better connectivity to the internet a new core
network i.e. PS-CN is introduced to the CDMA 2000 1x network. This section includes four
parts
PDSN (Packet Data Serving Node)
AAA Server
Home Agent/ Foreign Agent Server

PDSN (Packet Data Serving Node): Packet Data Serving Node (PDSN) provides the function
of routing of data between Radio Access Network (RAN) and internet.

AAA Server: PS-CN also has the responsibility to authenticate, authorise and account for the
CDMA 2000 subscribers wishing to obtain packet data services & to fulfil these task PDSN
requires support of AAA server.
Authenticate: verifying that the user is valid & allowed to use packet data services.
Authorization: subscription to the service being offered is valid.
Accounting: Accounting for the service used.

Home Agent/ Foreign Agent Server: HA & FA server is used when mobile IP services are
supported by CDMA 2000 PDSN. HA can be considered analogous to HLR and FA with VLR.

RAN (Radio Access Network): As in IS-95 RAN is composed of number of BSCs & BTSs
The CDMA 2000 1x RAN is enhanced to support a higher no. of users on air interface or in other
words it has a better spectral efficiency relative to IS-95. It is also modified to support the new
packet data services on same 1.25 Mhz channel. This is achieved by software up-gradation at
BTS and BSC and addition of a new hardware unit called Packet Control Function (PCF) at
BSC. The CDMA 2000 1x air interface is very different from IS-95 but still maintains the
backward compatibility with IS-95.

CDMA 2000 1x EV-DO:

Although IS-2000 is already capable of meeting the 3G data rate requirement of 2 Mbps (By
using 3x option) Qualcomm proposed a new standard 1xEV-DO (1x Evolution for Data
Optimized) in March of 2000 as another option that supports high-rate data services.
EVDO is optimized for delivering high speed IP wireless data to many mobile and stationary
terminals running multiple applications. EVDO is designed for an always on user experience.

In a classical CDMA 2000 system base station controls its power by using the power control
algorithms to provide the mobile a constant data rate and a quality of service for voice
applications

Power

Data Rate

But in EV-DO networks the base station transmits at a fixed power at all the times and controls
the rate of data transmission given a constant transmit power.

Power

Data Rate

Distance from the Base Station
Mobile Received Power
P
o
w
e
r
Distance from the Base Station

Since EV-DO is specially designed for packet data services therefore EV-DO designs its air
interface to takes advantage of the characteristics of some data services, which are
Data rates are mostly asymmetrical: Data rate requirements downstream (on the forward link)
are usually higher than those upstream (on the reverse link).
Latency can be tolerated: Data services, unlike voice services, can withstand delays of up to
seconds.
Transmissions are bursty in nature: A burst of data transmission is often followed by a period
of inactivity.

Salient features of EV-DO

EV-DO uses both CDMA and TDMA.
Uses its own dedicated 1.25 Mhz carrier.
It can support a maximum data rate of 2.4 Mbps in forward link.
It can support a maximum data rate of 153.6 Mbps in reverse link.
No power control on forward link is required.
RF system components may be shared with 1xRTT.

Section-IV

Chapter-1

Broadband Wire line & Wireless Access Technologies
E3E4 Broadband Wireline & Wireless, Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 12

Broadband Wire line Access Technologies

Introduction:

There is always increasing demand for higher capacity systems and more
bandwidth for new generation, hence new various types of access technologies for
broadband have to be found for this exponential growth. Broadband service commonly
is high-speed Internet related services more than 256 kbps to several mbps. There are
many different broadband technologies both wired and wireless. This article describes
various types of broadband access technologies and BSNLs access network of
broadband.
High-speed Internet access (sometimes loosely referred to as broadband
internet access or simply broadband) allows users to access the Internet and internet-
related services at significantly higher speeds than traditional modems. High-speed
Internet access makes the data processing capabilities necessary to use the Internet
available via several devices or high-speed transmission technologies.

Learning Objective:

At the end of this topic you will be able to know- .
a) What is broadband? Type of Internet services.
b) Advantages of Broadband. Multiple Broadband Technologies.
c) How Does Broadband Work.
d) Digital Subscriber Line (DSL), DSLAM, Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line
(SDSL), Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), ISDN Digital Subscriber
Line (IDSL). DSL compared to ISDN.
e) BSNLS Broadband Access Technology and Objectives.
f) Differences between DSL and CM Service.
g) Getting DSL or CM service and Installation at the premises of customer.

1.0 Narrowband Service category:
Dial up Internet Service (PSTN + ISDN)
Direct Internet Access Service (DIAS)
CLI based Account less Internet Service
Internet Leased Line Service

1.1 What is Broadband?
As per TRAI:
Broadband is an An always-on data connection that is able to support
interactive services and has the capability of minimum download speed of 256
kbps
Note: This definition for throughput may undergo upward changes in the future.
1.2 Advantages of Broadband
Always on (Not on shared media)
Fast (speed ranging from 256 kbps to 2 Mbps)
No disconnection
No additional access charge
Telephone and Data simultaneously
Fat pipe has to be continuously supplemented with value added applications
to enjoy the advantage.

1.3 Multiple Broadband Technologies
There are many different types of broadband access technologies, such as cable, DSL,
power line, satellite and wireless. Each of these technologies can compete to provide
similar services to consumers and businesses.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Cable Modem (CM)
Wireless Access WIMAX and WIFI
Satellite Access
Fiber technology
Power Line Broadband
There are many advantages of high-speed Internet access:
The connection is always on, which means users can access the Internet without
the need to dial up Internet service provider over a telephone line.
Information can be download into your computer at significantly higher speeds
than traditional modem.
Users can go online without tying up their telephone lines.
Business can use broadband networks for videoconferencing, and to let
employees telecommute.
Users can tap into an expand number of entertainment resources.
An always-on data connection that is able to support interactive services
including Internet access and has the capability of the minimum download speed
of 256 kbps to an individual subscriber from the Point of presence (POP) of the
service provider intending to provide Broadband service where multiple such
individual Broadband connections are aggregated and the subscriber is able to
access these interactive services including the internet through this POP. The
interactive services will exclude any services for which a separate license is
specifically required, for example, real-time voice transmission, except to the
extent that it is presently permitted under ISP license with Internet Telephony.

1.4 How Does Broadband Work?
High speed Internet access makes the data processing capabilities necessary
to use the Internet available via one of several high-speed transmission
technologies. These data processing capabilities are digital in nature, meaning that
they compress vast amounts of voice, video and data information that are broken
down into what are called bts. These bits become words, pictures, etc. on our
computer screens. The transmission technologies that make high speed Internet
access possible move these bits much more quickly than do traditional telephone or
wireless connections.

2.0 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
Digital Subscriber line (DSL) is a wireline transmission technology that brings
data and information faster over copper telephone lines already installed in
homes and business. Traditional phone service connects your home or business
to a telephone company office via copper wires. A DSL modem accesses the
local telephone companys central office where a DSL Access DSLAM then
transmits the signal from the copper telephone line onto a network backbone,
and eventually to the Internet. With high-speed Internet access that uses DSL
transmission technology, there is no need to dial in to a traditional modem. This
service allows consumers and business to have an always-on dedicated
connection to the Internet.

2.1 DSLAM
DSLAM is the equipment located at a phone companys central office (CO) that
links many customer DSL connections over exiting copper telephone lines to a
single high-speed ATM line. When the phone company receives a DSL signal, an
ADSL modem with a POTS splitter detects voice calls and data. The DSLAM
intermixes voice-frequency signals and high-speed DSL data traffic into a
customers DSL line. It also separates incoming phone and data signals and
directs them onto the appropriate carriers network.
Voice calls are sent to the PSTN, and data are sent to the DSLAM, where it
passes through the ATM to the Internet, then back through the DSLAM and
ADSL modem before returning to the customers PC. More DSLAM channels a
phone company has the more customers it can support.
The DSLAM is the cornerstone of the DSL system and routes traffic to and from
the customer via a business or home telephone line to provide high-speed DSL
access to multimedia services such a Internet, fast data transfer, video
conferencing, pay per-view TV or video-on-demand and broadcast video.
There are more than 40 million copper loops in the country available with BSNL
and MTNL out of which 14 millions loops are in rural areas. Copper cable
network of these operators is a combination of old and new cables and this
makes provisioning of Broadband on the entire available copper loop technically
unfit. Therefore around 25 to 30% of the remaining 26 million loops i.e.
approximately 7 million loops can be leveraged for broadband service by BSNL
and MNTL taking into account the condition/ life of copper cable and demand
potential. Management of BSNL and MTNL has decided to provide 1.5 million
connections by the end of 2005. The estimated growth for Broadband and
internet subscribers in the country envisaged through various technologies is as
follows.

Year Ending Internet Subscribers Broadband Subscribers
2005 6 million 3 million

The following are types of DSL transmission technologies that may be used to
provide high-speed Internet access:
Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL): It is used typically for business
applications such as video conferencing. The traffic from the user to the network
is upstream traffic, and from the network to the user is downstream traffic. When
the data rate in both directions is equal, it is called a symmetric service.
Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL): It is used primarily by
residential users who receive a lot do data but do not send much, such as
Internet surfers. ADSL provides faster speed in a downstream direction (from the
telephone central office to the customers premises) than upstream (from
customers premise to the telephone central office). When the upstream data rate
is lower than the downstream rate, it is called an asymmetric service.
Isdn Digital Subscriber Line (IDSL): It provides symmetrical connection with
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), and is designed to extend DSL to
locations with a long distance to a telephone central office.
High-data-rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL): it provides fixed symmetrical
high-speed access at T1 rate (1.5 mbps), and is designed for business purposes.
Very high-data-rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL): it provides both symmetrical
and asymmetrical access with very high bit rate over the copper line. Deployment
is very limited at this time.

2.2 DSL Compared to ISDN
ISDN is an affordable way to have rapid access to the Internet. It is digital
technology that is widely available and is an option for business located in areas
not yet served by DSL.
DSL and ISDN are different transmission technologies, yet both offer
many of the same higher speed benefits to consumers. DSL offers potentially
higher transmission speeds as well as a choice of connection speeds. ISDN is
presently more widely available than DSL. DSL is an always-on service while
ISDN requires dialing into a service providers network. If DSL transmission
technology is not available in your area, ISDN may serve as an acceptable
substitute for use in providing high-speed Internet access.

3.0 BSNLS Broadband Access Technology
BSNL has commissioned broadband, a world class, multi-gigabit, multi-protocol,
convergent IP infrastructure through National Internet Backbone II (NIB-II), that
will provide convergent services through the same backbone and broadband
access network. The Broadband service will be available on DSL technology (on
the same copper cable that is used for connecting telephone). On a countrywide
basis spanning 198 cities.
With the NIB-II project, BSNL has planned to roll Broadband services in a big
way across the country. However, with the current plans under the NIB-II project,
BSNL will still be in a position to become the number one player in the segment
in the country with its nation-wide rollout. Broadband Services proposed to be
rolled out include the following:

High Speed Internet Access
1. 1 mbps Upstream
2. 8 mbps Downstream
3. Video Streaming
4. Video-on-Demand
5. Video Conferencing
6. Interactive Gaming
7. Point-to-Point Data Network on IP

3.1 BSNLs Objectives
BSNL has undertaken this project with the following objectives:
To utilize to the maximum BSNLs exiting infrastructure
40 million BSNL customers on CU
Large scale deployed Fibres in Access & core network
Deployed DLC system on Fibre.
To increase the footprint across the country to provide Access Country-wide.
To provide Value Added Services (Video, Broadband Data in addition to Voice)
to accelerate development and growth.
BSNL has envisioned that the Broadband services rolled as part of the ambitions
NIB-II project will be used for high speed Internet connectivity and shall be the
primary source of Internet bandwidth and used for connecting broadband
customers to the MPLS/VPN through the BRAS. Also will be used for connecting
dial VPN customers to the MPLS VPN through the Narrowband RAS.
The BSNLs broadband network cosisits of core routers located at Mumbai, New
Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai and Bangalore connected in mesh topology with STM 16
links, with cities in India classified as A1, A2, A3, A4 and other cities..
The network connectivity consists of DSLAM, TIER 2 Switch, Tier 1 Switch, Bras,
Core Router and CPE (Customer Premises equipment) consists of Splitter and
ADSL modem.

4.0 Cable Modem (CM)
Cable TV connection as last mile infrastructure reaches more people than even
the telephone copper infrastructure and can be leveraged in providing cable
operators a new business model while giving a stimulus to Broadband
penetration. Therefore cable TV network can be used as franchisee network of
the service provider for provisioning Broadband services. However all
responsibilities for ensuring compliance of terms & conditions of the licensee
shall vest with the Licensee. The terms of franchise agreement between
Licensee and his franchise shall be settled mutually by negotiation between the
two parties involved. Cable Modem (CM) is a device that enables cable operators
to provide high-speed Internet access using the coaxial cables used for cable TV.
Today, most CMs are external devices that connect to the computer. They will
typically have two connections, one to the cable wall outlet and the other to a
computer. CMs are attached to the same Cable TV company lines that deliver
pictures and sound to yout TV set.
High-speed Internet access using CM offers both always-on capability and
speed. With this service, users never have to dial up using telephone lines and
their cable viewing is not hampered while on line. Speeds for this service vary
depending on the type of cable modem, cable network and traffic load, but are
generally faster than those offered by traditional dial-up Internet access.

4.1 Differences between DSL and CM Service
High-speed Internet access that uses CM offers shared bandwidth or speed
among neighbours on the same cable system. Speed is asymmetric and will vary
depending on the number of people on the network. With high-speed Internet
access that uses DSL service, you have a dedicated connection to your home. In
most cases, however, the performance of DSL based service depends on the
distance between end user and phone company central office.
Today, high-speed Internet access provided using either DSL or CM typically is
offered with a pricing plan that allows without incurring additional usage charges.
Many phone and cable companies are offering bundled packages of various
services (such as telephone, cable and high-speed Internet access) to lower
costs to consumers.
High-speed Internet access using CM is targeted towards residential use while
DSL-based service is targeted towards residential and business uses.

4.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of having DSL or CM
High-speed Internet access provided using DSL and cable modems is much
faster than dial-up modems, however their speeds differ. The distance between
the users premises and the phone companys central office is a primary factor in
deciding if DSL-based Internet access service is available and its speeds. In
contrast, the speed of CM-based Internet access service does not depend on the
distance from Cable Company to end-user. Because DSL transmission
technology office, competitive providers using DSL technology must coordinate
with local phone companies to provide service. Because both versions of high-
speed Internet access (DSL and CM) are always on, you may want to check with
the provider about security precautions. DSL and CM equipments are generally
based on standard specifications and required certification, however, the best
advice is to check with the service provider prior to purchase of such equipment.
Different varieties of DSL transmission technology provide different maximum
speeds, from twice as fast as analog modems to higher than 100 times faster.

4.3 Getting DSL or CM service
Contact a provider in your geographical area. For booking of Broadband service
of BSNL there is online register form available on website www.bsnl.co.in,
otherwise contact directly to value added services section or nearest customer
service center. The provider may be your local telephone service provider or one
of its competitors (for DSL-based Internet access), or your local cable company
(for CM-based Internet access). There are different high-speed Internet access
service available, and the equipment of one provider may not be interoperable in
another area or with another provider. Check with your service provider for
technical compatibility. Compatible modem may be purchased otherwise service
may be affected.

Customer Premises Installation

Broadband Wireless Access Technologies

Introduction:

Broadband wireless access technologies offer effective, economic & secure
high-speed wireless communications solutions to telecom service providers,
internet service providers, governments, institutes , healthcare & enterprises. It
eliminates the need for costly wire line infrastructure, bringing voice & high-speed
data services to every user within the range of base station. It offers huge
benefits in terms of fast, easy & cost effective, unsurpassed flexibility & reduced
cost of ownership. The solutions are scalable & offers broadband capacity in city
& in remote rural locations.

Learning objective :

After going through this topic, the participants will be able to understand:
1) Wireless internet access.
2) Hotspots.
3) Wireless access technologies like Wi-Fi (for LAN) & WiMAX (for MAN).
4) Blue tooth technologies used in PAN.
5) Internet access via satellite.

1.0 Wireless internet access

Wireless access providers connect homes and businesses to the Internet
using wireless or radio connection technology, rather than using technologies
such as coaxial cable (CM) or twisted copper paired telephone lines (DSL).
Wireless providers can use mobile or fixed wireless technologies.
Generally, with fixed wireless technology, a computer, or network of
computers, employ a radio link from the customers location to the service
provider. This radio link is usually established between rooftop antennae in direct
line of sight. These rooftop antennae are usually dish shaped with a very narrow
beam of connectivity to prevent interference. The antenna at the customers
location is connected by a cable to the local transmitting and receiving radio
equipment. This terminal base station equipment is then connected to the local
computer network.


1.1 Features of wireless access
Fixed wireless access customers can be located between 2 and 35 miles from
the wireless providers network base station. Fixed wireless provides Internet-
access at speeds ranging from one up to 155 mbps. Of course the fixed wireless
radio access is dependent on the radio connection and the quality of the radio
connection will determine the ultimate quality of service to the customer. 3G
technologies provide internet access up to 2 mbps on appropriate digital / cellular
phones. Multimedia types of services are available on 3G mobile phones

1.2 Hotspots
There are thousands of commercial locations across the country, such as
restaurants, hotels, airports, bookstores, convention centers, city parks and
squares, where customers can use laptop computers, handheld devices and
other portable computing devices with special wireless modem cards to connect
to the Internet wirelessly. These locations are called hotspots. Inside the hotspots
they can get Internet access on their devices at speed of up to 11 mbps. Also,
some wireless providers offer customers packages where they can get wireless
Internet access at a collection of different hotspots. The technology that enables
the wireless access in hotspots is called Wi-Fi. This technology was originally
developed as a home networking technology to network home computers
wirelessly. There are currently efforts in the industry to develop solutions to
extend this technology for longer distances where Wi-Fi can be used as the last-
mile solution for Internet access.

Internal Access
Point with hub
Ethernet
Radio Link
Customer Premise
(Home, business or hotspot)
Subscriber Station
With High-Gain Antenna
Internet
Base station /Access Point
Wireless Internet Access
1.3 Wi-Fi
Short name for Wireless Fidelity and is meant to be used generically when
referring to any type of 802.11 network, whether 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, etc.
The term is promulgated by the Wi-Fi Alliance.
Any products tested and approved as Wi-Fi Certified (a registered
trademark) by the Wi-Fi Alliance are certified as interoperable with each other,
even if they are from different manufactures. A user with Wi-Fi Certified product
can use any brand of access point with any other brand of client hardware that
also is certified. Typically, however, any WiFi product using the same radio
frequency (for example, 2.4 GHz for 802.11b or 802.11g, 5 GHz for 802.11a) will
work with any other, even if not WiFi Certified.

1.4 Wireless IEEE / Ethernet Standards
IEEE 802.11 is the initial release of the standard capable of transmissions
of 1 to 2 Mbps and operates in 2.4 Ghz band. It was introduced by IEEE in June
1997. IEEE 802.11a is capable of transmission up to 54 mbps and operates in 5
Ghz band. IEEE 802.11b is capable of transmission up to 11 mbps and operates
in 2.4 Ghz band. IEEE 802.11g is capable of transmission up to 54 mbps and
operates in 2.4 Ghz band.

1.5 Wi-Fi in outdoor access
Network operators have developed two approaches for using Wi-Fi in
outdoor:
1) Wi-Fi with directional antenna or Wi-Fi single hop &
2) Wi-Fi with a mesh-network topology. or Wi-Fi multihop. In this approach the
access points also called nodes are omni direction broadcaster. Each AP acts
as a simple router. Meshing allows wireless connectivity between access
points. Coverage is over 10 km.

1.6 WiMAX
WiMax (World-wide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is the IEEE
802.16 standards-based wireless technology that provides MAN (Metropolitan
Area Network) broadband connectivity. WiMax is an Air Interface for Fixed
Broadband Wireless Access Systems, also known as the IEEE Wireless-MAN air
interface. WiMax-based systems can be used to transmit signals to as far as 30
miles. So far, WiMax can offer a solution to what is normally called the last-mile
problem by connecting individual homes and business offices communications.
WiMax covers a couple of different frequency ranges. Basically, the IEEE
802.16 standard addresses frequencies from 10 GHz to 66 GHz. The 802.16a
specification, which is an extension of IEEE 802.16, covers bands in the 2 GHz
to 11 GHz range. WiMax has a range of up to 30 miles with typical cell radius of
6 to 4 miles.
WiMax supports ATM, Ipv4, Ipv6, Ethernet and VLAN services. So it can
provide a rich choice of service possibilities to voice and data network service
providers. WiMAX uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM).
OFDM is a spread-spectrum technology that bundles data over narrowband
carriers transmitted in parallel at different frequencies.
In addition, WiMax provides an ideal wireless backhaul technology to
connect 802.11 wireless LANs and commercial hotspots with the Internet.
The WiMax-based solution is set up and deployed like cellular systems
using base stations that service a radius of several miles / kilometers. The most
typical WiMax-based architecture includes a base station mounted on a building
and is responsible for communicating on a point to multi-point basis with
subscriber stations located in business offices and homes. The customer
Premise Equipment (CPE) will connect the base station to a customer as well;
the signal of voice and data is then routed through standard Ethernet cable either
directly to a single computer, or to an 802.11 hot spot or a wired Ethernet LAN.

1.7 WiMax Connectivity and Solutions

WiMax allows equipment vendors to create many different types of IEEE
802.16 based products, including various configurations of base stations and
customer premise Equipment (CPE). WiMax also allows the services provider to
deliver many types of wireless access services. WiMax can be used on a variety
of wireless broadband connections and solutions:
Last Mile Broadband Access Solution-Metropolitan-Area Network (MAN)
connections to home and business office, especially in those areas that were not
served by cable or DSL or in areas where the local telephone company may
need a long time to deploy broadband service. The WiMax-based wireless
solution makes it possible for the service levels in short times with client request.
Backhaul network for cellular base stations, bypassing the public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN); the cellular service providers can look to wireless
backhaul as a more cost-effective alternative. The robust WiMax technology
makes it a nice choice for backhaul for hotspots as well as point-to-point
backhaul solutions.
Backhaul enterprise connections to the Internet for WiFi hotspots. It will allow
users to connect to a wireless Internet service provider even when they roam
outside their home or business office.
A variety of new business services by wireless Internet service provider.
Unlike WiFi, WiMaxs range is typically measured in miles rather than feet. The
main distinction of the difference between the two standards means that WiFi is
focused on a local Area Network (LAN) technology and that WiMax is a MAN
technology.
WiMax-based solutions include many other advantages, such as robust
security features, good QoS (Quality of Service), and mesh and smart antenna
technology that will allow better utilization of the spectrum resources. Also, the
WiMax-based voice service can work on either traditional Time Division
Multiplexed (TDM) voice or IP-based Voice, also known as Voice over IP (VoIP).
The WiMAX standard enables system vendors to create many different
types of WiMAX-based products, including various configurations of base
stations and Customer Premise Equipment (CPE). WiMAX supports a variety of
wireless broadband connections such as:

High-bandwidth Metropolitan-Area Networks (MANs) to home and
small-business users, replacing DSL and cable modems.
Backhaul networks for cellular base stations, bypassing the public
switched telephone network.
Backhaul connections to the Internet for WiFi hotspots.

1.8 Blue tooth, WPAN, IEEE 802.15
Blue tooth is a short range (PAN) wireless technology. It is an IEEE 802.15
standard technology. It is designed for:
- Interconnecting computer and peripherals.
- Interconnecting various handhelds.

1.9 WWAN
IEEE 802.20 is the wireless standard for wide area network.

2.0 Internet access via satellite
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) & Direct-To-Home (DTH) provide
broadband & internet services via satellite. The customer premises equipment /
devices required are (1) two to three feet dish antenna often called base
station.(2) a satellite internet modem with the condition that the line of sight is
clear between the base station & providers satellite.

2.1 Advantage & disadvantages
Advantage: It can serve remote & inaccessible areas.
Disadvantages:
- It is based on line of sight technology.
- It is affected by weather.
- It is costly.
-Transmission delay is higher than other alternatives.

Summary
Wireless in the last / first mile is suitable in areas not served by cable or DSL &
where deployment of wired line needs a long time. Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) is the
wireless standard for LAN. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) is the wireless standard for
PAN. WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) is the wireless standard for MAN. Hotspots uses Wi-
Fi technology. Any product tested & approved by Wi-Fi alliance is termed as Wi-
Fi certified. VSAT & DTH provide internet access via satellite.

Reference:
1. Wi-Max and Wi-Fi wireless mobility online document www.wifi-org and
www.wimax.org
2. www.broadband.org
3. Broadband policy 2004 online document www.dotindia.com
4. http://www.thestandard.com/movabletype/datadigest/archives/003203.php
5. http://standards:ieee.org.

Section-4

Chapter-2

TCP/IP, IP Addressing & Ethernet
E3E4 TCP/IP/Ethernet Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 10
LAN & Inter working Devices

Networking means interconnection of computers. These computers can be linked together for
different purposes and using a variety of different cabling types.
The basic reasons why computers need to be networked are:
To share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines, storage etc.)
To share applications (MS Office, Adobe Publisher, Oracle etc.)
Increase productivity (makes it easier to share data amongst users)
Take for example a typical office scenario where a number of users require access to some
common information. As long as all user computers are connected via a network, they can
share their files, exchange mail, schedule meetings, send faxes and print documents all from
any point of the network. Small networks are often called Local Area Networks (LAN). A LAN
is a network allowing easy access to other computers or peripherals. The typical
characteristics of a LAN are:
Physically limited distance (< 2km)
High bandwidth (> 1mbps)
Inexpensive cable media (coax or twisted pair)
Data and hardware sharing between users
Owned by the user
The factors that determine the nature of a LAN are:
Topology
Transmission medium
Medium access control technique

LAN Architecture
The layered protocol concept can be employed to describe the architecture of a LAN, wherein
each layer represents the basic functions of a LAN.

LAN Topologies
The common topologies for LANs are bus, tree, ring, and star. The bus is a special case of the
tree, with only one trunk and no branches.

Bus and Tree Topologies
Bus and Tree topologies are characterized by the use of a multi-point medium. For the bus all
stations attach, through appropriate hardware interfaces known as a Tap, directly to a linear
transmission medium, or bus. Full-duplex operation between the station and the tap permits
data to be transmitted onto the bus and received from the bus.

Fig. 3 (a) Bus
Tap
Flow of data
Station
Terminating
Resistance

The tree topology is a generalization of the bus topology. The transmission medium is a
branched cable with no closed loops. The tree layout begins at a point known as the head-end,
where one or more cable start, and each of these may have branches. The branches in turn
may have additional branches.

Ring Topology
In the ring topology, the network consists of a set of repeaters joined by point-to point links
in a closed loop. The repeater is a comparatively simple device, capable of receiving data on
one link and transmitting them, bit by bit, on the other link as quickly as they are received,
with no buffering at the repeater. The links are unidirectional, i.e. data is transmitted in one
direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise).
Each station is attached to the network at a repeater and can transmit data onto the network
through that repeater.

Star Topology
In the Star type topology, each station is directly connected to a common central node.
Typically, each station attaches to a central node, referred to as the star coupler, via two
point-to point links, one for transmission in each direction.

Fig. 3 (b) Tree
Central Hub,
Switch/
Repeater

Ring

Medium Access Control
All LANs consist of a collection of devices that have to share the networks transmission
capacity. Some means of controlling access to the transmission medium is needed to provide
for an orderly and efficient use of that capacity. This is the function of medium access
control (MAC) protocol.
The key parameters in any medium access control technique are-where and how. Where refers
to whether control is in a centralized or distributed fashion.

BASIC NETWORK COMPONENTS
There are a number of components, which are used to build networks. An understanding of
these is essential in order to support networks.

Network Adapter Cards (NIC): A network adapter card plugs into the workstation, providing
the connection to the network. Adapter cards come from many different manufacturers, and
support a wide variety of cable media and bus types such as - ISA, MCA, EISA, PCI, and
PCMCIA. New cards are software configurable, using a software programs to configure the
resources used by the card. Other cards are PNP (plug and Play), which automatically
configure their resources when installed in the computer, simplifying the installation.

Cabling: Cables are used to interconnect computers and network components together. There
are 3 main cable types used today:
Twisted pair
Coax
Fiber optic
The choice of cable depends upon a number of factors like cost, distance, number of
computers involved, speed, bandwidth i.e. how fast data is to be transferred etc.

REPEATERS
Repeaters extend the network segments. They amplify the incoming signal received from one
segment and send it on to all other attached segments. This allows the distance limitations of
network cabling to be extended. There are limits on the number of repeaters that can be
used.

Fig. Use of Repeaters in a Network

Repeater
Main Network Segment
Workstation
Summary of Repeater features:
Increases traffic on segments
Have distance limitations
Limitations on the number of repeaters that can be used
Propagate errors in the network
Cannot be administered or controlled via remote access
Cannot loop back to itself (must be unique single paths)
No traffic isolation or filtering is possible

BRIDGES: Bridges interconnect Ethernet segments. The IEEE 802.1D specification is the
standard for bridges. The bridge builds up a table that identifies the segment to which the
device is located on. This internal table is then used to determine which segment incoming
frames should be forwarded to. The size of this table is important, especially if the network
has a large number of workstations/ servers.

Fig. Use of Bridge in a Network

The advantages of bridges are
Increase the number of attached workstations and network segments
Since bridges buffer frames, it is possible to interconnect different segments which
use different MAC protocols
Since bridges work at the MAC layer, they are transparent to higher level protocols
By subdividing the LAN into smaller segments, overall reliability is increased and the
network becomes easier to maintain
Used for non routable protocols like NETBEUI which must be bridged
Help in localizing the network traffic by only forwarding data onto other segments as
required (unlike repeaters)

ROUTERS: In an environment consisting of several network segments with differing
protocols and architectures, a bridge may not be adequate for ensuring fast communication
among all of the segments. A network this complex needs a device, which not only knows the
address of each segment, but also determines the best path for sending data and filtering
broadcast traffic to the local segment. Such a device is called a router. Routers can switch
and route packets across multiple networks. They do this by exchanging protocol-specific
information between separate networks. A router uses a table to determine the destination
address for incoming data. The table lists the following information:

BRIDGE
Network Segment A Network Segment B

All known network addresses
How to connect to other networks
The possible path between those routers
The cost of sending data over those paths
The router selects the best route for the data based on cost and available paths.
Routers can provide the following functions of a bridge:
Filtering and isolating traffic
Connecting network segments

HUBS: There are many types of hubs. Passive hubs are simple splitters or combiners that
group workstations into a single segment, whereas active hubs include a repeater function and
are thus capable of supporting many more connections.

Ethernet: Ethernet is a family of frame-based computer networking technologies for local
area networks (LANs). The name comes from the physical concept of the ether. It defines a
number of wiring and signaling standards for the physical layer, through means of network
access at the Media Access Control (MAC)/Data Link Layer, and a common addressing format.
Ethernet is standardized as IEEE 802.3. Ethernet follows a simple set of rules that govern its
basic operation. To better understand these rules, it is important to understand the basics of
Ethernet terminology.
Medium - Ethernet devices attach to a common medium that provides a path along which
the electronic signals will travel. Historically, this medium has been coaxial copper cable,
but today it is more commonly a twisted pair or fiber optic cabling.
Segment - We refer to a single shared medium as an Ethernet segment.
Node - Devices that attach to that segment are stations or nodes.
Frame - The nodes communicate in short messages called frames, which are variably sized
chunks of information.
Frames are analogous to sentences in human language. In English, we have rules for
constructing our sentences: We know that each sentence must contain a subject and a
predicate. The Ethernet protocol specifies a set of rules for constructing frames. There are
explicit minimum and maximum lengths for frames, and a set of required pieces of information
that must appear in the frame. Each frame must include, for example, both a destination
address and a source address, which identify the recipient and the sender of the message.
The address uniquely identifies the node, just as a name identifies a particular person. No two
Ethernet devices should ever have the same address.
The 7 Layers of the OSI Model
The OSI, or Open System Interconnection, model defines a networking framework for
implementing protocols in seven layers. Control is passed from one layer to the next, starting
at the application layer in one station, proceeding to the bottom layer, over the channel to the
next station and back up the hierarchy.
A
p
p
l
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

(
L
a
y
e
r

7
)

This layer supports application and end-user processes. Communication
partners are identified, quality of service is identified, user authentication
and privacy are considered, and any constraints on data syntax are identified.
Everything at this layer is application-specific. This layer provides application
services for file transfers, e-mail, and other network software services.
Telnet and FTP are applications that exist entirely in the application level.
Tiered application architectures are part of this layer.
P
r
e
s
e
n
t
a
t
i
o
n

(
L
a
y
e
r

6
)

This layer provides independence from differences in data representation
(e.g., encryption) by translating from application to network format, and vice
versa. The presentation layer works to transform data into the form that the
application layer can accept. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent
across a network, providing freedom from compatibility problems. It is
sometimes called the syntax layer.
S
e
s
s
i
o
n

(
L
a
y
e
r

5
)

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between
applications. The session layer sets up, coordinates, and terminates
conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end.
It deals with session and connection coordination.
T
r
a
n
s
p
o
r
t

(
L
a
y
e
r

4
)

This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or
hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error recovery and flow control. It
ensures complete data transfer.
N
e
t
w
o
r
k

(
L
a
y
e
r

3
)

This layer provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths,
known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from node to node. Routing and
forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking,
error handling, congestion control and packet sequencing.
D
a
t
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At this layer, data packets are encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes
transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in the
physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is
divided into two sublayers: The Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sublayer controls how a computer on
the network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC
layer controls frame synchronization, flow control and error checking.
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This layer conveys the bit stream - electrical impulse, light or radio signal --
through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. It provides the
hardware means of sending and receiving data on a carrier, including defining
cables, cards and physical aspects. Fast Ethernet, RS232, and ATM are
protocols with physical layer components.
Table below illustrates all the major TCP/IP Internet protocols and associates a layer of the
architecture with each. Application-layer protocols are divided into two groups; first, those
use TCP second use UDP.

Layer
No.
Layer Protocols
1 Application Protocols Using TCP at Layer 4: FTP, SMTP, TELNET, HTTP
Protocols Using UDP at Layer 4: TFTP, SNMP, NFS, DNS
2 Transport TCP (Reliable & Connection Oriented), UDP (Unreliable & Connectionless
3 Network IP, ARP, RARP, ICMP, IGMP
4 Data
5 Physical
Protocols defined by underlying networks

User Service Application
User service applications include the following.
TELENET provides a remote logon capability
File transfer protocol (FTP) provides a reliable file transfer capability
User Service Application
User service applications include the following.
o TELENET provides a remote logon capability.
o File transfer protocol (FTP) provides a reliable file transfer capability
o X window system provides a graphical interface to applications.
o Trivial file transfer protocol (TFTP) provides an unreliable, simple file transfer
capability.
o Network file system (NFS) provides remote virtual storage capability.
o Simple message transfer protocol (SMTP) provides electronic mail capability.
Utility Applications
Utility applications include the following.
1. Simple network management protocol (SNMP) provides network management
information.
2. Boot protocol (BOOTP) provides remote loading capability for diskless workstations.
3. Domain name service (DNS) provides directory assistance for Internet addresses using
local names.
4. Address resolution protocol (ARP) provides a physical address from an IP address.
5. Reverse address resolution protocol (RARP) provides an IP address from a physical
device address.
In theory, all application protocols could use either the UDP or the TCP. The reliability
requirements of the application dictates, which transport layer protocol is used. For example,
some applications, such as the domain name service (DNS), may either UDP or TCP. The UDP
provides an unreliable, connectionless transport service, while the TCP provides a reliable, in-
sequence, and connection-oriented service. Because the UDP is unreliable, many of the
application layer protocols only use TCP, for example, FTP and TELNET. For the application
layer protocols that do not require a reliable service, they use only UDP, for example, TFTP,
SNMP, VoIP etc.

Transport Layer Protocols
This session provides a description of the transport layer protocols, user datagram protocol
(UDP), and transmission control protocol (TCP). The selection by an applications program to
use either UDP or TCP is based primarily on the requirement for reliability.

USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP)
The UDP provides application programs with a transaction oriented, single-shot datagram type
service. The service is similar to the IP in that it is connectionless and unreliable. The UDP is
simple, efficient and ideal for application programs such as TFTP and DNS. An IP address is
used to direct the user datagram to a particular machine, and the destination port number in
the UDP header is used to direct the UDP datagram (or user datagram) to a specific
application process (queue) located at the IP address. The UDP header also contains a source
port number that allows the receiving process to know how to respond to the user datagram.
There is no acknowledgement, flow control, message continuation, or other sophisticated
attributes offered by the TCP.
The UDP operates at the transport layer and has a unique protocol number in the IP header
(number 17). This enables the network layer IP software to pass the data portion of the IP
datagram to the UDP software. The UDP uses the destination port number to direct the from
the IP datagram (user datagram) to the appropriate process queue. Since there is no sequence
number or flow control mechanism, the user of UDP must either not need reliability or self-
service.

TRANSMISSION CONTORL PROTOCOL (TCP)
TCP provides traditional circuit-oriented data communications service to programs. TCP
provides a virtual circuit for programs, which is called a connection. The communication on a
connection is asynchronous in that a segment sent does not have to be acknowledged before
sending the next segment. Unlike programs that use UDP, those using TCP enjoy a connection
service between the called and calling program, error checking, flow control, and interrupt
capability. A connection can be initiated simultaneously at both ends and have the window size
for flow control dynamically adjusted during the connection.

TCP Connection
The source and destination port numbers in TCP header identify the application programs at
each end of the TCP connection. The IP address in the IP datagram is used to deliver the TCP
segment to the correct machine. The protocol number in the IP datagram directs the segment
to TCP. The source and destination port numbers in the TCP header are used to direct the
segment data to the appropriate application layer entity (software program). Since the port
number in the TCP header is a 16-bit field, there could be, theoretically, up to 65536

connections between two peer TCP layers using the same set of IP addresses.
Source/Destination Port Numbers
Each port number is an unsigned integer occupying 16 bits.

INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL (ICMP)
The Internet is an autonomous system without central control. The ICMP provides a vehicle
for the software of intermediate gateways and hosts to communication. The communication is
used to regulate traffic; correct routing tables, and checks the availability of a host.
IP Addressing
Introduction
We all know that each telephone, be it landline or mobile has to have a unique number. In India
we have a ten digits numbering scheme, which implies that mobile as well as landline number
(including STD code) will be of ten digits. For example 11 23456789 is a number of Delhi.
Internationally, this number will be known as 91 11 23456789 i.e. ISD code needs to be
prefixed. Therefore in the world each such number is unique. Any phone can reach any other
if others number is known. We all remember the days when telephone numbers were of 5
digits. Digits were added to accommodate more numbers. On the same lines, in Internet we
need to have unique address for each PC connected to it. IP addressing is the scheme to
achieve it.
IP Addressing
Each host on the Internet is assigned an officially sanctioned 32-bit integer address
called its Internet Address or IP address. This addressing scheme is also known as Ipv4 i.e.
Internet Protocol version 4. The IP address consists of two parts network part and host part.
The combination is unique: no two machines can have the same IP address. The address is
coded to allow a variable allocation of bits to specify network and host.
The IP address scheme is to break up the binary number into pieces and represent each piece
as a decimal number. A natural size for binary pieces is 8 bits, which is the familiar byte or
octet (octet is the telecommunication term, but two words can be used interchangeably). So
lets take our binary number, write it using groups of 8 bits, and then represent each group as
a decimal number:
Example 1: 140.179.220.200
It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form.
140 .179 .220 .200
10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000
Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the
host. The Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the
network address and which part belongs to the host address.
10111100 00011010 000111110 00111100
156 26 30 60
We can use a dot as a separator. Now our IP address has the form
Example 2: 156.26.30.60 that is referred to as the dotted decimal notation.
IP Address should be hierarchical
For a protocol to be routable, its address structure must be hierarchical, meaning that the
address must contain at least two parts: the network portion and the host portion. A host is
an end station such as a computer workstation, a router or a printer, whereas a network
consists of one or more hosts.
Address Classes: This encoding provides flexibility in assigning addresses to host and allows
a mix of network sizes on an Internet. In particular, the three network classes are best
suited to the following conditions:
Class A: Few networks, each with many hosts. It allows for up to 126 networks with 16
million hosts each.
Class B: Medium number of networks, each with a medium number of hosts. It allows for up
to 16,328 networks with up to 64K hosts each;
E3E4 TCP/IP/Ethernet Ver2 28.02.2008 10 of
10
Class C: Many networks, each with a few hosts. It allows for up to 2 millions networks with
up to 254 hosts each;
Class D: Reserved for IP Multicasting.
Class E: Reserved for future use. Addresses beginning with 1111 are reserved for future
use.
The Following table lists the capabilities for class A, B and C addresses.
Class Networks Hosts
A 126 16,777,214
B 16,384 65,534
C 2,097,152 254
More about IP address Classes
Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for
internal testing on a local machine. [You can test this: you should always be able to ping
127.0.0.1, which points to yourself] Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting. Class E
addresses are reserved for future use. They should not be used for host addresses.
In the example, 140.179.220.200 is a Class B address so by default the Network part of the
address (also known as the Network Address) is defined by the first two octets (140.179.x.x)
and the host part is defined by the last 2 octets (x.x.220.200).
In order to specify the network address for a given IP address, the host section is set to all
"0"s. In our example, 140.179.0.0 specifies the network address for 140.179.220.200. When
the host section is set to all "1"s, it specifies a broadcast that is sent to all hosts on the
network. 140.179.255.255 specifies the example broadcast address. Note that this is true
regardless of the length of the host section.
Private Subnets: There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The
addresses are 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone
setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home LAN behind a Router performing NAT
(Network Address Translation) or proxy server.
Subnetting: Subnetting an IP Network can be done for a variety of reasons, including
organization, use of different physical media (such as Ethernet, FDDI, WAN, etc.),
preservation of address space, and security. The most common reason is to control network
traffic.
Ipv6: The heavy use of PCs connected on Internet has saturated the address space available
in IPv4 address format. A new address scheme known as Ipv6 has been introduced. This
address length is 128 bits. The format of address is
2145:00D5:2F3B:0000:0000:00FF:EF00:98F3
Removing zeros can also reduce the IPv6 address. Zeros can be removed when they are
leading in and within any 16-bit block. These removed zeros are indicated by :: sign in the
address. The address from the previous example could be reduced using this to the following
representation. Note that in the example the block of EF00 does not lose its zeros because
they are at the end of the block.
IPv6 Address with Leading Zeros Removed: 2145:D5:2F3B:0:0:FF:EF00:98F3
IPv6 Address with Compressed and Removed Zeros: 2145:D5:2F3B::FF:EF00:98F3

Section-4

Chapter-3

NIB and Multiplay
E3E4 NIB and Multiplay, Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 7
Broadband Core Network

Core of BSNLs Broadband service is National Internet Backbone (NIB). NIB is a mission to
build world-class infrastructure to help accelerate the Internet revolution in India. It has
following features:
1. It provides a diversified range of Internet access services including support for VPN
(Layer-2, Layer-3 and Dialup and Broadband services)
2. It also offers SLA Reports including security, QoS (quality of service) and any to any
connectivity.
3. Offers fully managed services to customers.
4. It offers services like bandwidth on demand etc. over the same network.
5. The network is capable of on-line measurement and monitoring of network parameters
such as latency, packet loss, jitter and availability so as to support SLAs with customers
6. The routers support value added services such as VPNs, Web and content hosting,
Voice over IP, Multicast etc.
7. Value Added Services
a. Encryption Services
b. Firewall Services
c. Multicast Services
d. Network Address Translation (NAT) Service that will enable private users to
access public networks
8. Messaging Services
9. Internet Data Centre Services at Bangalore, Delhi and Mumbai.
10. Broad Band Services
a. Broadcast TV using IP Multicasting service
b. Multicast video streaming services
c. Interactive Distant learning using IP multicasting Services
d. Video on demand
e. Interactive gaming service
NIB-II has been implemented in four projects

Name of project Description
Project 1
MPLS based IP Infrastructure (The backbone consisting of Core & Edge
Routers)
Project 2.1
Narrowband Access (Dialup Remote Access)
Project 2.2
Broadband Access (DSL Access)
Project 3
Messaging, Storage, Provisioning, Billing, Security, Order Management,
Enterprise Management, AAA, Help Desk and Inventory Management.

Network Architecture

The cities in India have been classified in six types namely A1, A2, A3, A4, B1, B2. Important
aspects are given below:
1. A1 5 Core cities
a. Bangalore, Chennai, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkatta
2. A2/A3 9 next level core cities
a. Pune, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Ernakulam, Lucknow, Jaipur, Indore, Jullundur,
Patna
3. A4 10 Major cities
4. B1, B2 47 other cities
5. A1 city core routers are fully meshed between locations on STM-16
6. IGW International Gateway Router Connectivity to Internet is through this router
7. IXP Internet Exchange Point ISPs connect each other through this router
8. IDC Internet Data Center for connecting to BSNL Data Centers
9. B1 and B2 cities have only EDGE routers.
10. All Core locations also have edge routers
11. Primary Network Operating center at Bangalore and Disaster Recovery is at Pune
NIB2 Expansion and Year 2 Order Overview
1. 29 locations added which makes the total to 100
2. Core backbone is getting aligned to BSNL Transmission (DWDM) network
3. 24 City core network increased to 29
4. All 29 city core network links are STM-16 (ie STM1 connectivity of A4 cities will be
upgraded to STM16)
5. New 5 Cities are Belgaum, Dehradun, Rajkot, Jodhpur, Jabalpur
Components of Broad Band Access Network
1. Broad band Remote Access Server (BBRAS)
2. Gigabit and Fast Ethernet Aggregation Switches (LAN Switches).
3. Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexers (DSLAMs)
4. SSSS/SSSC (Subscriber Service Selection System/ Centre)
5. Servers for AAA, LDAP at NOC.
6. Provisioning and configuration management at NOC.
7. DSL CPEs (MODEM)
8. The DSLAMs will in general be collocated with existing PSTN exchanges, which
provide last mile access to customers over copper wire up to average span lengths of 3
kms.
9. All DSLAMs will be aggregated through a FE interface except 480 port DSLAM,
which will be aggregated through Gigabit Ethernet Interface.
10. The 240 ports DSLAM will have two number of FE interface.
11. The FX or GBIC module in DSLAM and LAN switch capable of driving upto 10km on
a single mode fibre.
12. The SX or GBIC module in LAN Switch used for connecting Tier2 to Tier1. In bigger
cities like A1, A2, A3 and A4, one BBRAS per city will be deployed initially.
14. There will be no BBRAS at B1 and B2 cities.
15. The DSLAMs in B1.B2 and other lower hierarchical cities will be aggregated through
Layer 2 switches, and will be connected to the nearest BBRAS of A cities on Ethernet
over SDH.
16. The BRAS shall terminate the PPP sessions initiated by the customer and extend the
connection further to MPLS VPN/ Internet as desired by the customer.
BBRAS: A Broadband Remote Access Server (BBRAS) routes traffic to and from the digital
subscriber line access multiplexers (DSLAM) on an Internet service.
DSLAM: Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer. Specifically, a device that takes a
number of ADSL subscriber line and concentrates these to a single ATM line.
CPE: Customer Premises Equipment - Any equipment provided by the customer at their
premises.
GBIC: Gigabit Interface Converter; a Fiber Channel optical or copper transceiver that is easily
swapped to offer a flexible choice of copper or fiber optic media.

Starting NIB connectivity diagram. Expansion is a continuous process hence many new sites
keep getting added.

Block Schematic of Broadband Access Network
BROADBAND MULTIPLAY
Learning Objective
1. What is broadband Triple Play / Multiplay
2. Service offered in Broadband Triple play
3. Components of broadband triple play
4. What is IPTV
5. What is VoIP

What is broadband triple play / Multiplay
The triple play service means providing the following service to the customer: -
1. Data (Internet)
2. Voice (VoIP and not the PSTN which is already provided on broadband also)
3. Video (IPTV, VoD or in general live broadcast and stored broadcasting using video
streaming protocols)

Components of Broadband Multiplay
Network Architecture of Broadband Multiplay

The BSNLs Broadband multiplay network consists of the following components: -
a. L3PE (MCR / PE Router of NIB-2 Project 1 Supplied by HCL)
b. BNG Broadband Network Gateway
i. Connects Multiplay Network to NIB2 Backbone (Project 1) through L3PE
c. RPR Tier-1 Switch
i. Provides connectivity from BNG to Tier 2 network
d. RPR Tier-2 Switch
e. OC LAN Tier-2 Switch
f. DSLAM
g. ADSL CPE
h. DSL Tester

Changes in Broadband Multiplay viz-a-viz broadband
1. T1 & T2 changed from star topology to RPR ring topology High reliability
2. IP-DSLAM connected on GE interface as compared to FE interface.
3. BNG behaves as customer edge router whereas BRAS was a PE Router.
4. BRAS were present at 23 A locations only whereas BNG is present upto B type cities.

Services: Video
a. IPTV or TVoIP

1. IPTV or TVoIP delivers television programming to households via broadband
connection using Internet protocols.
2. It requires a subscription and IPTV set-top box (STB), this box will connect to the
home DSL line and is responsible for reassembling the packets into a video stream and
then decoding the contents
3. IPTV is typically bundled with other services like Video on Demand (VOD), Voice
Over IP (VOIP) or digital Phone, and Web access.
4. IPTV viewers will have full control over functionality such as rewind, fast-forward,
pause, and so on.
5. If you've ever watched a video clip on your computer, you've used an IPTV system in
its broadest sense.
6. The video stream is broken up into IP packets and dumped into the core network, which
is a massive IP network that handles all sorts of other traffic (data, voice, etc.)

b. VOD (Video on Demand)
Video on Demand service allows the user the luxury of watching the movie of his / her
choice at his / her convenience.

Difference between VOD on Broadband and DTH (e.g. Dish TV/Tata sky)
In DTH, as it is broadcasting and not communication so the request for VOD has to be
registered through some other mean than the Set top Box say can be through phone call, SMS
or Internet and the same four to five movies are broadcasted and the viewers have to choose
among them only and at predefined timings.
In true VOD, as offered by BSNL, the set-top box behaves just like a DVD player and
viewer can select a movie from the boutique, view it at his / her desired time and day, pause it,
rewind it, forward it or can have the exactly same experience has viewing from a personalized
DVD player. This is only possible because of the two-way communication between the set-top
box and the server. In BSNL one has a choice of selecting from hundreds of movies while
VOD offered by DTH providers may have only few movies to offer.

Set-top Box
The set-top box is a smart solid-state device that acts as the gateway to a host of
services offered on the BSNL Multiplay network. On one side the set-top box interfaces with
the television using the 3-RCA or the S-Video ports, and on the other side it is connected to
broadband ADSL modem via the Ethernet port.
BSNL franchisee in Pune has named the set-top box as WICE Box (Window for Information,
Communication and Entertainment) and supports all sorts of inputs like audio, video, tablet
data, text data, pointer devices etc. it has a USB port and a microphone and headphone jack in
addition to essential ports. In future, it will be possible to connect keyboard, mouse, web cams,
pen-drives and other such devices for various applications that will be provided on the box.
The WICE box is fully upgradeable through the network. This means, any new application
launched will be directly uploaded into WICE box without getting the box to service center.
All software upgrade will be handled this way.

WICE. Box Option-I (Outright Purchase)
S/No. Item Charges
1. Installation and Activation Charges (Non-Refundable) Rs. 600
2. WICE. Box sale Rs. 3950
WICE. Box Option-II (Rental)
1. Installation and Activation Charges (Non-Refundable) Rs. 600
2. Security Deposit for WICE. Box (Refundable) Rs. 1500
3. Fixed Monthly Charge for WICE. Box Rs. 99
Service and other taxes will be charged separately as applicable

Service Charges
S/No. Service Name Scheme Charges Remarks
1. Digital TV Rs. 150*
All major TV channels
Any two movies free from a list of movies
2. Plan 2 Rs. 325*
All major TV channels
Movies worth Rs 220/- free
* Service and other taxes extra

Services: - Voice
VoIP (Voice over IP)
1. The technology used to transmit voice conversations over a data network using the Internet
Protocol.
2. A category of hardware and software that enables people to use the Internet as the transmission
medium for telephone calls.
3. VoIP works through sending voice information in digital form in packets,
4. VoIP also is referred to as Internet telephony, IP telephony, or Voice over the Internet (VOI)

Benefits of VoIP
1. Cost reduction
a. Toll by-pass
b. WAN Cost Reduction
2. Operational Improvement
a. Common network infrastructure
b. Simplification of Routing Administration
3. Business Tool Integration
a. Voice mail, email and fax mail integration
b. Web + Call
c. Mobility using IP

BSNL Plans:
BSNL has planned to roll out this service in 898 cities progressively.
The service is being provided at Pune, Chennai, Bangalore, Kolkatta, Hyderabad and Ahemdabad.
This service is being provided through franchisees. Many cities already have franchisees for
broadband content and they can offer this service. A pool of private IP addresses will be
allotted by BSNL to the said franchisee, which will be used for allotting IP address to the IPTV
customer.

Section-4

Chapter-4

MPLS- VPN

E3E4 MPLS VPN Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 7
Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)

What is MPLS?
Multi Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) is a data-carrying mechanism in packet-switched
networks and it operates at a TCP/IP layer that is generally considered to lie between
traditional definitions of Layer 2 (data link layer) and Layer 3 (network layer or IP Layer),
and thus is often referred to as a "Layer 2.5" protocol. It was designed to provide a unified
data-carrying service for both circuit-based clients and packet-switching clients, which
provide a datagram service model. It can be used to carry many different kinds of traffic,
including IP packets, as well as native ATM, SONET, and Ethernet frames. The Internet
has emerged as the network for providing converged, differentiated classed of services to
user with optimal use of resources and also to address the issues related to Class of service
(CoS) and Quality of Service (QoS). MPLS is the technology that addresses all the issues in
the most efficient manner.
MPLS is a packet-forwarding technology that uses labels to make data forwarding
decisions. With MPLS, the Layer 3 header analysis (IP header) is done just once (when the
packet enters the MPLS domain).

What is a MPLS header?
MPLS works by prefixing packets with an MPLS header, containing one or more 'labels'.
This is called a label stack. Each label stack entry contains four fields:
- 20-bit label value (This is MPLS Label)
- 3-bit Experimental field used normally for providing for QoS (Quality of Service)
- 1-bit bottom of stack flag. If this is 1, signifies that the current label is the last in the
stack.
- 8-bit TTL (time to live) field.

Various functions & Routers in MPLS
Label A label identifies the path a packet should traverse and is carried or encapsulated in a
Layer-2 header along with the packet. The receiving router examines the packet for its label
content to determine the next hop. Once a packet has been labelled, the rest of the journey
of the packet through the backbone is based on label switching.
Label Creation Every entry in routing table (build by the IGP) is assigned a unique 20-bit
label either per platform basis or per interface basis.
SWAP: The Incoming label is replaced by a new Outgoing label and the packet is
forwarded along the path associated with the new label.
PUSH A new label is pushed on top of the packet, effectively "encapsulating" the packet in
a layer of MPLS.
POP The label is removed from the packet effectively "de-encapsulating". If the popped
label was the last on the label stack, the packet "leaves" the MPLS tunnel.
LER A router that operates at the edge of the access network and MPLS network LER
performs the PUSH and POP functions and is also the interface between access and MPLS
network, commonly know as Edge router.
LSR An LSR is a high-speed router device in the core of an MPLS network, normally
called Core routers. These routers perform swapping functions and participate in the
establishment of LSP.
Ingress / Egress Routers: The routers receiving the incoming traffic or performing the first
PUSH function are ingress routers and routers receiving the terminating traffic or
performing the POP function are Egress routers. The same router performs both
functionality i.e. Ingress and Egress. The routers performing these functions are LER.
FEC The forward equivalence class (FEC) is a representation of a group of packets that
share the same requirements for their transport. All packets in such a group are provided the

E3E4 MPLS VPN Ver2 28.02.2008 2 of 7
same treatment en route to the destination. As opposed to conventional IP forwarding, in
MPLS, the assignment of a particular packet to a particular FEC is done just once, as the
packet enters the network at the edge router.

MPLS performs the following functions:
1. Specifies mechanisms to manage traffic flow of various granularities, such as flows
between different hardware, machines, or even flows between different applications.
2. Remains independent of the Layer-2 & layer-3 protocols.
3. Provides a means to map IP addresses to simple, fixed-length labels used by different
packet-forwarding and packet-switching technologies
4. Interfaces to existing routing protocols such as resource reservation protocol (RSVP)
and open shortest path first (OSPF).
5. Supports the IP, ATM, and frame- relay Layer-2 protocols.

Label Distribution Protocol (LDP): The LDP is a protocol for the distribution of label
information to LSRs in a MPLS networks. It is used to map FECs to labels, which, in turn,
create LSP. LDP sessions are established between LDP peers in the MPLS network (not
necessarily adjacent). The peers exchange the following types of LDP messages:
Discovery messages announce and maintain the presence of an LSR in a network
Session messages establish, maintain, and terminate sessions between LDP peers
Advertisement messages create, change, and delete label mappings for FECs.
Notification messages provide advisory information and signal error information

Traffic Engineering
Traffic engineering is a process that enhances overall network utilization by attempting to
create a uniform or differentiated distribution of traffic throughout the network. An
important result of this process is the avoidance of congestion on any one path. It is
important to note that traffic engineering does not necessarily select the shortest path
between two devices. It is possible that, for two packet data flows, the packets may traverse
completely different paths even though their exposed or less used network segments can be
used and differentiated services can be provided.

MPLS Operation : The following steps must be taken for a data packet to travel through
an MPLS domain. Label creation and distribution, Table creation at each router, Label-
switched path creation, Label insertion/table lookup and Packet forwarding. The source
sends its data to the destination. In an MPLS domain, not all of the source traffic is
necessarily transported through the same path. Depending on the traffic characteristics,
different LSPs could be created for packets with different CoS requirements.
In Figure 1, LER1 is the ingress and LER4 is the egress router.

Figure 1. LSP Creation and Packet Forwarding though an MPLS Domain
Destination

LER2
LSR1 LER1
LER3
LSR3
LSR2
LER4
Label request
Label distribution
Data flow

E3E4 MPLS VPN Ver2 28.02.2008 3 of 7

Tunnelling in MPLS
A unique feature of MPLS is that it can control the entire path of a packet without explicitly
specifying the intermediate routers. It does this by creating tunnels through the intermediary
routers that can span multiple segments. This concept is used for provisioning MPLS
based VPNs.

MPLS Applications
MPLS addresses todays network backbone requirements effectively by providing a
standards-based solution that accomplishes the following:
1. Improves packet-forwarding performance in the network
2. MPLS enhances and simplifies packet forwarding through routers using Layer-2 switching
paradigms.
3. MPLS is simple which allows for easy implementation.
4. MPLS increases network performance because it enables routing by switching at wireline
speeds.
5. Supports QoS and CoS for service differentiation
6. MPLS uses traffic-engineered path setup and helps achieve service-level guarantees.
7. MPLS incorporates provisions for constraint-based and explicit path setup.
8. Supports network scalability
9. MPLS can be used to avoid the N2 overlay problem associated with meshed IP ATM
networks.
10. Integrates IP and ATM in the network
11. MPLS provides a bridge between access IP and core ATM.
12. MPLS can reuse existing router/ATM switch hardware, effectively joining the two disparate
networks.
13. Builds interoperable networks
14. MPLS is a standards-based solution that achieves synergy between IP and ATM networks.
15. MPLS facilitates IP over synchronous optical network (SONET) integration in optical
switching.
16. MPLS helps build scalable VPNs with traffic-engineering capability.

MPLS VPN
MPLS technology is being widely adopted by service providers worldwide to implement
VPNs to connect geographically separated customer sites. VPNs were originally introduced
to enable service providers to use common physical infrastructure to implement emulated
point-to-point links between customer sites. A customer network implemented with any
VPN technology would contain distinct regions under the customer's control called the
customer sites connected to each other via the service provider (SP) network. In traditional
router-based networks, different sites belonging to the same customer were connected to
each other using dedicated point-to-point links. The cost of implementation depended on
the number of customer sites to be connected with these dedicated links. A full mesh of
connected sites would consequently imply an exponential increase in the cost associated.
Frame Relay and ATM were the first technologies widely adopted to implement VPNs.
These networks consisted of various devices, belonging to either the customer or the service
provider, that were components of the VPN solution. Generically, the VPN realm would
consist of the following regions:

Customer network Consisted of the routers at the various customer sites. The routers
connecting individual customers' sites to the service provider network were called customer
edge (CE) routers.

E3E4 MPLS VPN Ver2 28.02.2008 4 of 7
Provider network Used by the service provider to offer dedicated point-to-point links
over infrastructure owned by the service provider. Service provider devices to which the CE
routers were directly attached were called provider edge (PE) routers. In addition, the
service provider network might consist of devices used for forwarding data in the SP
backbone called provider (P) routers.
Depending on the service provider's participation in customer routing, the VPN
implementations can be classified broadly into one of the following:
Overlay model
Peer-to-peer model

Overlay model
1. Service provider doesnt participate in customers routing, only provides transport to
customer data using virtual point-to-point links. As a result, the service provider
would only provide customers with virtual circuit connectivity at Layer 2.
2. If the virtual circuit was permanent or available for use by the customer at all times,
it was called a permanent virtual circuit (PVC).
3. If the circuit was established by the provider on-demand, it was called a switched
virtual circuit (SVC).
4. The primary drawback of an Overlay model was the full mesh of virtual circuits
between all customer sites for optimal connectivity.
Overlay VPNs were initially implemented by the SP by providing either Layer 1 (physical
layer) connectivity or a Layer 2 transport circuit between customer sites. In the Layer 1
implementation, the SP would provide physical layer connectivity between customer sites,
and the customer was responsible for all other layers. In the Layer 2 implementation, the SP
was responsible for transportation of Layer 2 frames (or cells) between customer sites,
which was traditionally implemented using either Frame Relay or ATM switches as PE
devices. Therefore, the service provider was not aware of customer routing or routes. Later,
overlay VPNs were also implemented using VPN services over IP (Layer 3) with tunneling
protocols like L2TP, GRE, and IPSec to interconnect customer sites. In all cases, the SP
network was transparent to the customer, and the routing protocols were run directly
between customer routers.

Peer-to-peer model
The peer-to-peer model was developed to overcome the drawbacks of the Overlay model
and provide customers with optimal data transport via the SP backbone. Hence, the service
provider would actively participate in customer routing. In the peer-to-peer model, routing
information is exchanged between the customer routers and the service provider routers,
and customer data is transported across the service provider's core, optimally. Customer
routing information is carried between routers in the provider network (P and PE routers)
and customer network (CE routers). The peer-to-peer model, consequently, does not require
the creation of virtual circuits. The CE routers exchange routes with the connected PE
routers in the SP domain. Customer routing information is propagated across the SP
backbone between PE and P routers and identifies the optimal path from one customer site
to another.

Dial VPN Service
Mobile users of a corporate customer need to access their Corporate Network from remote
sites. Dial VPN service enables to provide secure remote access to the mobile users of the
Corporate. Dial VPN service, eliminates the burden of owning and maintaining remote
access servers, modems, and phone lines at the Corporate Customer side. Currently
accessible from PSTN (127233) & ISDN (27225) also from Broadband.

E3E4 MPLS VPN Ver2 28.02.2008 5 of 7
MPLS VPN Architecture and Terminology

In the MPLS VPN architecture, the edge routers carry customer routing information,
providing optimal routing for traffic belonging to the customer for inter-site traffic. The
MPLS-based VPN model also accommodates customers using overlapping address spaces,
unlike the traditional peer-to-peer model in which optimal routing of customer traffic
required the provider to assign IP addresses to each of its customers (or the customer to
implement NAT) to avoid overlapping address spaces. MPLS VPN is an implementation of
the peer-to-peer model; the MPLS VPN backbone and customer sites exchange Layer 3
customer routing information, and data is forwarded between customer sites using the
MPLS-enabled SP IP backbone.
The MPLS VPN domain, like the traditional VPN, consists of the customer network and the
provider network. The MPLS VPN model is very similar to the dedicated PE router model
in a peer-to-peer VPN implementation. However, instead of deploying a dedicated PE
router per customer, customer traffic is isolated on the same PE router that provides
connectivity into the service provider's network for multiple customers. The components of
an MPLS VPN shown in Figure are highlighted next.

Figure MPLS VPN Network Architecture

The main components of MPLS VPN architecture are:
Customer network, which is usually a customer-controlled domain consisting of devices
or routers spanning multiple sites belonging to the customer. In Figure, the customer
network for Customer A consists of the routers CE1-A and CE2-A along with devices in the
Customer A sites 1 and 2.

CE routers, which are routers in the customer network that interface with the service
provider network. In Figure , the CE routers for Customer A are CE1-A and CE2-A, and the
CE routers for Customer B are CE1-B and CE2-B. Provider network, which is the provider-
controlled domain consisting of provider edge and provider core routers that connect sites
belonging to the customer on a shared infrastructure. The provider network controls the
traffic routing between sites belonging to a customer along with customer traffic isolation.
In Figure, the provider network consists of the routers PE1, PE2, P1, P2, P3, and P4.

PE routers, which are routers in the provider network that interface or connect to the
customer edge routers in the customer network. PE1 and PE2 are the provider edge routers
in the MPLS VPN domain for customers A and B.
P routers, which are routers in the core of the provider network that interface with either
other provider core routers or provider edge routers. Routers P1, P2, P3, and P4 are the
provider routers.

E3E4 MPLS VPN Ver2 28.02.2008 6 of 7

Advantages of MPLS over other technologies
BSNL's primary objectives in setting up the BGP/MPLS VPN network are:
1. Provide a diversified range of services (Layer 2, Layer 3 and Dial up VPNs) to meet the
requirements of the entire spectrum of customers from Small and Medium to Large
business enterprises and financial institutions.
2. Make the service very simple for customers to use even if they lack experience in IP
routing.
3. Make the service very scalable and flexible to facilitate large-scale deployment.
4. Provide a reliable and amenable service, offering SLA to customers.
5. Capable of meeting a wide range of customer requirements, including security, quality
of Service (QOS) and any-to-any connectivity.
6. Capable of offering fully managed services to customers.
7. Allow BSNL to introduce additional services such as bandwidth on demand etc over the
same network.
Tariff

Service
64
Kbps
128
Kbps
192
Kbps
256
Kbps
384
Kbps
512
Kbps
768
Kbps
1
Mbps
2
Mbps
8 Mbps
34
Mbps
45
Mbps
Gold 63000 105000 138000 178000 221000 301000 368000 423000 610000 2134000 3902000 4389000
Silver 52000 88000 116000 149000 185000 249000 306000 353000 487000 1706000 3119000 3509000
Bronze 43000 72000 95000 122000 162000 219000 267000 305000 355000 1242000 2272000 2556000
IP VPN 35000 60000 79000 102000 137000 186000 229000 263000 294000 1028000 1880000 2115000

1. Committed Data Rate in Bronze category - The bandwidth of Bronze category would be
restricted to 50% of bandwidth. However, the minimum B/W of 25% B/W will be
committed to Bronze customers
2. Discount on MPLS VPN ports - It has been decided to give multiple port discounts on
the total number of ports hired across the country as given below. It may be noted that
multiple ports are not required to be located in a city for offering this discount:
3. Discount Rates
No. of Ports
Existed discount on VPN
Ports on Graded basis
Revised discount on VPN
Ports on Non-graded
basis
1 to 4 ports 0% 0%
5 to 25 ports 10% 5%
26 to 50 ports 15% 10%
51 to 100 ports 20% 10%
101 to 150 ports 20% 15%
More than 150 ports 20% 20%

4. Volume based discount on MPLS VPN Service - Annual volume based discount on
graded basis may be given to all customers as under:

Annual Revenue( in Rs.) on MPLS VPN
Service per annum
Volume based Discount on Graded basis
Upto Rs.50 lakhs No discount
Rs.50 lakhs to 1 Crore 5%
Rs.1 Crore to 2 Crore 7.5%
Rs.2 Crore to 5 Crore 10%
More than Rs.5 Crore 15%

E3E4 MPLS VPN Ver2 28.02.2008 7 of 7

5. Shifting charges of MPLS VPN & IP VPN Port - Rs.2000/- per port.
6. Minimum hiring period for MPLS VPN and IP VPN ports - One year.
7. Upgradation of port to higher Bandwidth No charges to be levied for up-gradation
to higher bandwidth. The rent for the lower BW port to be adjusted on pro-rata
basis.
8. Provision of last mile on R&G/ Special construction basis - The charges to be levied
as per prevalent R&G/ Special construction terms.
9. Local Lead charges: Included in Port Charges, if these are within Local Area of
Telephone system of a City/Town (Virtual Nodes).
10. All charges are exclusive of Service Tax.

Virtual Nodes

VPN Service based on MPLS technology was launched on 24th May 2003. The VPN
infrastructure consists of ten physical Point of Presence (POP) at Delhi, Kolkatta, Chennai,
Mumbai, Bangalore, Pune, Hyderabad, Ahemdabad, Lucknow and Ernakulem. These ten
POPs cater for the VPN requirement throughout India.

In view of competitive scenario, the cities where MLLN VMUX are existing were declared
as Virtual Nodes (For calculation of Local Lead Charges). There are currently 290 cities
declared as virtual nodes and also BSNL felt that flexibility towards dynamic expansion of
Virtual Nodes of MPLS VPN will help boost the customer base of MPLS VPN segment
hence the power to declare a city as a virtual node (condition MLLN VMUX should exist)
has been delegated to CGM vide letter no: No.112-3/2006-Comml Dated: 2nd April,
2007.

The charges (in addition to port charges) are to be calculated as below:
While Calculating the Leased Line charges for Connecting the VPN site to the
MPLS Node, the distance from the VPN site to the nearest MPLS Virtual Node or
MPLS Node, which ever is less, is only to be taken into account. This will be in
addition to the local Lead charges.

Section-4
Chapter-5
Metro Ethernet: Fiber based broadband Access

E3E4 Metro Ethernet Rev 2 28.2.2008 1 of 7
Equipping Metro Optical Networks to Deliver Ethernet Services
Ethernet services represent a significant growth opportunity for service providers and a potentially
significant productivity gain for customers. Both parties are looking to Ethernet to meet the
growing demand for higher bandwidth, lower operational expenses and better management and
control.
To understand Ethernet services and revenues, you need to know the current positioning and
where the market is headed. Like any new service offering Ethernet services are subject to a life
cycle of technology and implementation. This cycle can be broken down into three stages:
o An early stagepoint-to-point solutions are sold to a limited number of larger customers
or on-net customers. Leverages installed base of fiber.
o A middle stagemore complete point-to-multipoint service offerings are marketed to all
customers both on-net and off-net, over fiber and copper. Service offerings still vary from
one provider to another.
o A late stageinter-provider compatibility exists and true multipoint-to-multipoint solutions
are sold. Providers are delivering similar offerings, mainly differing on price.
Many providers today are in the early stage, delivering point-to-point Ethernet services over their
existing network infrastructures to their on-net customers where the carrier already has a fiber
drop. However, in order for Ethernet services to fully mature and develop through the life cycle,
there are a number of challenges and requirements that have to be overcome.
Two Viewpoints into the Ethernet Services Life Cycle
There are two viewpoints into this cycle the viewpoint from the customer (services desired) and
the viewpoint from the service provider (network capabilities). The best way to approach these
viewpoints is to understand the needs of both the customer and the service provider, to
understand the obstacles and then to understand how to fulfill these needs in terms of the
network infrastructure and service offerings.
Customer Viewpoint: Ethernet Life Cycle and Services Desired
The service requirements desired by the customer are straightforward speed, scalability,
reliability and the type and number of services offered. As the services evolve from early stage to
mid-stage, the demands from the customers also evolve, as discussed below and summarized in
the following table.
Services
Desired
Early Stage Mid-Stage Late Stage
Connections Simple point-to
point
Multi-point Ubiquitous
Scope Small, within
Metro
Metro, regional,
some national
/international
Available everywhere,
true interprovider
compatibility
Reliability Minimal, based on
overbuild
Reliable but only
on-net
Reliable
Ethernet Services Single service Multiple services Any service
Security Minimal Layered Multiple levels
But there are a number of challenges that must be overcome before customers are able move
forward on widespread deployments. Making a change to an Ethernet-based network is rational
only if certain criteria are met.
Cost Justifications
In early stage deployments, purchasing Ethernet services is usually driven by a single application
where the economics and requirements outweigh the hassle of turning up a new service. This
may be difficult to justify, especially for small to medium-sized businesses. Installation and
provisioning charges for multiple locations, equipment replacement, new service level
agreements and new management structures may drive the true cost of the service out of reach
for many businesses.
More Bandwidth and Higher Speeds
Customers need to be able to determine what speeds are necessary to support their locations,
which will differ in their requirements for bandwidth. The need to tag traffic with various priority
levels will become critical. For example, deployments of VoIP require the ability to differentiate
and prioritize traffic. Businesses are not willing to lose their voice calls simply because they have
switched to a new network.
Local Management
Customers are asking for the ability to set and change various parameters on their networks.
They would like to be able to provision circuits based on usage during peak times of the month -
as well as during down times. They would like to be able to set priorities for applications when
needed without requiring intervention from the provider. In addition, customers would like to be
able to monitor their billing charges.
Remote Locations
Finding consistent service offerings for remote locations is a major challenge facing customers in
early and mid-stage deployments. While providers can probably justify network changes to
support large customer locations, it may not be profitable to provide those same changes to
smaller and more remote locations. Customers are looking for the same services at all ports,
which may not be reasonable until later mid and late stage deployments.
Service Provider Viewpoint: Ethernet Life Cycle and Network Capabilities
The list of features and services offered by the provider varies greatly today, partly due to the
position of Ethernet services in the current life cycle and partly due to the state of hardware and
software available from vendors. Service providers must adapt their networks and offerings as the
Ethernet Services life cycle continues to migrate from:
the early stages, where it has been possible to adapt older equipment built for either the
core or the Enterprise to fit specific needs
to the middle stage where providers need purpose-built equipment that provides the
necessary services, standards and cost points
to the late stage where all equipment meets standards and interoperability requirements


Network
Capabilities
Early Stage Mid-Stage Late Stage
Bandwidth
management
Dedicated
bandwidth through
brute force (TDM)
Simple
management
through
QoS/CoS
Powerful and
distributed (using
signaling)
Bandwidth
granularity
Coarse/inflexible Better
granularity, still
a mix of TDM
and Ethernet
Available
everywhere, true
interprovider
compatibility
Network reach Based on fiber
availability
Mix of fiber and
copper
Any wire
Economics Business case
proved in for large
customers only
Business case
proved in for
medium and
large customers
only
Business case
proved in for all
customers
Network design Overlay
architecture
Some
convergence,
some overlay,
MPLS-oriented
True converged
architecture
Equipment
interoperability
Limited Some, based
on vendor
testing
Standards-based
Network
interoperability
None Limited True
interoperability
But before providers enter the Ethernet service market, they also need to examine and
understand the variety of challenges associated with it.
Business Cases
Solid business cases must be developed before large scale Ethernet rollouts can take place. An
attractive approach is to use solutions that enable low first cost on initial deployment, and that will
scale as services and customers are added to the network.
Footprint On-net versus Off-net
The majority of service providers maintain a network that reaches most of their customers
locations directly (on-net). Providers also need ways to economically reach all of their customers
locations, including those not currently on their network (off-net). Going forward, providers must
be able to use any mix of fiber or copper to deliver Ethernet services, and they must be able to
use these wires without requiring major changes to the core transport infrastructure. Providers
also need the ability to provide all services over a single access network and reduce dependence
on LEC access lines to reach off-net customers.
Deployed Infrastructure Designed to Support Circuit Switching
Another challenge facing providers is maximizing the use of their deployed infrastructure.
Providers need to maximize the use of currently deployed infrastructures (both fiber and copper)
to support existing legacy TDM services and new Ethernet-based services. Providers must be
able to maintain critical circuit-based revenue streams while supporting the rollout of new high-
performance Ethernet-based services, and those Ethernet services and features need to be
identical at any and all locations.
OAM&P with Multiple Vendors
Providers must coordinate Operations, Administration, Management, and Provisioning (OAM&P)
among equipment from multiple vendors using standards-based solutions.
Bandwidth Management
Rather than be forced into strict bandwidth guidelines or use unlimited bandwidth to solve traffic
issues, providers are looking for the ability to manage bandwidth gracefully through the use of
management tools such as rate limiters, policers, Quality of Service (QoS) and Class of Service
(CoS).
Service Level Agreements
Both providers and customers believe that service level agreements (SLAs) and service level
management (SLM) are necessary for successful relationships. Before deploying wide-spread
Ethernet services, providers need to be able to support expected levels of network reliability to
ensure compliance with subscriber service level agreements (SLAs).

Schematic of General PON (Passive Optic Network)

Proposed Services on BSNL FTTH network

The first and foremost service proposed in the deployment of these PON
technologies is to roll out the Next Generation Play Network (NGPN). Ethernet
Private Leased Lines ( EPL), Ethernet Private LAN service ( EP-LAN) to the
customers requiring the high bandwidth. Today Ethernet is the most popular
medium used by the most of the customers in their Local Area Networks ( LAN).
In addition Ethernet, being the most common and interoperable protocol, is being
used extensively in all the computer communication products. Hence Ethernet
access service shall be the one of the popular service in the current days of
computer communication. The regular TDM leased lines give away to this
Ethernet access service.

EPLs are the point to point leased lines extending the Ethernet
transparently and securely between the two customer sites. The Ethernet Private
LAN service can be offered in the Point to Multipoint method ( Hub-Spoke ) or
Multipoint to Multipoint ( Local Area Network ) method. EPLAN can be offered to
customer as Wide Area Network ( WAN ) service. Apart from bigger bandwidth
requirements, some of the high end customers require carrier class reliability
upto their premises. These PON technologies shall be one of the ultimate
technologies that delivers both high bandwidth and high reliability. The fibre
redundancy upto the customer premises ensures this reliability.
It shall be easier to sign the Service Level Agreements ( SLA) with the
customers using the PON technologies. These PON technologies shall permit
management of the customer premises equipment ( Optical Network Terminals
ONTs ). End to end provisioning feature on PONs enable the service provider to
dynamically manage the customer needs.

The second important service proposed to offered to customers is Next
Generation Broadband Service. This PON technology can also be used to deliver
Broadband service to the customers in the Technically Non Feasible ( TNF )
areas. Normally the 2 Mb/s ADSL broadband connection works upto 4Kms. The
2Mb/s and other high speed Broadband connections needs to deploy either
VDSL or alternate medium connection such as wireless. Higher bandwidths for
broadband connections can be delivered to the customers as remote as 20 Kms
from the Exchange premises with the PON technologies. PON technology allows
the service provider to share the fiber cost of running fiber from the CO to the
premises among many usersusually up to 32 locations. Since multiple
customers use the single fibre infrastructure, the cost of the service roll-out shall
be lower than for the fibre provisioning for the individual customer. Thus
customers can be offered the broadband service in the entire operational area of
BSNL network.

The third service that can be proposed is the voice service ( TDM or IP),
i.e. extension of PSTN lines to the customers. In GPON, this service can be
extended using the 64 Kb/s TDM lines from exchange to customer. Alternately to
cover a group of customers, we may use V 5.2 interface to extend the voice
service to the customer premises. In case of GE-PON (Gigabit Ethernet PON)
the voice service can be extended to the using Voice Over Internet Protocol (
VOIP).

From the BSNL network point of view GPON, being the TDM based
technology, shall integrate into the existing switching network. While the VOIP
feature in the GE-PON provides easy migration path to the Next Generation
Network ( NGN ) of the BSNL. Since TDM switches and the NGN are to coexist
for upto 2015 as per the NGN vision plan both GPON and GE-PON are the most
suitable PON technologies for BSNL.

The video service ( Radio Frequency - RF or IP), which is one of the triple
play services, is the fourth service proposed to be extended to the customer. GE-
PON offer 1.25 Gb/s capable Gigabit connectivity upto the customer premises.

Both GPON and GE-PON can also roll-out broadcast Cable TV services
using the third wavelength at 1550 nm using RF-video. This third wavelength

a. GPON:

GPON supports two methods of encapsulation: the ATM and GPON
encapsulation method (GEM). The ATM method is an evolution of existing
APON/BPON standards, and all voice, video, and data traffic is encapsulated at
the customer premises for transport back to the CO. With GEM, all traffic is
mapped across the GPON network using a variant of SONET/SDH generic
framing procedure (GFP). GEM supports a native transport of voice, video, and
data without an added ATM or IP encapsulation layer. GPONs support
downstream rates as high as 2.5 Gbits/sec and upstream rates from 155
Mbits/sec to 2.5 Gbits/sec. BSNL is procuring the GPON that will support
downstream rate 2.5Gbps and upstream 1.25 Gbps.

b. EPON:

As with standard Gigabit Ethernet, EPON has a nominal bit rate of 1250
Mbps, using 8B/10B encoding. It is defined as a single fiber network using
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) operating at a wavelength of 1490 nm
downstream and 1310 nm upstream. This leaves the 1550 nm window open for
other services, such as analog video or private WDM circuits. EPON Physical
media Dependent (PMD) choices will include short reach optics with a range of
10 km and a 1:32 split ratio, and long reach optics with a range of 20 km and a
1:32 split ratio. Ideally, this will allow for interoperability and intermixing of
different PMD types enabling a wide range of split ratios and distances. Low-cost
Gigabit EPON transceivers using Distributed Feedback (DFB) or Fabry-Perot
lasers and high sensitivity APD and PIN detectors are available. This is
important, as optical transceivers have historically been the highest cost
component in a PON network.


Fibre Infrastructure

As per the transmission media guidelines announced in the past, Overlay
Access Network is to be planned in all the District Head Quarters. High Count
Fibres ( 96F/288F ), Multiple PLB pipes and FDMS are deployed in the Overlay
Access Network. OAN aims at creating Optical fibre infrastructure for supporting
all the network elements (RSU/RLC/DLC/GSM/WLL/LMDS/Leased lines/NIB)
and the customers. It may be observed that all the network elements being
deployed in the network including the routers, LAN Switches require the Dark
fibre.

1. Apart from this NIB 2.2 project is being executed in 248 cities. This year
the broadband group has proposed to increase the number of cities to 315. Dark
fibre is required for the DSLAMs to the Ethernet Switches in all these cities.
Number of DSLAMs shall increase over the years also.

2. GSM network is also growing with the execution of Phase-V+ and with the
60,000 sites are planned by the CMTS group for this project.

3. Broadband DLCs are also planned. These B-DLCs also require the
Optical fibre cable.

4. Fibre needs to be provided for very important customers also for providing
leased lines.

5. Apart from this all the new evolving technologies and customer demands,
and new services require high speed connectivity to the customer. Thus
requirement Optical Fibre in the Exchange Area becomes the important for the
Telecom Carrier.

The project circles are executing the Fibre To The Curb ( FTTC ) project
alternately known as Overlay Access Network. As soon as the customer
requirement is available the fibre laying from the nearest Manhole ( Fibre Access
Point ) to the customer is completed and the service provisioning is done quickly.

Section-V

Chapter-1

BSNL Application Packages
E3E4 BSNL Application Packages, Ver1 14.12.2007 1 of 12

DOTSOFT

1.0 DOTSOFT is an Integrated Telecom Database System comprising of :-
Commercial
TRA (Billing & Accounting)
Directory Enquiry
Fault Repair Service
Running on a Wide Area Network

2.0 INTRODUCTION

DOTSOFT is an integrated telecom database system comprising commercial,
billing, accounting, fault repair service and directory enquiry services
It can run not only on a wide area network (WAN) spanning an entire district
but also on a local LAN in the offline mode.
DOTSOFT is based on the latest software technologies running on a WAN
and is the first of its kind in BSNL in the field of information technology.
It has been conceptualised, designed and developed entirely by the core group
of the Software Development Centre of the Andhra Pradesh Telecom Circle,
Hyderabad.
It has been successfully implemented in all the districts in AP Circle. It has
been also successfully implemented in many circles in BSNL.

2.1 Concise description of DOTSOFT

DOTSOFT is an enterprise wide telecom database system that revolutionizes
the operation and supervision of customer services by enabling all the
personnel to work online.
The central server contains the complete database to which all the nodes
anywhere in the district log in. The database is accessed using application
software residing in the nodes which have GUI interface.
The nodes in the customer service centre service all the subscriber requests
which flow to the commercial and accounts sections as the case may be.
After validation and approval from the the concerned sections the work orders
flow to the different field units depending on the activity
After the completion of the work orders the commercial and billing data of the
subscriber gets updated.
Bill generation is absolutely easy and totally secure.
Payments are faster and completely hassle free for the customer and the
counter personnel because of the use of bill scanners.
Revenue accounting and ledger reports are available immediately at the end of
the month.
The system can generate any kind of detailed as well as statistical reports.
Online enquiry is available for supervision and queries

2.2 IMPORTANT FEATURES OF DOTSOFT

Every subscriber is identified by an identification number which shall be
unique all over the country (CCCSSAYYYYMMXXXXX).
All-India shift and closure cases are processed immediately.
Database security is implemented through database grants and dynamically
changing menus.
System is highly scalable and can run on a wide variety of operating system
platforms.
The system can run on both client-server or host based systems or web based
intranet without any change in the software.
All the parameters of the system are table driven.
State of the art technology used in the designing of the wide area network.
Central control of the WAN using a robust network management software

2.3 UTILITY OF DOTSOFT

DOTSOFT is one of the first steps towards the bold and ultimate goal of E-
Governance and paperless offices.
All the work is done online which results in excellent customer service, non
duplication of work, total supervision, complete transparency, better planning
and with a facility of instant reports.
Single window concept introduced for the first time.
Concept of request registration number introduced through which the status of
the request can be tracked and inquired.
Signature warehousing to be included for online verification purpose.
Instant electronic flow of data between the offices and field units with facility
to print wherever required.
Various intimation letters to subscribers automatically generated.
Priority execution of advice notes.
Messaging system between CO and Field units.
DOTSOFT mail system between all users.
Complete history of subscribers activities available online.
Details of subscriber records & requests, bills, demand notes,
wait list, payments and work orders available online.
Variable billing cycle, ISDN billing.
Centrex and WLL billing U/D.
NPC advice notes once completed online are billed in the next schedule.
Un-addressed bills are generated when a DEL is working but the NPC advice
note has not been completed in the system.
Finalization of closed connections are settled immediately and a summary of
outstanding OR refund order is generated.
Uncollected deposits can be billed in the regular bills and the accounting is
taken care of automatically.

Supplementary bills can be issued for any uncovered amount.
Outstanding details can be taken for any month on any given date.
Debit charges and credits generated by the system and hence remove any
requirement of manual entry.
Voluntary deposits incorporated.
Outstanding surcharge if any, will be transferred to the next bill, which
reduces the number of outstanding bills.
Automatic generation of ringing/disconnection list, which can be ported to an
interactive voice response system to alert the subscriber.
Directory Enquiry shows the status at the moment of enquiry. It can query on
any of the subscribers details in part or in full.
Complete managerial supervision is possible about the activities happening
anywhere in the district.
Statistical data is generated to find out activity, usage and payment patterns to
facilitate better customer service.
Online help facility covering all rules and regulations is provided.
User manual is provided in the .html format.

2.4 Security features in DOTSOFT

Blocking of User access to DOTSOFT menu if user password violating
password rules.
Allotment of Dynamic Roles at the time of login through DOTSOFT Menu as
a security measure (Blocking of SQL ACCESS to DOTSOFT MENU users
and all DOTSOFT Modules will work only through DOTSOFT Menu.)
Blocking of user access from unauthorized IP address.
Restricting SQL access with product user profile.
Provision for profile creation/allotment.
Enabling log in triggers to block unauthorized module Developers other than
DBA.
Designed security policy for oracle DBMS and placed on DOTSOFT site.





BSNL HR Package

1.0 About HR Package

It is an in-house package developed by the employees of BSNL for usage by
BSNL. The design and development of the package started initially at Telecom
Factory as a part of their effort of internal computerization, and the Employee
master was developed. Since the HR requirements of all the employees of BSNL
are more or less same, the same package was adopted for entire BSNL and the
development was taken over by IT Project Circle. The initial development was
done in Forms and was launched for a trial run at Maharashtra circle, Kolhapur
SSA and Telecom Factory Mumbai.

Since the Forms are heavy for deployment over a network, the development at
ITPC was continued in PHP/JAVA, and even the initial development was
converted and was launched on All-India Level on 16
th
Aug 2005.

The further development is continuing at ITPC, to cover all other areas of HR,
like transfers, promotions, training, quarter allotment, leaves, attendance, medical
schemes, nominations and Pay Roll.

2.0 Platforms used

OS --- Linux

Data Base --- Oracle 9i/10g

Application Server --- 9iAS/ 10g AS

Front end --- JAVA/ PHP

3.0 Who can access the package?

All the employees are envisaged to be the users of the package ultimately as all
the leaves, all the advances and other personal claims are proposed to be applied
on-line by the employee for sanction and payment on line. A provision is made
for the supervisor of the employee to make all these applications on behalf of the
illiterate sub ordinate employees.

The transactions on the package are to be done only by the authorized users.An
employee with a system generated staff number, generated by the system on
entering certain mandatory data of an employee, only can be made an authorized
user. Go through the instructions on links below to know more about this.

After the staff number is generated, the employee can be made as a user by the
concerned SA (System Administrator). The employee will be given as the user

name( the employees staff no.) and a pass word initially. But on first log on the,
system will force the change of pass word by the user. The user name can not be
changed. Please note that the changed pass word is case sensitive.

4.0 How to access the package?

The authorized user has to log into intranet site, and click the HR Package link
available there in. This activity opens a page asking options for the type of
network connection used, ie. either MPLS VPN or an internet connection. This
page also has one other link for getting the details about HR Package, and
another link for sending a request for issue of user name and pass words or any
other clarification.

Choosing and clicking the appropriate option will open the log in page of the HR
Package. The user name and password for HR package will allow the bonafide
user to access the HR package.

Creating the system administrators and Use of One Time User Name and Pass
Word by the System Administrator

1. The SA has to be created for each of the main offices ie the corporate office,
circles and SSAs.

A One Time user name and password for the SA will be mailed to mail address of
the SA or to the address from which the request is received.

Using this One Time details, the HR package can be accessed. The system will open
the employee master page to the SA.

The SA will have to enter his details in the staff master and submit the page. The
system will generate a new staff no. for the SA. The system will also make the SA as
a user automatically with the newly generated staff no. as the username and
password.

Only on the generation of the new staff no., the one time user name and pass word
will become invalid. If the staff no. is not generated for any reason, the one time UN
& PW will continue to be valid.

The SA can log in with his new staff no. as the user name and pass word and will be
forced by the system to change the PW on first log in.

There after the SA can enter the details of any no. of employees and generate new
staff nos. for them. He can also make them the USERS for data entry purpose. The
initial user name and pass word for the employee will be will be the staff no. of the
employee generated by the system and the pass word will have to be changed by the
user on first log in.

5.0 Concept of the Location (Based on organizational structure, address and the type
of service provided by the office concerned)

Through the LOCATION we are trying to define the organizational structure of
BSNL. Organization helps in governance at each level by way of decentralization.

Organisational structure is the most important part of the BSNL, in fact, for any
organization. Generally organizations are defined in different layers depending on
the functions to be carried out. The reporting/relational structure between the
layers also is well defined. The layers can one below the other, one parallel to the
other, or any other way as the organization defines.

Each layer of the organization is manned by certain number of employees. The
reporting structure among the employees in a layer also well defined by way of
grades in which the employee is placed. Hence organizational structure has no
relation with the grades and the number of the employees in that layer of the
organization. The number of employees and the grades of those employees in
each layer depends on the functionality, responsibility and other parameters
assigned to the layer by the organization.
As many posts, in different grades, as may be required are created in each
location for discharging the assigned work.

Traditionally BSNL (DOT) was having the following structure.

a). DOT(Ministry) ---- analogous to the Corporate Office of BSNL (Ministry
remains today also but as far as the BSNL is concerned , Ministry is not a part of
its structure).

This was/ is the top most layer. (Headed by DG/ CMD )

b). Circles ---- There are many Circles and are discharging different functions
like, Territorial and Metro Districts for telecom operations , Project Crcles,
Maintenance Regions, Production, QA, T&D, Training, Civil Wing, Electrical
Wing, Architectural Wings etc.

Names of all the circles are already entered in the system.

This is the second layer. (Headed by CGM). They normally report to the
Corporate Office

c). SSA ---- This layer came into the being in 1980s. Earlier there were Divisions
, Sub- Divisions.( They still exist).

Names of all the SSAs for the relevant circles are already entered in the system.


This is the third layer. ( It is headed by officer in an appropriate grade).

We had, in the past, a defined structure at next levels called Divisions and Sub-
Divisions under the Circles before SSAs came into being. But after SSAs came
into being, the structure under each SSA has been different to suit its needs.
There is a general similarity in all the structures below the SSA, but it is not the
same for all the SSAs.

The corporate office, the circles, the SSAs are referred to as main offices only
for the purpose of understanding the location concept.

d). Units ----

Units are to be created by the Sys. Admn. of the relevant main office. Before
creating the units in the system it is highly recommended that the structure is
made on the paper and after confirming the correctness, the same may be entered
in the system.

Unit is defined based on the following.

a) Name the unit
b) Address of the unit --- postal address
c) Service rendered by the unit --- operation, civil, electrical, production etc.

5.1 Each of the main offices i.e. Corporate office, Circle, SSA can have units under
them based on the above criterion. For eg.

a) BSNL corporate office has its office at Statesman building. If some of the
employees in the corporate office are located at Sanchar Bhavan and at other
addresses like Jan path hotel, then Sanchar Bhavan will be one of the units of the
Corporate office and Jan path hotel will be another unit of the corporate office.
Here name of the office is same but the address is different.
b) Maharashtra Circle has its office at Fountain building, and another office at Juhu
in Mumbai. Juhu office will be a unit under Maharashtra circle.
c) There are number of circles which do not have SSAs under them like QA, T&D,
TFs etc. Each office under their direct control will be a separate unit and one unit
can be reporting to the parent office or to another unit of the parent unit. For eg.

i) QA circle has its main office at Bangalore. There are many offices in
India which are directly reporting to QA office at Bangalore. Each will
be a unit, say unit 1 at Mumbai, unit 2 at Kolkatta with reporting office
as Circle office.
ii) There are many other offices of QA like QA of TF Mumbai ,QA of
Pune say unit 3, unit 4 respectively which report to unit 1 of QA
iii) This process will continue till all the offices of QA are covered.

iv) Same procedure will be followed in all the main offices.
v) In case of civil wing, electrical wing, etc. the reporting structure has to
be defined. If the civil wing is reporting to the circle office/SSA then it
will be treated as a unit of the circle/SSA. If the civil wing is a treated
as a separate circle, then a separate civil circle has to be created and all
the offices reporting to the civil circle will be treated as units of this
civil structure with service type as civil. Same logic is applicable to
electrical wing with electrical as the service type and to Telecom
Factories with service type as production.
d) Service type is defined as Operation for all telecom circles including CMTS, QA,
T&D etc.; training for training institutes; production for Telecom Factories etc.

PLEASE NOTE THAT THE LEVEL OFFICER HEADING THE LOCATION IS NOT AT
ALL MENTIONED IN THE ABOVE DISCUSSION
.
Each of the main offices and each of the units is known as a location and the existing
BSNL structure is mapped into the package.

Every employee is assigned to a location in the structure. By doing so the details of the
employee relating to the office in which he/she is working, the address of the office and
the service he/she is rendering to BSNL are identified. For eg.

-if we ask an employee where he/she is working the reply would be that I am
working in the Juhu office of Maharashtra circle, rendering the service of Telecom
operations to BSNL.

Whenever a new office is created, say for eg. a new circle is created like UP(E), then a
new location has to be created and employees have to be reallocated to the new
office/unit. Even if a new building is to be used, a new location in the form of a new unit
has to be created and employees have to reallocated to it.

The reallocation can be done through the transfer module, which will be taking some
time to be introduced till such a time the changes have to be done manually.

SA for the UNITS created by the respective SA of the main office.

As and when a new unit is created, the system, by default creates and inserts a ONE
TIME user name and PW for that unit. The format for both of them is Short Description
of the unit _ TRG. For eg if a unit of QA is created in Pune with short description as
QA_PUNE then both the one time UN & PW for this unit will be
QA_PUNE_TRG.

This can be given to any employee of QA Pune for following the above instructions.

While creating a SA of a unit, the level of the officers have to be kept in view, as
prescribed in BSNL instructions.

Using this one time user name and password, the same procedure as above for creating
the SA will have to be followed for creating users in the units.

The data entry into the employee master will be only in capitals. System automatically
does it. So the one time PW & UN are in capitals only. But the changed PW by the
user on first log in is case sensitive.
System requirements at the users end

The package can be best operated on any computer with the following configuration..

1. Pentium P-III or above version.
2. Widows 98, XP, 2000, but not the server versions
3. Minimum 128 MB RAM
4. Best viewed in Internet explorer-6 or above.
5. Network connectivity.
6. Pop ups should not be blocked.

Section-V

Chapter-2

NOS & RDBMS

E3E4 NOS & RDBMS, Ver1 14.12.2007 1 of 4

Network Operating System

Operating System

An operating system (OS) is the software that manages the sharing of the resources of a
computer. An operating system processes raw system data and user input, and responds by
allocating and managing tasks and internal system resources as a service to users and programs of the
system. At the foundation of all system software, an operating system performs basic tasks
such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing system requests, controlling input and
output devices, facilitating networking and managing file systems. Most operating systems come
with an application that provides a user interface for managing the operating system, such as a
command line interpreter or graphical user interface. The operating system forms a platform for
other system software and for application software. Mac OS, Windows, and Linux are some of the
most popular OSes.

Network Operating System

Network Operating System (NOS) is an operating system that includes special functions for
connecting computers and devices into a local-area network (LAN) or Inter-networking. Some
popular NOSs for DOS and Windows systems include Novell Netware, Windows NT, 2000,
2003, RHEL, IBM AIX and Sun Solaris etc.. The Cisco IOS (Internet Operating System) is also
a Network Operating System with a focus on the Internetworking capabilities of network devices.
A NOS controls a network and its message (e.g. packet) traffic and queues, controls access by
multiple users to network resources such as files, and provides for certain administrative functions,
including security. A network operating system is most frequently used with local area networks and
wide area networks, but could also have application to larger network systems. The upper 5 layers
of the OSI Reference Model provide the foundation upon which many network operating
systems are based.

Features of NOS
Some of the features of Network Operating System are:
Provide basic operating system features such as support for processors, protocols,
automatic hardware detection and support multi-processing of applications.
Security features such as authentication, authorization, logon restrictions and access
control
Provide name and directory services
Provide file, print, web services, back-up and replication services
Support Internetworking such as routing and WAN ports
User management and support for logon and logoff, remote access; system management,
administration and auditing tools with graphic interfaces

Services offered by NOS
Network services are the foundation of a networked computing environment. Generally
network services are installed on one or more servers to provide shared resources to client
computers. Network services are configured on corporate LANs to ensure security and user friendly
operation. They help the LAN run smoothly and efficiently.


Authentication Service
Authentication service provides authentication service to users or other systems.
Users and other servers authenticate to such a server, and receive cryptographic tickets. These
tickets are then exchanged with one another to verify identity. Authentication is used as
the basis for authorization, privacy, and non-repudiation. The major authentication algorithms
utilized are passwords, Kerberos, and public key encryption.

Directory Service

A directory service (DS) is a software application that stores and organizes information about a
computer network's users and network resources, and that allows network administrators to manage
users' access to the resources. Additionally, directory services act as an abstraction layer between
users and shared resources.

DHCP Service

The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a set of rules used by communications
devices such as a computer, router or network adapter to allow the device to request and obtain an IP
address from a server which has a list of addresses available for assignment. DHCP is a protocol used
by networked computers (clients) to obtain IP addresses and other parameters such as the default
gateway, subnet mask, and IP addresses of DNS servers from a DHCP server. The DHCP server
ensures that all IP addresses are unique, Thus IP address pool management is done by the server.

DNS
Domain Name System is used for transalating human readable names for machines (Servers,
Domains, Clients) to IP addresses and vice versa. It also stores other information such as the list
of mail exchange servers that accept email for a given domain. In providing a worldwide
keyword-based redirection service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of
contemporary Internet use.

e-Mail Service
Electronic mail is a store and forward method of composing, sending, storing, and receiving
messages over electronic communication systems. The term "e-mail" applies both to the Internet e-
mail system based on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and to intranet systems allowing
users within one organization to e-mail each other. Often these workgroup collaboration
organizations may use the Internet protocols for internal e-mail service.

Network Print Service
Print service is a facility that is extended to the users so that printer service is available
to all users through the network and no individual printer is required on the client machine.

Network File Service
network file system is any computer file system that supports sharing of files, printers and other
resources as persistent storage over a computer network. The Network File System (NFS) which
became the first widely used distributed file system. Other notable distributed file systems are
Andrew File System (AFS) and Server Message Block SMB, also known as CIFS

RDBMS

Short for relational database management system and pronounced as separate letters, a type of
database management system (DBMS) that stores data in the form of related tables. Relational
databases are powerful because they require few assumptions about how data is related or how it
will be extracted from the database. As a result, the same database can be viewed in many
different ways. An important feature of relational systems is that a single database can be spread
across several tables. This differs from flat-file databases, in which each database is self-
contained in a single table. Almost all full-scale database systems are RDBMS's. Small database
systems, however, use other designs that provide less flexibility in posing queries.
Database

A group of tables with related data in them is called a Database
Coherent collection of data with some inherent meaning, designed, built and populated
for a specific purpose.

DBMS and RDBMS
Software designed to manage data in database is DBMS.
In relational databases, data is organised into tables and tables are closely related.

Designing Relational Database
Analyze the situation to gather information about the purpose.
Decide on columns, data types and the lengths of data.
Create the database and tables.
Populate the tables

Normalizing the Data
Normalizing is the process of organizing data into related tables.
Purpose - Eliminate Redundant Data

Rules for Normalizing
FNF
Columns cant contain multiple values
SNF
Every non-key column must depend upon the entire key and not just a part of primary
key.
TNF
All non-key elements must not depend upon any other non-key columns

Relational Database Objects
Tables
Columns
Data types
Stored Procedures
Functions
Triggers
Views
Indexes


Concept of Keys
Primary Keys to enforce uniqueness and Not-NULL among the rows
Foreign Keys are one or more columns that reference the primary keys or unique
constraints of other table.
Constraints are server-based system implemented data integrity enforcement
mechanism.
Rules/checks

Managing Data Integrity
Data integrity means data in a database adheres to business rules
Application Code
Database triggers
Declarative Integrity constraints
Database triggers: Programs that are executed when an event, such as insert or
update on a column, occurs in a table.
Types of Constraints
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
Concept of Schema
A schema is a logical grouping of database objects based on the user who owns them
SQL
IBM invented SEQUEL(structured English query language) for data queries
Over the data it has been added now it can not only query but fully build and manage
databases
SQL sentences are
DDL (data definition language)
DML (data manipulation language)
DCL (data control language)
Processing of SQL statement
SQL statement is received as strings and broken into Oracle verbs and oracle objects
Oracle verbs are then compared with verbs available in Pursing Tree (appropriate and
correct position check)
Then check for availability of Database objects(refers data dictionary)
Check for permissions to the user who has fired the statement (refers data dictionary)
Opening of Cursor(area where data is to stored)

Steps of SQL statement Processing
1.Open the area in memory and maintain a pointer to that location
2.Parse the SQL statement
3.Bind the select list columns to the cursor columns
4.Define variables to fetch the data from the cursor variables
5.Execute the query
6.Fetch data one row at a time
7.Perform required processing
8.Close the opened cursor

Section-V

Chapter-3

IT Security
E2E3 IT Security, Ver2 28.02.2008 1 of 3

Information Security

ABSTRACT
In the age of Information Revolution, the management of information and its
security is the key concern for all organisations and nations. For sharing of
information among the intended users, the systems have to be networked. With this
networking the risk of unauthorized use and attacks have taken major attention of
Managers.
Networks and Information are subject to various types of attacks and various
products are available in the market for securing the systems. But it needs the
thorough understanding of the various issues involved and proper implementation.

Need of Securing Information
Information is most important asset for any organization especially for a telecom
operator. All our revenue comes from some information only. Besides revenue if there is
loss of information all our processes can come to a stand still and it will result in
interruptions. It takes lot of efforts to build up information, but the small negligence at
any level can result in loss of information. The good aspect of information is that now it
is easy to move and easy to alter and this aspect has added insecurity dimension to
information during security incidents besides revenue, the image of the company is also
at stake.
So it a high time that we have a security policy endorsed by the higher management and
get it implemented. Implementation of security policy is just not putting up data security
devices and having a tight access control mechanism, it is an on going process. The
security mechanism is to be continued reviewed against the failures and new threats and
risks. The risks are to be analyzed and managed accordingly. The management of risk
involves its acceptance, mitigation or transfer. The most important aspect is to have a
security organizational set up which will do all these activities.

Information Security ensures

Availability,
Integrity and
Confidentially of information
The information security set-up of any organisation has to think of security of
individuals and file-level data objects and to protect the network from being launching
pad of attacks by hackers. The general solution to security design problems lies in
authentication and authorisation model, which is collectively known as access control.
However access control does not provide enough security because it ignores the potential
threat from insiders. Accountability steps in where access control leaves off.

A lot can be observed by just watching. Pay attention to what you can see and measure.
How is it to be done? Answer lies in intercepting all transactions that involve files. Think
of it as event detection. The event records are filtered and correlated at the time of
capture to distinguish between OS and application activities from user-initiated data use.
The audit trail is to be compressed and made temper proof and archived. Because this
capture occurs in real time, the reaction can be in real time. The reaction should be risk-
appropriate and may range from issuing an alarm to change in authorisation policy. The
point is that you should have the event log and monitor it.

Various Types of Attacks and their Counter Measures
Security Incidents are mainly due to:
Malicious Code Attacks
Known Vulnerabilities
Configuration Errors
Indications of Infection

A system infected with malicious codes will have following symptom(s):
1. Poor System Performance
2. Abnormal System Behavior
3. Unknown Services are running
4. Crashing of Applications
5. Change in file extension or contents
6. Hard Disk is Busy
There can be various types of malicious codes like Virus, Worms, Trojan Horses, Bots,
Key Loggers, Spyware, Adware etc. The solution against these is to have good anti-virus
software. The anti-virus software should be updated in routine so that it is effective
against new malicious codes.

The Configurations of the systems are Vulnerable because of
1. Default Accounts
2. Default Passwords
3. Un-necessary Services
4. Remote Access
5. Logging and Audit Disabled
6. Access Controls on Files

Monitoring Security of Network

Monitor for any changes in Configuration of High risk Devices
Monitor Failed Login Attempts, Unusual Traffic, Changes to the Firewall, Access
Grants tom Firewall, Connection setups through Firewalls
Monitor Server Logs

Security has to implemented at all levels i.e. Network, NOS, Application and
RDBMS.

Security of Network
Firewalls are used for Perimeter Defence of Networks. Using Firewall Access Control
Policy is implemented. It controls all internal and external traffic.

Security of OS/NOS

Keep up-to-date Security Patches and update releases for OS
Install up-to-date Antivirus Software
Harden OS by turning off unnecessary clients, Services and features

Security of Application

Keep up-to-date Security Patches and update releases for Application Package
Dont Install Programs of unknown origin
Precautions with Emails
Protection from Phishing attacks
Securing Web Browsers

Security of RDBMS
For securing data the following are needed:
1. User Management
2. Password Management
3. Managing Allocation of Resources to Users
4. Backup and Recovery
5. Auditing
Summary of Action Items
1. Secure Physical Access
2. Remove Unnecessary Services
3. Secure Perimeter
4. Properly Administer Network
5. Apply Patches in Time
6. Install Antivirus Software
7. Backup Data
8. Encrypt Sensitive Data
9. Install IDS
10. Proper Monitoring

Conclusion:
Caution is the word when it comes to Information Security. In an era, when information
is the power and wealth for an organisation, one cannot expect taking chances with it.
Therefore, it is advisable not only to secure the physical access to the information, but
also to install antivirus software, wherever required. Prevention is better than cure- goes
strong in case of Information Security also, if we want to create competitiveness.
Moreover Security is a continuous process, the preparedness of yesterday may not be
sufficient for today. We have to review periodically to find the gaps and immediate
action.

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The resolution bandwidth of an OSA determines its

The ability to accurately measure the absolute

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