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GRADE 12 English Notes

UNIT 1 – UNIT 4
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DOCUMENT CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE
1
UNIT 1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Pronunciations ………………………………………………………………………….. 3

Cohesive Devises of Contrasting and comparing ………..……… 4

Fragments ………………………………………………………………………………….. 5

Paragraphs ………………………………………………………………………………... 6

Vocabulary ……………………………………………………………………………….... 6

UNIT 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………….…….. 7

Analogy ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 7

Phrasal Verbs …………………………………………………………………………….. 7

Result Clauses ……………………………………………………………………………. 8

Wish …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8

Gerund ………………………………………………………………………………………… 9

Run-on sentence ……………………………………………………………………….. 9

Letter …………………………………………………………………………………………… 9

Vocabulary …………………………………………………………………………………. 10

UNIT 3 …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 11

Conditionals ………………………………………………………………………………. 11

Particples and participles phrases ……………………………………….. 12

Vocabulary ………………………………………………………………………………… 12

UNIT 4 ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13

Syllables and stress …………………………………………………………………. 13

Adverbal clauses of time …………………………………………………………. 14

Vocabulary ……………………………………………………………………………….. 16
UNIT 1 – Sustainable Development

I. Pronunciation
In English, the suffix ‘-s’ is used to mark plural in nouns, singular forms of verbs,
possessiveness or contracted forms. However, it is pronounced differently. Follow
the examples.
Example: buses /-iz/ texts /-s/ bags /-z/
Pronunciation tips:
• If words end in /s/, /t∫/, /dʒ/, /z/, / ∫ /, /ʒ/ sounds the ‘_s’ is pronounced as /-iz/.
• If words end in /b/, /d/, /g/, /l/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /r/, /D/, /ò/, /v/ sounds the ‘s’ is
pronounced as /-z/.
• If words end in /f/, /k/ /p/, /t/, /θ/ sounds the ‘-s’ is pronounced as /-s/

• Past morpheme /-d/: In English, regular verbs take the suffix /-(e)d/ to mark past
tense. Past morphemes added to regular verbs –d, or -ed are pronounced as /-t/,
/-d/ or /-id/.
There are three simple rules that help to pronounce past morphemes correctly.
• If the verb base ends with a voiceless sound, /p/,/ f/,/ k/,/ s/,/ sh/, /ch/,/ th/ then the
ending –ed sounds like “t”.
• If the verb base ends in a voiced sound,/ b/, /v/, /g/, /z/, /j/, /th/, /l/, /m,/ /n/, /r /
then the ending –ed sounds like “d”.
• If the verb base ends in a “t” or “d” sound then the ending sounds like “id” or
“ud”.

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 II. Cohesive Devises of contrasting and comparing

a. Although, even though, in spite of and despite

they are all used to link two contrasting ideas. They can all be used at the beginning or in the
middle of the sentence.
Example: Despite the rain, we enjoyed the festival.
We enjoyed the festival despite the rain.

The main difference between although, even though, in spite of and despite is
that they are used with different structures.

b. in spite of / despite
After in spite of and despite, we use a noun, gerund (-ing form of a verb) or a pronoun.
Example: They never made much money, in spite of their success.
In spite of the pain in his leg, he completed the marathon.
Despite having a headache, I had a great birthday.
The train was cancelled. In spite of that, we arrived on time.

It is common to use in spite of and despite with the expression the fact that, followed by a subject and
verb.
Example: In spite of the fact that he worked very hard, he didn’t earn enough.
Despite the fact that he worked very hard, he didn’t earn enough.

c. although / even though

After although and even though, we use a subject and a verb.
Even though is slightly stronger and more emphatic than although.
Example:
a. I enjoyed the course, although I would have liked more grammar practice.
b. Although we saw each other every day, we didn’t really know each other.
c. Even though she spoke very quietly, he understood every word.
d. She didn’t get the job, even though she had all the necessary qualifications.

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 d. though

Example:
a. Though can be used in the same way as although.
b. Though I wasn’t keen on the film, I thought the music was beautiful.

Though can also go at the end of the second phrase.

This way of expressing contrasting ideas is most common in spoken English.
Example: a. We waited ages for our food. The waiter was really nice, though

III. Fragments
Dependent clauses become fragments if they are written as separate sentences.
Example: the dependent clause ‘Even though the environment is very harsh.’ Written
as a separate sentence, does not give complete meaning.

A sentence fragment is a group of words that resembles a sentence, but does not
give complete meaning.
A fragment lacks subject, verb or complete thought.
There are three types of sentence fragments:
a. Missing subject
b. Missing verb
c. Incomplete thought

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 IV. Paragraph
A paragraph has three major parts
i. Topic sentence A topic sentence is a precise statement that reflects the main idea of the
. paragraph.
ii. Supporting sentences: Supporting sentences explain the topic sentence in detail.
iii. Concluding sentence: A good concluding sentence brings a paragraph to a
polished end.

VOCABULARY
1. Demise : death
2. Stakeholder : one that has a stake in an enterprise
3. Unconventional : being out of ordinary
4. Stagnate : to become or remain stagnant (not advancing or developing)
5. Prototype : an original model on which something is patterned
6. Comprehensive : covering broadly or broadly.
7. Interconnections : to connect with one another
8. Conservation : a careful preservation or protection of something
9. Intensified : grow stronger or more acute
10. Compromise : settlement of differences by arbitration or by consent
11. Mainstream : a prevailing current or direction of activity or influence
12. Seizing : the operation of fastening together
13. Consistent : showing conformity to character
14. Synergy : combined action or operation

Source : Oxford Dictionary

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 UNIT 2 – Time Management

I. Analogy
Analogy is a comparison between two situations, processes etc. that is intended to show that the two
are similar.
There are different types of analogy that include: part to whole, cause and effect, antonyms,
synonyms, definitions, item category, time sequence, category, object to use, and product to producer.

Here are some important things to remember when you think about analogies:
a) Parts of Speech
If the words in the first pair express a “noun: adjective,” or “verb: noun,” or adjective: adjective”
relationship (for instance), the second pair should show the same relationship between parts of
speech.

b) Word Order
If the first pair expresses a “tool user: tool” relationship (for instance), the second pair must express
the same relationship in the same order.

c) Exactness
Sometimes two or more of the given choices would make fairly good sense in the blank. When this
happens, you should choose the word or pair of words, which most exactly suits the relationship you
are expressing.

II. Phrasal Verbs

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 III. Result Clauses
In English grammar, result clauses are a type of subordinate clause that shows the result of an action
or situation.
They help answer the question of why something happened.
Result clauses are introduced by a variety of conjunctions, such as: so; so.... that; such... that, because,
since…

IV. Wish
We use the verb wish to talk about things which we want but which are not possible:
Example
I wish you could agree to come.
I wish we had a bigger house.
Alex was very lazy at school. Now he wishes he had worked harder.

a) We use wish with past tense form (Note that future tense cannot be used here)
• We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future:
Example
I don’t like my work. I wish I could get a better job.
You lie always. We wish you would tell us the truth.
That’s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.

b) We use past simple and continuous to talk about wishes for the present:
Example
I don’t like this place. I wish I lived somewhere more interesting.
These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.
I wish I knew the answer, (i.e. I don’t know the answer).
John wishes he wasn’t so busy, (i.e. He is busy).
I’m freezing. If only it wasn’t so cold.

• After I/he/she/it, we can use were instead of was:

Example
I wish I was/were taller.
Tola wishes he wasn’t/weren’t so busy.

c) We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:
Example
I wish I had worked harder when I was at school, (but I didn’t…).
Meron wishes she had listened to what her mother told her, (but she didn’t…).

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 I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month, (but I didn’t…).

V. Gerund
A gerund is a noun that, having derived from a verb, retains a few verb-like properties.
All gerunds end -ing (e.g., building, arriving, killing).

Verbs which are usually followed by a Gerund:

acknowledge, admit, adore, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, celebrate, confess,
contemplate, delay, deny, describe, detest, discuss, dislike, dread, endure, enjoy, fancy,
finish, imagine, involve, keep, justify, mention, mind, miss, omit, postpone, practise,
quit, recall, recommend, regret, report, resume, risk, suggest, tolerate, understand

VI. Run-on Sentences

How to correct run-on sentenes
(i) by making it two separate sentences;
(ii) inserting a semi colon;
(iii) using a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

VII. Letter
1. Sender’s address
2. Date
3. Receiver’s name
4. Receiver’s address
5. Opening salutation
6. Body of Letter
7. Closing salutation
8. Senders signature
9. Sender’s name

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 Vocabulary
1. Prioritize : to list or rate in order of priority (earlier in time or order)
2. Schedule : a procedural plan that indictes the time and sequence of each operation
3. Procrastination : to put off intentionally or habitually
4. Deadline : a date or time before which something must be done
5. Due date : a date or time which something must be done
6. Consume : to spend wastefully

Source : Oxford Dictionary

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 UNIT 3 – Evidence on Traffic Accident

I. Conditionals

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 II. Participles
Participles are verbs ending in -ing (present participle) or –ed/ past form (past participle) and
functioning as modifiers (adjectives/adverbs)
Example:
a. Tourists interested in modern art usually visit our gallery.
(“Interested” is a past participle modifying the noun “Tourists”)
b. Feeling excited, the small boy waited to see his mother coming towards him.
(“ Filling excited” is present participle phrase modifying the noun phrase ‘the small boy’ and “coming
towards him” also a present participle phrase modifying the noun phrase “his mother”)

Vocabulary
1. Fatality : the quality or state of causing death or destruction
2. Constitute : make up, form, compose
3. Halve : to divide into two equal parts
4. Infrastructure : the system of public works of a country, state or region
5. Determinant : an element that identifies the nature of something
6. Per-annum : for each year
7. Inhabitant : one that occupies a particular place regularly, routinely, or for a period of time
8. Threshold : end, boundary
9. Prevalence : the quality or state of being prevalent(generally or widely accepted)
10. Fleet : a number warships under a single command

Source : Oxford Dictionary

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 UNIT 4 – Natural Recourse Management

I. Syllables and Stress

A syllable is a word, or part of a word, which contains a vowel sound as its nucleus and one or more
optional consonant sounds. It is a single unit of speech.
You can recognize a syllable by remembering that each one contains a vowel sound.
For example, in the word computer, there are three syllables: com / pu / ter.
The word bike, however, has only one syllable.

A single syllable may contain as little as just one sound, or as many as five:
idea - ai / dia/ (two syllable)
cough–/kaf/ (one syllable)

You can check how many syllables a word has by putting your hand under your
chin and saying a word.
Each time your chin moves to make a vowel sound, counta syllable.
For example, the word difficult moves your chin three times. Therefore, difficult is
three syllables.

Note: primary stress is marked by ( / ).

Example difficult has three syllable. Therefore, the primary stress falls on three of them like
/di/ffi/cult.

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 II. Adverbal Clauses of Time

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